Consanguinity
Consanguinity (from Latin consanguinitas 'blood relationship') is the characteristic of having a kinship with a relative who is descended from a common ancestor.
Many jurisdictions have laws prohibiting people who are related by blood from marrying or having sexual relations with each other. The degree of consanguinity that gives rise to this prohibition varies from place to place.[2] Such rules are also used to determine heirs of an estate according to statutes that govern intestate succession, which also vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.[3] In some communities and time periods, cousin marriage is allowed or even encouraged; in others, it is taboo, and considered to be incest.
The degree of relative consanguinity can be illustrated with a consanguinity table in which each level of lineal consanguinity (generation or meiosis) appears as a row, and individuals with a collaterally consanguineous relationship share the same row.[4] The Knot System is a numerical notation that describes consanguinity using the Ahnentafel numbers of shared ancestors.[5]
Legal definitions
[edit]
Modern secular law
[edit]The degree of kinship between two people may give rise to several legal issues. Some laws prohibit sexual relations between closely related people, referred to as incestuous. Laws may also bar marriage between closely related people, which are almost universally prohibited to the second degree of consanguinity.[citation needed] Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between first cousins, while others do not. Marriage with aunts and uncles (avunculate marriage) is legal in several countries.[6][7]
Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to intestate succession. In general, laws tend to favor inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions ban citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity as well as affinity with persons involved in the case.[8] In many countries, laws prohibiting nepotism ban employment of, or certain kinds of contracts with, the near relations of public officers or employees.[citation needed]
Religious and traditional law
[edit]Judaism
[edit]Christianity
[edit] |
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Under Roman civil law, which the early canon law of the Catholic Church followed, couples were forbidden to marry if they were within four degrees of consanguinity.[9] Around the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated; instead of the former Roman practice of counting each generational link up to the common ancestor and then down again to the proposed spouse, the new method computed consanguinity only by counting back the number of generations to the common ancestor.[9] Intermarriage was now prohibited to anyone more closely related than seventh cousins, which meant that in particular the nobility struggled to find partners to marry, the pool of non-related prospective spouses having become substantially smaller. They had to either defy the church's position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates.[9] In the Roman Catholic Church, unknowingly marrying a closely consanguineous blood relative was grounds for a declaration of nullity, but during the eleventh and twelfth centuries dispensations were granted with increasing frequency due to the thousands of persons encompassed in the prohibition at seven degrees and the hardships this posed for finding potential spouses.[10]
In 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council made what they believed was a necessary change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four, but retaining the later method of calculating degrees.[11][12] After 1215, the general rule was that fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, greatly reducing the need for dispensations.[10] In fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity (and affinity) were relatively few.[13]
The ban on marriage to minor degrees of relationship imposed by the Roman Catholic Church was met with heavy criticism in the Croatian society in the 11th century, which led to a schism in the Croatian church.[14]
Among the Christian Habesha highlanders of Ethiopia and Eritrea (the predominantly orthodox Christian Amhara and Tigray-Tigrinya), it is a tradition to be able to recount one's paternal ancestors at least seven generations away starting from early childhood, because "those with a common patrilineal ancestor less than seven generations away are considered 'brother and sister' and may not marry." The rule is less strict on the mother's side, where the limit is about four generations back, but still determined patrilinearly. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups.[15]
