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Participation of women in the Olympics

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The rate of participation of women in the Olympic Games has been increasing since their first participation in 1900. Some sports are uniquely for women, others are contested by both sexes, while some older sports remain for men only. Studies of media coverage of the Olympics consistently show differences in the ways in which women and men are described and the ways in which their performances are discussed. The representation of women on the International Olympic Committee has historically run well behind the rate of female participation, and long missed its target of a 20% minimum presence of women on their committee. As of 2023, 41.1% of members are women.

History of women at the Olympics

[edit]

1900

[edit]
Charlotte Cooper
Margaret Abbott plays in the 1900 Olympic Games women's golf event in Compiegne, France.

The first modern Olympic Games to feature female athletes was the 1900 Games in Paris.[1] Hélène de Pourtalès of Switzerland became the first woman to compete at the Olympic Games and became the first female Olympic champion, as a member of the winning team in the first 1 to 2 ton sailing event on May 22, 1900.[2][3] Briton Charlotte Cooper became the first female individual champion by winning the women's singles tennis competition on July 11.[4] Tennis and golf were the only sports where women could compete in individual disciplines. 22 women competed at the 1900 Games, 2.2% of all the competitors.[5] Alongside sailing, golf and tennis, women also competed in croquet.

There were several firsts in the women's golf. This was the first time ever that women competed in the Olympic Games. The women's division was won by Margaret Abbott of Chicago Golf Club. Abbott shot a 47 to win and became the first ever American female to win a gold medal in the Olympic Games,[6] though she received a gilded porcelain bowl as a prize instead of a medal. She is also the second overall American woman to receive an Olympic medal. Abbott's mother, Mary Abbott, also competed in this Olympic event and finished tied for seventh, shooting a 65. They were the first and only mother and daughter that have ever competed in the same Olympic event at the same time.[7] Margaret never knew that they were competing in the Olympics; she thought it was a normal golf tournament and died not knowing. Her historic victory was not known until University of Florida professor Paula Welch began to do research into the history of the Olympics and discovered that Margaret Abbott had placed first. Over the course of ten years, she contacted Abbott's children and informed them of their mother's victory.[8][9]

Jane Moulin and Elvira Guerra competed in the hacks and hunter combined (chevaux de selle) equestrian event at the 1900 Games. Originally only the jumping equestrian events were counted as "Olympic", but IOC records later added the hacks and hunter and mail coach races to the official list of 1900 events, retroactively making Moulin and Guerra among the first female Olympians.[10][11]

1904–1916

[edit]
Queenie Newall competed in archery at the 1908 London Games.

In 1904, the women's archery event was added, marking a significant step in including women in Olympic competitions.[12][13]

By the time of the London 1908 Olympics, there were 37 female athletes who competed in archery, tennis, and figure skating. This represented a growing but still limited participation of women in the Games.[5]

Moving forward to Stockholm 1912, the number of women participating increased to 47, and new sports like Swimming and diving were introduced. However, figure skating and archery were removed from the program for that year. Despite these changes, Stockholm 1912 included Art competitions that were open to women, although detailed records of their participation were not consistently kept. The progression in women's participation up to Stockholm 1912 shows a gradual expansion in both the number of sports and athletes involved, though it was still far from the comprehensive inclusion we see in modern Olympic Games. These early years laid foundational steps for women's sports in the Olympics, reflecting societal shifts towards greater gender equity in athletic competition.

The 1916 Summer Olympics were due to be held in Berlin but were cancelled following the outbreak of World War I.[14]

1920–1928

[edit]
Herma Szabo was an Austrian figure skater who made history as the first woman to win an Olympic gold medal in figure skating 1924.

In 1920, 65 women competed at the Games. Archery was added back into the programme.

A record 135 female athletes competed at Paris 1924. At the 1924 Summer Olympics held the same year in Paris, women's fencing made its debut with Dane, Ellen Osiier winning the inaugural gold.[15] Archery was again removed from the programme of sports. Dorothy Margaret Stuart was the first woman to gain a medal in the Arts, winning silver in Mixed Literature.[16]

In 1924 the first Winter Olympics also took place, with women competing only in the figure skating. Herma Szabo became the first ever female Winter Olympic champion when she won the ladies' singles competition.[17]

Kinue Hitomi won a silver medal in the Women's 800 meters at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics. The first woman to win an Olympic medal from Asia.

At the 1928 Winter Olympics in St Moritz, no changes were made to any female events. Fifteen year old Sonja Henie won her inaugural of three Olympic gold medals.[18] The 800 meters, which had just been opened to women and was won by Lina Radke in 1928 (on the right in the photograph), was forbidden to them until 1960 because it was considered unsuitable for women. This year also marked an increase in women's participation from less than 5% of the total number of athletes in previous years to 10% in 1928.

At the Summer Games of the same year, women's athletics and gymnastics made their debut.[19] In athletics, women competed in the 100 metres, 800 metres, 4 × 100 metres relay, high jump and discus throw. The 800-metre race was controversial as many competitors were reportedly exhausted or unable to complete the race.[20] Consequently, the IOC decided to drop the 800 metres from the programme; it was not reinstated until 1960.[21] Halina Konopacka of Poland became the first female Olympic champion in athletics by winning the discus throw.[22] At the gymnastics competition, the host Dutch team won the first gold medal for women in the sport.[23] Tennis was removed from the program.

1932–1936

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The 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles were pivotal, debuting the javelin throw and the 80 meters hurdles, which expanded the athletic landscape. Four years later, at the 1936 Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, women competed in the alpine skiing combined event for the first time, with German athlete Christl Cranz securing the inaugural gold medal, marking a significant step forward for women's participation in winter sports.[24] The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin continued this progress by reintroducing gymnastics to the women's program, showcasing a commitment to inclusivity and diversity in athletic disciplines. These milestones underscore the Games' evolving nature, continually striving to embrace and empower athletes of all backgrounds and genders on the global stage. At the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, gymnastics returned to the programme for women.

1940–1944

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The 1940 Winter Olympics due to be held in Sapporo, 1940 Summer Olympics due to be held in Tokyo, 1944 Winter Olympics due to be held in Cortina d'Ampezzo and the 1944 Summer Olympics due to be held in London were all cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II. Six female Olympic athletes died due to World War II:[25]

Athlete Nation Sport Year of competition Medal(s)
Estella Agsteribbe Netherlands Gymnastics 1928
Dorothea Köring Germany Tennis 1912
Helena Nordheim Netherlands Gymnastics 1928
Anna Dresden-Polak Netherlands Gymnastics 1928
Jud Simons Netherlands Gymnastics 1928
Hildegarde Švarce Latvia Figure Skating 1936

1948–1956

[edit]
Larisa Latynina during the vault award ceremony at the 1964 Olympics

At the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, women made their debut in the downhill and slalom disciplines, having only competed in the combined event in 1936. In 1948, women competed in all of the same alpine skiing disciplines as the men. Barbara Ann Scott of Canada won the ladies' singles figure skating competition, marking the first time a non-European won the gold medal in the event.[26] At the London 1948 Summer Olympics, women competed in canoeing for the first time.[27] The women competed in the K-1 500 metres discipline.[27] Alice Coachman won a gold medal in the women's high jump at the 1948 Summer Olympics, marking the first gold medal won by a Black woman for the United States. At the 1952 Winter Olympics held in Oslo, women competed in cross-country skiing for the first time. They competed in the 10 kilometre distance. At the 1952 Summer Olympics held in Helsinki, women were allowed to compete in equestrian for the first time.[28] They competed in the dressage event which was open to both men and women to compete against one another.[28] Danish equestrian Lis Hartel of Denmark won the silver medal in the individual competition alongside men.[29] At the 1956 Winter Olympics held in Cortina d'Ampezzo, the 3 × 5 kilometre relay cross country event was added to the program. The 1956 Summer Olympics held in Melbourne, had a programme identical to that of the prior Olympiad.[note 1]

1960–1968

[edit]
Oriental Witches name given by the reports of European media, given their victories.[30]