Islam
[edit]The Quran at 4:22–24 states. "Forbidden to you in marriage are: your mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your father's sisters, your mother's sisters, your brother's daughters, your sister's daughters."[16] Therefore, the list of forbidden marriage partners, as read in the Qur'an, Surah 4:23, does not include first cousins.[17] Muhammad himself married his first cousin Zaynab bint Jahsh.[18][better source needed]
Financial incentives to discourage consanguineous marriages exist in some countries: mandatory premarital screening for inherited blood disorders has existed in the UAE since 2004 and in Qatar since 2009, whereby couples with positive results will not receive their marriage grant.[19]
Hinduism
[edit]In the Manusmriti, blood relation marriage (on the mother's side) is prohibited for 7 generations.[citation needed]
Ayurveda states that marriage within the Gotra (father's side) is a consanguineous marriage which can lead to many gestational and genetic problems in the fetus. Therefore, it has become a common practice in Hindu households during pre-marriage discussions to ask the couples' Gotra. Couples of the same Gotra are advised not to marry. The advisers of this system say that this practice helps to reduce gestational problems and ensures a healthy progeny.[citation needed]
Genetic definitions
[edit]| Relationship | Average DNA shared % |
|---|---|
| individual-self | 100% |
| mother / father / daughter / son | 50% |
| half-sister / half-brother | 25% |
| sister / brother | 50% |
| grandmother / grandfather / granddaughter / grandson | 25% |
| half-aunt / half-uncle / half-niece / half-nephew | 12.5% |
| aunt / uncle / niece / nephew | 25% |
| half-first-cousin | 6.25% |
| first-cousin | 12.5% |
| irregular-double-cousin | 18.75% |
| double-first-cousin | 25% |
| great-grandmother / great-grandfather / great-granddaughter / great-grandson | 12.5% |
| half-grandaunt / half-granduncle / half-grandniece / half-grandnephew | 6.25% |
| grandaunt / granduncle / grandniece / grandnephew | 12.5% |
| half-first-cousin-once-removed | 3.125% |
| first-cousin-once-removed | 6.25% |
| irregular-double-first-cousin-once-removed | 9.375% |
| double-first-cousin-once-removed | 12.5% |
| half-second-cousin | 1.5625% |
| second-cousin | 3.125% |
| irregular-double-second-cousin | 4.6875% |
| double-second-cousin | 6.25% |
| irregular-triple-second-cousin | 7.8125% |
| triple-second-cousin | 9.375% |
| irregular-quadruple-second-cousin | 10.9375% |
| quadruple-second-cousin | 12.5% |
| great-great-grandmother / great-great-grandfather / great-great-granddaughter / great-great-grandson | 6.25% |
| half-great-grandaunt / half-great-granduncle / half-great-grandniece / half-great-grandnephew | 3.125% |
| great-grandaunt / great-granduncle / great-grandniece / great-grandnephew | 6.25% |
| half-first-cousin-twice-removed | 1.5625% |
| first-cousin-twice-removed | 3.125% |
| irregular-double-first-cousin-twice-removed | 4.6875% |
| double-first-cousin-twice-removed | 6.25% |
| half-second-cousin-once-removed | 0.78125% |
| second-cousin-once-removed | 1.5625% |
| irregular-double-second-cousin-once-removed | 2.34375% |
| double-second-cousin-once-removed | 3.125% |
| irregular-triple-second-cousin-once-removed | 3.90625% |
| triple-second-cousin-once-removed | 4.6875% |
| irregular-quadruple-second-cousin-once-removed | 5.46875% |
| quadruple-second-cousin-once-removed | 6.25% |
| half-third-cousin | 0.390625% |
| third-cousin | 0.78125% |
| irregular-double-third-cousin | 1.171875% |
| double-third-cousin | 1.5625% |
| irregular-triple-third-cousin | 1.953125% |
| triple-third-cousin | 2.34375% |
| irregular-quadruple-third-cousin | 2.734375% |
| quadruple-third-cousin | 3.125% |
| irregular-quintuple-third-cousin | 3.515625% |
| quintuple-third-cousin | 3.90625% |
| irregular-sextuple-third-cousin | 4.296875% |
| sextuple-third-cousin | 4.6875% |
| irregular-septuple-third-cousin | 5.078125% |
| septuple-third-cousin | 5.46875% |
| irregular-octuple-third-cousin | 5.859375% |
| octuple-third-cousin | 6.25% |
| great-great-great-grandmother / great-great-great-grandfather / great-great-great-granddaughter / great-great-great-grandson | 3.125% |
| half-great-great-grandaunt / half-great-great-granduncle / half-great-great-grandniece / half-great-great-grandnephew | 1.5625% |