Speed skating for women.[31] made its debut at the 1960 Winter Olympics held in Squaw Valley. Helga Haase, representing the United Team of Germany, won the inaugural gold medal for women, in the 500 metres event.[32] The programme remained the same for the 1960 Summer Olympics held in Rome. At the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, the women's 5km cross-country skiing event debuted.[33] At the 1964 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Volleyball made its debut with the host Japanese taking the gold.[34] At the 1968 Winter Olympics held in Grenoble, women's luge appeared for the first time. Erika Lechner of Italy won the gold after East German racers Ortrun Enderlein, Anna-Maria Müller and Angela Knösel allegedly heated the runners on their sleds and were disqualified.[35] Whether the East Germans actually heated their sleds or if the situation was fabricated by the West Germans remains a mystery.[36] At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, women competed in shooting for the first time.[37] The women competed in mixed events with the men and were allowed to compete in all seven disciplines.[37]

1972–1980

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Nadia Comăneci on the balance beam, 1980

At the 1972 Winter Olympics held in Sapporo there were no changes to the sports open to women. At the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, archery was held for the first time since 1920.[38] At the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, ice dancing was added to the programme.[note 2] Women competed in three new events at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal. Women debuted in basketball and handball.[39][40] Women also competed for the first time in rowing, participating in six of the eight disciplines.[41] There were no new events for women at the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. At the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow, women's field hockey debuted. The underdog Zimbabwean team pulled off a major upset, winning the gold, the nation's first ever Olympic medal.[42] However, these Olympics were marred by the US-led boycott of the games due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.[43]

1984–1992

[edit]
Mary Lou Retton performing splits on a balance beam, 1985.

The women's 20 kilometre cross-country skiing event was added to the programme for the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo. Marja-Liisa Hämäläinen of Finland dominated the cross-country events, winning gold in all three distances.[44]

Multiple new events for women were competed in at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Synchronized swimming made its debut, with only women competing in the competition.[45] The host Americans won gold in both the solo and duet events.[46] Women also made their debut in cycling, competing in the road race.[47] This event was also won by an American, Connie Carpenter.[47] Also, rhythmic gymnastics appeared for the first time with only women competing; the winner was Canadian Lori Fung.[48] The women's marathon also made its first appearance in these Games, with American Joan Benoit winning gold in 2:24:52, a time many thought was impossible for women just a few years earlier.[49][50] These were also the first Games where women competed only against other women in shooting.[51] These games were boycotted by the Soviet Union and its satellite states.

There were no new events at the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary. At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, table tennis appeared for the first time for both men and women.[52] They competed in the singles and doubles disciplines. Also, a female specific sailing event debuted at these Games, the women's 470 discipline.[53] For the first time women competed in a track cycling event, the sprint.[54]

Dara Torres celebrated not only for her athletic achievements but also for defying age norms in competitive sports.

In 1991, the IOC made it mandatory for all new sports applying for Olympic recognition to have female competitors.[55] However, this rule only applied to new sports applying for Olympic recognition. This meant that any sports that were included in the Olympic programme prior to 1991 could continue to exclude female participants at the discretion of the sport's federation.[56] At the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, women competed in biathlon for the first time.[57] The athletes competed in the individual, sprint and relay disciplines. Freestyle skiing also debuted at the 1992 Games, where women competed in the moguls discipline.[58] Short track speed skating first appeared at these Games.[59] Women competed in the 500 metres and the 3000 metre relay. At the 1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona, badminton appeared on the programme for the first time.[60] Women competed in the singles and doubles competition.[60] Women also competed in the sport of judo for the first time at these Games.[61] 35 nations still sent all-male delegations to these Games.[62] 1992 was the last Olympic games that skeet competition opens to both men and women, and the only mixed shooting competition at the Olympics ever won by a woman: Zhang Shan.[63][64]

1994–2002

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Hamm warming up before a match, 1998
Mia Hamm warming up before a match, 1998

At the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, the aerials discipline of freestyle skiing officially debuted.[65] Lina Cheryazova of Uzbekistan won the gold medal, which is to date her nation's sole medal at an Olympic Winter Games.[66]

Sweden playing the United States in ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City.

The 1996 Olympics in Atlanta represented a watershed moment for Women's soccer and softball, marking its official debut as an Olympic sport.[67][68] The United States women's national soccer team clinched a historic gold medal in a thrilling final against China. This victory was not only the team's first-ever Olympic gold in women's soccer but also a triumph achieved on home soil in Atlanta. The impact of this victory was profound, helping to catapult women's soccer into the spotlight both in the United States and globally. The team's achievement resonated widely, earning them the nickname "The Women's Games" for their standout performance in the inaugural women's soccer tournament at the Olympics.[69] This milestone was not just a sporting achievement but also a cultural phenomenon, sparking increased interest and participation in women's soccer around the world. The success of the U.S. team laid a solid foundation for the growth of women's soccer on the international stage, inspiring young athletes and paving the way for further advancements in women's sports.

At the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, ice hockey (with the United States winning gold) and curling (with Canada winning gold) debuted for women.[70][71] Numerous new events made their premieres at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Weightlifting, modern pentathlon, taekwondo, triathlon and trampoline all debuted in Australia.[72] At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, women's bobsleigh made its first appearance.[73] Jill Bakken and Vonetta Flowers of the USA won the two-woman competition, the sole bobsleigh event for women at the 2002 Games.[74]

2004–2012

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Marit Bjørgen former Norwegian cross-country skier celebrates sprint gold at the 2010 Olympics

From 2004 to 2012, the Olympic Games witnessed pivotal advancements for women in sports, symbolizing a transformative period towards greater gender equity and inclusivity. The 2004 Athens Summer Olympics marked historic firsts as women's wrestling and sabre fencing were introduced, alongside Afghanistan's female athletes competing for the first time following a ban in 2000.[75][76] These milestones not only expanded the range of sports available to women but also challenged cultural barriers, exemplified by Mariel Zagunis of the USA winning gold in sabre fencing, showcasing women's athletic prowess on a global stage.[77][78] In 2004, women from Afghanistan competed at the Olympics for the first time in their history after the nation was banned from Sydney 2000 by the IOC due to the Taliban government's opposition to women in sports.[79]

In the subsequent 2008 Summer Olympics, the inclusion of BMX cycling, women's 3000 m steeplechase, and the 10 kilometre marathon swim further diversified the Games, providing new platforms for female athletes to excel.[80] [51][81] Baseball and boxing remained the only sports not open to women at these Games.

Ashleigh McIvor becoming the first woman to win a gold medal in ski cross, a sport that debuted at those Games.

The 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics continued this trend with the debut of ski cross for both men and women, though controversy arose as women's ski jumping was excluded due to participation concerns.[82] Ashleigh McIvor of Canada won the inaugural gold for women in the sport.[83] Controversy was created when women's ski jumping was excluded from the programme by the IOC due to the low number of athletes and participating nations in the sport.[84] A group of fifteen competitive female ski jumpers later filed a suit against the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on the grounds that it violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms since men were competing in the same event.[85] The suit failed, with the judge ruling that the situation was not governed by the Charter.[86]

By the 2012 London Summer Olympics, however, strides towards gender parity were evident as women's boxing made its Olympic debut.[87] This, combined with the decision by the IOC to drop baseball from the programme for 2012, meant that women competed in every sport at a Summer Games for the first time.[88] This landmark event was accompanied by a significant global shift, as all national Olympic committees sent female athletes and countries like Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar included women in their delegations for the first time, reflecting a broader embrace of women's sports participation worldwide.[89][90] In 2012, for the first time, women athletes outnumbered the men on Team USA. By 2012, women constituted approximately 44% of the total athlete population at the Olympics, highlighting substantial progress in breaking gender barriers and fostering a more inclusive sporting environment. These developments underscored the Olympic movement's commitment to equality, providing women with enhanced opportunities to showcase their talents and inspiring future generations of female athletes to pursue their Olympic dreams.

2014–2018

[edit]
Katie Ledecky (middle) and fellow Olympic champion Simone Biles (left) sign steel plate of USS Enterprise (2017)

The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi saw a groundbreaking moment with Carina Vogt winning the first-ever gold medal in women's women's ski jumping, marking the sport's long-awaited debut.[91][92] This achievement was a pivotal step forward for gender equality in winter sports.