| great-great-grandaunt / great-great-granduncle / great-great-grandniece / great-great-grandnephew | 3.125% |
| half-first-cousin-thrice-removed | 0.78125% |
| first-cousin-thrice-removed | 1.5625% |
| irregular-double-first-cousin-thrice-removed | 2.34375% |
| double-first-cousin-thrice-removed | 3.125% |
| half-second-cousin-twice-removed | 0.390625% |
| second-cousin-twice-removed | 0.78125% |
| irregular-double-second-cousin-twice-removed | 1.171875% |
| double-second-cousin-twice-removed | 1.5625% |
| irregular-triple-second-cousin-twice-removed | 1.953125% |
| triple-second-cousin-twice-removed | 2.34375% |
| irregular-quadruple-second-cousin-twice-removed | 2.734375% |
| quadruple-second-cousin-twice-removed | 3.125% |
| half-third-cousin-once-removed | 0.1953125% |
| third-cousin-once-removed | 0.390625% |
| irregular-double-third-cousin-once-removed | 0.5859375% |
| double-third-cousin-once-removed | 0.78125% |
| irregular-triple-third-cousin-once-removed | 0.9765625% |
| triple-third-cousin-once-removed | 1.171875% |
| irregular-quadruple-third-cousin-once-removed | 1.3671875% |
| quadruple-third-cousin-once-removed | 1.5625% |
| irregular-quintuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 1.7578125% |
| quintuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 1.953125% |
| irregular-sextuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 2.1484375% |
| sextuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 2.34375% |
| irregular-septuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 2.5390625% |
| septuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 2.734375% |
| irregular-octuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 2.9296875% |
| octuple-third-cousin-once-removed | 3.125% |
| half-fourth-cousin | 0.09765625% |
| fourth-cousin | 0.1953125% |
| irregular-double-fourth-cousin | 0.29296875% |
| double-fourth-cousin | 0.390625% |
| irregular-triple-fourth-cousin | 0.48828125% |
| triple-fourth-cousin | 0.5859375% |
| irregular-quadruple-fourth-cousin | 0.68359375% |
| quadruple-fourth-cousin | 0.78125% |
| irregular-quintuple-fourth-cousin | 0.87890625% |
| quintuple-fourth-cousin | 0.9765625% |
| irregular-sextuple-fourth-cousin | 1.07421875% |
| sextuple-fourth-cousin | 1.171875% |
| irregular-septuple-fourth-cousin | 1.26953125% |
| septuple-fourth-cousin | 1.3671875% |
| irregular-octuple-fourth-cousin | 1.46484375% |
| octuple-fourth-cousin | 1.5625% |
| irregular-nonuple-fourth-cousin | 1.66015625% |
| nonuple-fourth-cousin | 1.7578125% |
| irregular-decuple-fourth-cousin | 1.85546875% |
| decuple-fourth-cousin | 1.953125% |
| irregular-undecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.05078125% |
| undecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.1484375% |
| irregular-duodecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.24609375% |
| duodecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.34375% |
| irregular-tredecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.44140625% |
| tredecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.5390625% |
| irregular-quattuordecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.63671875% |
| quattuordecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.734375% |
| irregular-quindecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.83203125% |
| quindecuple-fourth-cousin | 2.9296875% |
| irregular-sexdecuple-fourth-cousin | 3.02734375% |
| sexdecuple-fourth-cousin | 3.125% |
Genetically, consanguinity derives from the reduction in variation due to meiosis that occurs because of the smaller number of near ancestors. Since all humans share between 99.6% and 99.9% of their genome,[20] consanguinity only affects a very small part of the sequence. If two siblings have a child, the child has only two rather than four grandparents. In these circumstances, the probability is increased that the child will inherit two copies of a harmful recessive gene (allele) (rather than only one, which is less likely to have harmful effects).
Genetic consanguinity is expressed as defined in 1922 by Wright[21] with the coefficient of relationship r, where r is defined as the fraction of homozygous due to the consanguinity under discussion. Thus, a parent and child pair has a value of r=0.5 (sharing 50% of DNA), siblings have a value of r=0.5, a parent's sibling has r=0.25 (25% of DNA), and first cousins have r=0.125 (12.5% of DNA). These are often expressed in terms of a percentage of shared DNA but can be also popularly referred to as % of genes although that terminology is technically incorrect.