The 2016 Summer Olympics followed suit with another historic first as the Australian team rugby sevens competition team triumphed, showcasing the sport's inaugural appearance and emphasizing its growing global appeal.[93][94] Meanwhile, Rio 2016 also welcomed the return of Golf to the Olympic program after over a century-long absence.[95] Inbee Park of South Korea seized the opportunity, clinching the gold medal and rekindling interest in golf as an Olympic discipline.[96] The Games also set a remarkable record for Team USA's female contingent, with 291 women competing across various sports and collectively bringing home an unprecedented 65 medals. Among the standout athletes were Katie Ledecky and Simone Biles, who each secured five medals, underscoring their dominance in swimming and gymnastics respectively.

Shifting to the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang, the event continued to evolve with the introduction of exciting new events like big air snowboarding and mixed doubles curling. Jamie Anderson of the USA emerged as a standout, notching medals in both big air and slopestyle snowboarding, cementing her status as one of the most decorated female snowboarders in Olympic history. These developments underscored the ongoing efforts to expand and diversify the Olympic program, providing new opportunities for athletes and captivating audiences worldwide with thrilling displays of athleticism and skill.[97][98]

2020-Present

[edit]
Emma McKeon With four gold and three bronze medals she was the most decorated athlete across all sports at the 2020 Summer Olympics, and tied for the most medals won by a woman in a single Olympic Games.

The Tokyo 2020 Olympics marked a pivotal moment in sports history with significant strides towards inclusivity and diversity. Notably, Transgender athlete Laurel Hubbard's participation in the women's super heavyweight weightlifting event highlighted the Olympics' evolving stance on gender representation.[99][100] New sports like softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing, and skateboarding provided platforms for female athletes to showcase their talents on a global stage.[101] In sports climbing, the introduction of events in speed climbing, bouldering, and lead climbing with both men's and women's categories exemplified efforts towards gender parity.[102] Moreover, the inclusion of mixed-gender events in swimming and the debut of the women's 1500 meter freestyle swimming event expanded opportunities and challenged traditional norms.[103] These changes underscored the Games' commitment to equality, reflecting broader societal shifts towards embracing diverse athletic achievements and promoting inclusive competition at the highest level.

Eileen Gu won three gold medals in freestyle skiing and snowboarding events

The length of tennis matches were changed so that men played three sets, the same as women in all previous Olympics.[104] The 2020 Olympics was the first Olympics in which women were allowed to compete in canoe sprint. Before this Olympics, women were allowed to do sprint kayak, but not sprint canoe.

The International Ski Federation has stated that it is aiming to include women's Nordic combined in the Olympic program for the first time at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.[105] However, Nordic combined at the 2022 Winter Olympics ended up having three men only events, just as in 2018. Women accounted for a substantial portion of the total athletes, competing in events ranging from alpine skiing to bobsleigh, demonstrating their prowess across a wide array of disciplines. Female athletes earned medals across numerous events, highlighting their competitiveness and skill. Athletes like Eileen Gu in freestyle skiing/snowboarding and Anna Shcherbakova in figure skating stood out with their gold medal performances.

Sports

[edit]
Valentina Vezzali is one of the most decorated fencers in Olympic history.
Yuna Kim performing to Adiós Nonino at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Canadian bobsledders Kaillie Humphries and Heather Moyse competing at the Vancouver 2010 Winter Games
Canada versus Japan in Rugby sevens at the Rio 2016 Summer Games
Athletes competing in the triathlon event during the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro

Women have competed in the following sports at the Olympic Games.[106]

Sport Year added to the programme
Tennis 1900
Golf 1900
Sailing 1900[note 3]
Archery 1904
Figure skating 1908
Diving 1912
Swimming 1912
Fencing 1924
Athletics 1928
Gymnastics 1928
Alpine skiing 1936
Cross-country skiing 1936
Canoeing 1948
Equestrian 1952
Speed skating 1960
Volleyball 1964
Luge 1964
Shooting 1968
Basketball 1976
Handball 1976
Rowing 1976
Field hockey 1980
Cycling 1984
Table tennis 1988
Badminton 1992
Biathlon 1992
Judo 1992
Short track speed skating 1992
American Football 1996
Softball 1996
Soccer 1996
Curling 1998
Ice hockey 1998
Modern pentathlon 2000
Taekwondo 2000
Triathlon 2000
Water polo 2000
Weightlifting 2000
Bobsleigh 2002
Skeleton 2002
Wrestling 2004
Boxing 2012
Ski jumping 2014
Rugby 2016
BMX Biking 2020
Karate 2020
Skateboarding 2020
Surfing 2020
Sport climbing 2020

Gender differences

[edit]

Athletics

[edit]
Fanny Blankers-Koen made history at the 1948 London Olympics by winning four gold medals in track and field (100m, 200m, 80m hurdles, and 4x100m relay).

In combined events at the Olympics, women compete in the seven-event heptathlon but men compete in three more events in the decathlon.[107] A women's pentathlon was held from 1964 to 1980, before being expanded to the heptathlon.

Florence Griffith Joyner known as "Flo-Jo," athlete who set world records in the 100m and 200m sprints at the 1988 Seoul Olympics.

In sprint hurdles at the Olympics, men compete in the 110 metres hurdles, while women cover 100 metres.[107] Women ran 80 metres up to the 1968 Olympics; this was extended to 100 metres in 1961, albeit on a trial basis, the new distance of 100 metres became official in 1969. No date has been given for the addition of the 10 metres.[107] Both men and women clear a total of ten hurdles during the races and both genders take three steps between the hurdles at elite level.[108] Any amendment to the women's distance to match the men's would impact either the athlete technique or number of hurdles in the event, or result in the exclusion of women with shorter strides.

Historically, women competed over 3000 metres until this was matched to the men's 5000 metres event in 1996. Similarly, women competed in a 10 kilometres race walk in 1992 and 1996 before this was changed to the standard men's distance of 20 km. The expansion of the women's athletics programme to match the men's was a slow one. Triple jump was added in 1996, hammer throw and pole vault in 2000, and steeplechase in 2008. The sole difference remaining is the men-only 50 kilometres race walk event.[109] While the inclusion of a women's 50 km event has been advocated, proposals have also been mooted to remove the men's event entirely from the Olympics.[110][111]

Boxing

[edit]

At the summer Olympics, men's boxing competitions take place over three three-minute rounds and women's over four rounds of two minutes each.[112] Women also compete in three weight categories against 10 for men.[107]

Canoeing

[edit]
Birgit Fischer competed in various canoeing events and is one of the most successful Olympians in terms of gold medals won.

Canoeing excluded women at the Olympics from both the sprint and slalom disciplines[113] until Tokyo 2020.[114]

Shooting

[edit]

Women are excluded from the 25 metres rapid fire pistol, the 50 metres pistol and the 50 metres rifle prone events.[115] Men are excluded from the 25 metres pistol event.[115] From 1996 to 2004, women participated in the double trap competition. The women's event was taken off the Olympic program after the 2004 Summer Olympics.[116] Final shooting for women was discontinued in international competition as a result.

Road cycling

[edit]

Since 1984, when women's cycling events were introduced, the women's road race has been 140 kilometres to the men's 250 kilometres. The time trials are 29 kilometres and 44 kilometres respectively. Each country is limited to sending five men and four women to the Summer Games.[107]

Tennis

[edit]

Until the 2020 games, women competed in three-set matches at the Olympics as opposed to five sets for men.[107] The men's matches were shortened for Tokyo 2020.[104]

Soccer

[edit]

In Olympic soccer, there is no age restriction for women, whereas the men's teams field under-23 teams with a maximum of three over-aged players.[117]

Gender equality

[edit]
In 1981 Flor Isava Fonseca and Finnish Pirjo Häggman were the first women to be elected to the International Olympic Committee.[118] She was the first woman to serve on the executive board in 1990.[119]

Historically, female athletes have been treated, portrayed and looked upon differently from their male counterparts. As the 20th century was coming to an end, Georgia state legislators suggested the Equity in Sports Act (House Bill 1308). Not only was this bill presented to strengthen the Title IX policies but also bring awareness to women sports. Later on in 2004, California passed the Fair Play Act which required gender equity, opportunities, facilities, and more.[120] As of 2024, more than 3 million girls participate in high school sports, compared to fewer than 300,000 girls before the law was passed.[121]