As a working definition, unions contracted between persons biologically related as second cousins or closer (r ≥ 0.03125) are categorized as consanguineous. This arbitrary limit has been chosen because the genetic influence in marriages between couples related to a lesser degree would usually be expected to differ only slightly from that observed in the general population. Globally it is estimated that at least 8.5% of children have consanguineous parents.[22]
In clinical genetics, consanguinity is defined as a union between two individuals who are related as second cousins or closer, with the inbreeding coefficient (F) equal or higher than 0.0156, where (F) represents the proportion of genetic loci at which the child of a consanguineous couple might inherit identical gene copies from both parents.[23]
It is common to identify one's first- and second-degree cousins, and sometimes third-degree cousins. It is seldom possible to identify fourth-degree cousins, since few people can trace their full family tree back more than four generations. (Nor is it considered important, since fourth cousins tend to be genetically no more similar to each other than they are to any other individual from the same region.)[24]
Epidemiology, rates of occurrence
[edit]| Part of a series on the |
| Anthropology of kinship |
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Social anthropology Cultural anthropology |
Cultural factors in favor
[edit]Reasons favoring consanguinous marriage have been listed as higher compatibility between husband and wife sharing same social relationships, couples stability, enforcing family solidarity, easier financial negotiations and others.[23]: 187 Consanguinity is a deeply rooted phenomenon in 20% of the world population, mostly in the Middle East, West Asia and North Africa.[23] Globally, the most common form of consanguineous union is between first cousins, in which the spouses share 1⁄8 of their genes inherited from a common ancestor, and so their progeny are homozygous (or more correctly autozygous) at 1⁄16 of all loci (r = 0.0625).[25] Due to variation in geographical and ethnic background and the loci chosen to genotype there is some 2.4% variation expected.[26]
Europe
[edit]Historically, some European nobles cited a close degree of consanguinity when they required convenient grounds for divorce, especially in contexts where religious doctrine forbade the voluntary dissolution of an unhappy or childless marriage.[27]
Muslim countries
[edit]In the Arab world, the practice of marrying relatives is common. According to the Centre for Arabic Genomic Research, between 40% and 54% of UAE nationals' marriages are between family members, up from 39% in the previous generation. Between 21% and 28% of marriages of UAE nationals were between first cousins.[19][28] Consanguineous marriage is much less prevalent in Christian Arabs as they do not practice arranged marriages.[29][30][31][32] Additionally, an indult dispensation is required to marriages contracted between first cousins or closer in Arab Christian denominations in communion with the Roman Catholic Church, and the Greek Orthodox Church; there are no similar regulations that apply to first-cousin marriages in the Coptic Orthodox Church.[32]
In Egypt, around 40% of the population marry a cousin. A 1992 survey in Jordan found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.[33] 67% of marriages in Saudi Arabia are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages in Kuwait, whereas 18% of all Lebanese were between blood relatives. The incidence of consanguinity was 54.3% among Kuwaiti natives and higher among Bedouins.[34]
It has been estimated that 55% of marriages between Pakistani Muslim immigrants in the United Kingdom are between first cousins,[35] where preferential patrilateral parallel cousin marriage, i.e. a man marrying the daughter of his father's brother, is favored.
Double first cousins are descended from two pairs of siblings, and have the same genetic similarity as half-siblings. In unions between double first cousins, the highest inbreeding coefficients are reached, with an (F) of 0.125, for example among Arabs and uncle-niece marriages in South India.
Quebec
[edit]The early days of colonization, particularly from 1660 to 1680, gave French Canadians genetic traits that are still present today, thanks to the isolation and low population of the early colony. This has led to the province having a higher rate of hypercholesterolemia, tyrosinemia, spastic ataxia, intestinal atresia, myotonic dystrophy, etc., in the population than anywhere else in the world.[36]
Genetic disorders
[edit]The phenomenon of inbreeding increases the level of homozygotes for autosomal genetic disorders and generally leads to a decreased biological fitness of a population known as inbreeding depression, a major objective in clinical studies.[37] While the risks of inbreeding are well-known, informing minority group families with a tradition of endogamy and changing their behavior is a challenging task for genetic counseling in the health care system.[38] The offspring of consanguineous relationships are at greater risk of certain genetic disorders. Autosomal recessive disorders occur in individuals who are homozygous for a particular recessive gene mutation.[39] This means that they carry two copies (alleles) of the same gene.[39] Except in certain rare circumstances (new mutations or uniparental disomy) both parents of an individual with such a disorder will be carriers of the gene.[39] Such carriers are not affected and will not display any signs that they are carriers, and so may be unaware that they carry the mutated gene. As relatives share a proportion of their genes, it is much more likely that related parents will be carriers of an autosomal recessive gene, and therefore their children are at a higher risk of an autosomal recessive disorder.[40] The extent to which the risk increases depends on the degree of genetic relationship between the parents; so the risk is greater in mating relationships where the parents are close relatives, but for relationships between more distant relatives, such as second cousins, the risk is lower (although still greater than the general population).[41]
Consanguinity in a population increases its susceptibility to infectious pathogens such as tuberculosis and hepatitis but may decrease its susceptibility to malaria and other pathogens.[42]
See also
[edit]- Affinity (Catholic canon law) – Concept in impediments to marriage
- Coefficient of relationship – Mathematical guess about inbreeding
- Cognatic kinship – Mode of descent
- Cousin marriage in the Middle East
- Endogamy – Marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group
- Exogamy – Social arrangement which only allows marriage outside a social group
- Genetic distance – Measure of divergence between populations
- Genetic diversity – Total number of genetic characteristics in a species
- Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline
- Inbreeding – Reproduction by closely related organisms
- Inbreeding avoidance – Evolutionary biology concept of prevention of negative inbreeding effects
- Inbreeding depression – Reduced fitness as a result of inbreeding
- Incest – Sexual activity between immediate family members or close relatives
- Incest taboo – Cultural rule that prohibits incest
- Legality of incest – Legality of sexual relationships between family members
- List of coupled cousins – First cousin marriages
- Mahram – Muslim's non-marriageable kin in Islamic law
- Mendelian inheritance – Type of biological inheritance
- Milk kinship – Type of fostering allegiance formed during nursing by a non-biological mother
- Prohibited degree of kinship – Blood relatedness that makes certain actions illegal
- Proximity of blood
References
[edit]- ^ "19 Texas Administrative Code §100.1113". texreg.sos.state.tx.us. State of Texas. Retrieved 5 May 2022. Many other US states have the same definition.
- ^ O'Sullivan, Kathryn (2019). "Access to marriage: consanguinity and affinity prohibitions in national and international context". Irish Journal of Family Law. 22 (2): 8–12.
- ^ Ritchie, Herbert (1940). "Methods of Intestate Succession". University of Cincinnati Law Review. 14: 508.
- ^ "Table of Consanguinity". Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.
- ^ Højrup, Knud (June 1996). "The Knot System: A Numeric Notation of Relationship". National Genealogical Society Quarterly. 84 (2): 115. ISSN 0027-934X.
- ^ "RCW 26.04.020: Prohibited marriages". app.leg.wa.gov. Retrieved 2021-10-01.
- ^ Farrow, Michael G.; Juberg, Richard C. (1969-07-28). "Genetics and Laws Prohibiting Marriage in the United States". JAMA. 209 (4): 534–538. doi:10.1001/jama.1969.03160170030006. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 5819418.
- ^ Ohio, for example, bars from juries in civil cases persons within the fourth degree of consanguinity to either party or their counsel (Ohio Revised Code §2313.17 (2012)); and persons within the fifth degree of consanguinity "to the person alleged to be injured or attempted to be injured by the offense charged, or to the person on whose complaint the prosecution was instituted, or to the defendant". Ohio Revised Code §2945.25 (1981).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Constance Brittain Bouchard (24 November 2010). Those of My Blood: Creating Noble Families in Medieval Francia. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8122-0140-6.
- ^ Jump up to: a b James A. Brundage (15 February 2009). Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe. University of Chicago Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-226-07789-5.
- ^ "Fourth Lateran Council: Canon 50. Prohibition of marriage is now perpetually restricted to the fourth degree". 1215. Archived from the original on 2016-08-20.
- ^ John W. Baldwin (28 May 1994). The Language of Sex: Five Voices from Northern France Around 1200. University of Chicago Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-226-03613-7.
- ^ R. H. Helmholz (26 March 2007). Marriage Litigation in Medieval England. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-521-03562-0.
- ^ Dvornik, Francis (1970). Byzantine mission among the Slavs. Rutgers University Press. p. 241. ISBN 0813506131.
- ^ Wolbert Smidt, "Genealogy" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha, (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 743.
- ^ "Surah An-Nisa [4:22–25]". Quran.com. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
- ^ "The Qur'an". Quran Surah An-Nisaa ( Verse 23 )
- ^ "Islam's Women". unknown. n.d.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Consanguineous marriage: Should it be discouraged? Archived 2017-10-10 at the Wayback Machine June 2012, MiddleEastHealthMag.com, retrieved 28 Nov 2018
- ^ Jorde, Lynn B; Wooding, Stephen P (2004). "Genetic variation, classification and 'race'". Nature Genetics. 36 (11s): S28–S33. doi:10.1038/ng1435. PMID 15508000.
- ^ Wright, Sewall (1922). "Coefficients of inbreeding and relationship". American Naturalist. 56 (645): 330–338. doi:10.1086/279872. S2CID 83865141.
- ^ Darr, Aamra (14 October 2010). "Consanguineous Marriage and Inherited Disorders" (PDF). University of Bradford: City of Bradford. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Hamamy, H. (2011). "Consanguineous marriages: Preconception consultation in primary health care settings". Journal of Community Genetics. 3 (3): 185–192. doi:10.1007/s12687-011-0072-y. PMC 3419292. PMID 22109912.