In the early days of the Olympic Games, many NOCs sent fewer female competitors because they would incur the cost of a chaperone, which was not necessary for the male athletes.[122] Female athletes continue to be treated as less than compared to male athletes. [123] For example, in 2012, the Japan women's national soccer team travelled to the Games in economy class, while the men's team travelled in business class.[124] Although women compete in all sports at the summer Olympics, there are still 39 events that are not open to women.[125] Men have to compete in longer and tougher events, such as 110 meters hurdles, compared to 100 meters hurdles for women. In a study done by "Women in International Elite Athletics: Gender (in)equality and National Participation."[126] it was found within this study by the testing of macro-social gender equality, that within countries that have a higher affiliation with the Muslim religion, there was less of a push for women to pursue sports. This also was slightly true in the idea that if the World Sports organization made more pushes for equality campaigns, there would be a correlation in the amount of women who play these sports.

Sports Commentators

[edit]

Historically, coverage and inclusion of women's team sports in the Olympics has been limited. Commentators are more likely to refer to female athletes using "non-sporting terminology" than they are for men.[127] A 2016 study published by Cambridge University Press found that women were more likely to be described using physical features, age, marital status and aesthetics than men were, as opposed to sport-related adjectives and descriptions.[128] The same study found that women were also more likely to be referred to as "girls" than men were to be called "boys" in commentary. In addition, women were twice as likely to be referred to as ‘ladies’, compared to ‘gentlemen’ who are frequently referred to by the neutral term ‘men’.[129] This disparity in the quality of coverage for women's Olympic sports has been attributed to the fact that 90% of sports journalists are male.[130]

The most common adjectives sports commentators used to describe returning female Olympians during the 2016 Olympics were ‘aged’, ‘older’, ‘pregnant’, and ‘married’ or ‘un-married’, while for male Olympians, ‘fastest’, ‘strong’, ‘big’, ‘real’ and ‘great’ were the most common adjectives. [131]

Coverage of women's sports has typically been lower than men's. From 1992 to 1998, American women have always had less raw clock time when being covered on television. Compared to American men, the women have only had 44, 47, and 40 percent of the Olympic television coverage, respectively.[132]

Role of the International Olympic Committee

[edit]
International Olympic Committee logo

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was created by Pierre, Baron de Coubertin, in 1894 and is now considered "the supreme authority of the Olympic movement".[133] Its headquarters are located in Lausanne, Switzerland. The title of supreme authority of the Olympic movement consists of many different duties, which include promoting Olympic values, maintaining the regular celebration of the Olympic Games, and supporting any organization that is connected with the Olympic movement.[133]

Some of the Olympic values that the IOC promotes are practicing sport ethically, eliminating discrimination from sports, encouraging women's involvement in sport, fighting the use of drugs in sport, and blending sport, culture, and education.[133] The IOC supports these values by creating different commissions that focus on a particular area. These commissions hold conferences throughout the year where different people around the world discuss ideas and ways to implement the Olympic values into the lives of people internationally.[133] The commissions also have the responsibility of reporting their findings to the President of the IOC and its executive board.[133] The President has the authority to assign members to different commissions based on the person's interests and specialties.

The first two female IOC members were the Venezuelan Flor Isava-Fonseca and the Finnish Pirjo Häggman and were co-opted as IOC members in 1981.[134]

The IOC can contain up to 115 members, and currently, the members of the IOC come from 79 countries.[133] The IOC is considered a powerful authority throughout the world as it creates policies that become standards for other countries to follow in the sporting arena.[135]

In 2011 only 20 of the 106 members of the IOC were women. In 2023, this was 44 of 107 members - 41.1%. [136][137]

Women in Sport Commission

[edit]
Women participants at each Summer Olympic Games as a percentage of all participants