- ^ Davis, Erin Cline (10 October 2008). "Understanding Genetics: How much genetic similarity is considered baseline relatedness?". Ask a Geneticist. thetech.org. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
- ^ Bittles, A H (2001). "A Background Summary of Consanguineous Marriage" (PDF). Centre for Human Genetics Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ^ Rehder; et al. (2013). "Documenting suspected consanguinity guidelines". Genet Med. 15 (2): 150–152. doi:10.1038/gim.2012.169. PMID 23328890.
- ^ James A. Brundage, Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 193
- ^ Bener A, Dafeeah EE, Samson N (2012). "Does consanguinity increase the risk of schizophrenia? Study based on primary health care centre visits". Ment Health Fam Med. 9 (4): 241–8. PMC 3721918. PMID 24294299.
- ^ Tadmouri, Ghazi O; Nair, Pratibha; Obeid, Tasneem; Al Ali, Mahmoud T; Al Khaja, Najib; Hamamy, Hanan A (2009-10-08). "Consanguinity and reproductive health among Arabs". Reproductive Health. 6: 17. doi:10.1186/1742-4755-6-17. ISSN 1742-4755. PMC 2765422. PMID 19811666.
- ^ Vardi-Saliternik, R.; Friedlander, Y.; Cohen, T. (Summer 2002). "Consanguinity in a population sample of Israeli Muslim Arabs, Christian Arabs and Druze". Annals of Human Biology. 29 (4): 422–431. doi:10.1080/03014460110100928. ISSN 0301-4460. PMID 12160475. S2CID 28335793.
- ^ Freundlich, E.; Hino, N. (November 1984). "Consanguineous marriage among rural Arabs in Israel". Israel Journal of Medical Sciences. 20 (11): 1035–1038. ISSN 0021-2180. PMID 6511329.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Bittles, Alan H.; Hamamy, Hanan A. (2010), Teebi, Ahmad S. (ed.), "Endogamy and Consanguineous Marriage in Arab Populations", Genetic Disorders Among Arab Populations, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 85–108, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-05080-0_4, ISBN 9783642050800
- ^ Consanguineous marriage: Keeping it in the family. Economist, 27 February 2016.
- ^ Keith Garbutt Inbreeding and genetic disorder among Arab population. Archived 2017-12-20 at the Wayback Machine WVU unpublished Paper
- ^ "Marriage between cousins increases risks to children". medicinechest.co.uk. n.d. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ^ Portrait de famille avec gènes by Mathieu-Robert Sauvé, Retrieved August 2021.
- ^ Fareed M, Afzal M (2014). "Evidence of inbreeding depression on height, weight, and body mass index: a population-based child cohort study". Am. J. Hum. Biol. 26 (6): 784–95. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22599. PMID 25130378. S2CID 6086127.
- ^ Staal, J (2017). "Applied Cultural and Social Studies are Needed for a Sustainable Reduction of Genetic Disease Incidence". European Journal of Sociology and Anthropology. 2 (1): 1–10. doi:10.20897/ejsa.201701. hdl:1854/LU-8526232.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c William J Marshall, Ph. D.; S K Bangert, Clinical biochemistry : metabolic and clinical aspects (Edinburgh; New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2008), p. 920
- ^ Benjamin Pierce, Genetics: A Conceptual Approach (New York: W.H. Freeman, 2012), p. 138
- ^ Kingston H M, "ABC of Clinical Genetics", 3rd Edition (London: BMJ Books, 2002), Page 7, ISBN 0-7279-1627-0
- ^ Lyons EJ, Frodsham AJ, Zhang L, Hill AV, Amos W (2009). "Consanguinity and susceptibility to infectious diseases in humans". Biol Lett. 5 (4): 574–6. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0133. PMC 2684220. PMID 19324620.
External links
[edit]
- Alan Bittles. Consanguineous marriages, pearls and perils: Geneva International Consanguinity Workshop Report. May 2010
- Province of Pennsylvania, statute prohibiting adultery and fornication (1705), with table of consanguinity, extracted from Smith's Laws
- Kalmes, Robert and Jean-Loup Huret. "Consanguinity." – Includes detailed information on the application of the coefficient of consanguinity
- Burtsell, Richard L. "Consanguinity (in Canon Law)." The Catholic Encyclopedia.
- Canon Law and Consanguinity
- Rehder C.W. et al. [1]