A goal of the IOC is to encourage these traditional countries to support women's participation in sport because two of the IOC's Olympic values that it must uphold are ensuring the lack of discrimination in sports and promoting women's involvement in sport. The commission that was created to promote the combination of these values was the Women in Sport Commission.[138] This commission declares its role as "advis[ing] the IOC Executive Board on the policy to deploy in the area of promoting women in sport".[138] This commission did not become fully promoted to its status until 2004, and it meets once a year to discuss its goals and implementations.[138] This commission also presents a Women and Sport Trophy annually which recognizes a woman internationally who has embodied the values of the IOC and who has supported efforts to increase women's participation in sport at all levels.[135] This trophy is supposed to symbolize the IOC's commitment to honoring those who are beneficial to gender equality in sports.[139]

Another way that the IOC tried to support women's participation in sport was allowing women to become members. In 1990, Flor Isava Fonseca became the first woman elected to the executive board of the IOC. The first American woman member of the IOC was Anita DeFrantz, who became a member in 1986[140] and in 1992 began chairing the prototype of the IOC Commission on Women in Sport. DeFrantz not only worked towards promoting gender equality in sports, but she also wanted to move toward gender equality in the IOC so women could be equally represented. She believed that without equal representation in the IOC that women's voices would not get an equal chance to be heard. She was instrumental in creating a new IOC policy that required the IOC membership to be composed of at least 20 percent women by 2005.[140] She also commissioned a study conducted in 1989 and again in 1994 that focused on the difference between televised coverage of men's and women's sports.[140] Inequality still exists in this area, but her study was deemed to be eye opening to how substantial the problem was and suggested ways to increase reporting on women's sporting events. DeFrantz is now head of the Women in Sport Commission.

The IOC failed in its policy requiring 20 percent of IOC members to be women by 2005.[136] By June 2012, the policy had still not been achieved, with only 20 out of 106 IOC members women, an 18.8 percent ratio. Only 4 percent of National Olympic Committees have female presidents.[136]

Impact of the Women's World Games

[edit]
Main article: Women's World Games

Background

[edit]
Alice Milliat, the founder of the IWSF and Women's World Games

In 1919, French translator and amateur rower, Alice Milliat initiated talks with the IOC and International Association of Athletics Federations with the goal of having women's athletics included at the 1924 Summer Olympics.[141] After her request was refused, she organized the first "Women's Olympiad", hosted in Monte Carlo.[142] This would become the precursor to the first Women's World Games. The event was seen as a protest against the IOC's refusal to include females in athletics and a message to their President Pierre de Coubertin who was opposed to women at the Olympics.[143] Milliat went on to found the International Women's Sports Federation who organized the first Women's World Games.

The Games

[edit]
The Zimbabwean women's field hockey team celebrating a 4–0 win over Poland at the 1980 Games

The first ever "Women's Olympic Games" were held in Paris in 1922. The athletes competed in eleven events:[144] 60 metres, 100 yards, 300 metres, 1000 metres, 4 x 110 yards relay, Hurdling 100 yards, high jump, long jump, standing long jump, javelin and shot put. 20,000 people attended the Games and 18 world records were set.[145] Despite the successful outcome of the event, the IOC still refused to include women's athletics at the 1924 Summer Olympics. On top of this, the IOC and IAAF objected to the use of the term "Olympic" in the event, so the IWSF changed the name of the event to the Women's World Games for the 1926 version.[146] The 1926 Women's World Games would be held in Gothenburg, Sweden. The discus throw was added to the programme. These Games were also attended by 20,000 spectators and finally convinced the IOC to allow women to compete in the Olympics in some athletics events.[147] The IOC let women compete in 100 metres, 800 metres, 4 × 100 metres relay, high jump and discus throw in 1928.[148] There would be two more editions of the Women's World Games, 1930 in Prague and 1934 in London.[149] The IWSF was forced to fold after the Government of France pulled funding in 1936.[150] Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the International Olympic Committee, was quoted with saying "I do not approve of the participation of women in public competitions. In the Olympic Games, their primary role should be to crown the victors."

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The equestrian events for these Games were held in Stockholm due to Australia's strict equine quarantine laws.
  2. ^ Ice dancing is a pairs event with one male and one female.
  3. ^ All sailing events were open to women from 1900 to 1984 (except 1948). Women-only events were introduced in 1988.

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