Proto-Iroquoian language

Proto-Iroquoian
Reconstruction of	Iroquoian languages
Era	ca. 1500 BCE

Proto-Iroquoian is the theoretical proto-language of the Iroquoian languages. Lounsbury (1961) estimated from glottochronology a time depth of 3,500 to 3,800 years for the split of North and South Iroquoian.

At the time of early European contact, French explorers in the 16th century encountered villages along the St. Lawrence River, now associated with the St. Lawrence Iroquoian. Other better known northern tribes took over their territory and displaced them, and were later encountered by more French, European and English colonists. These tribes included the Huron and Neutral in modern-day Ontario, first encountered by French explorers and traders; the Five Nations of the Iroquois League in Upstate New York and Pennsylvania, and the Erie Nation and Susquehannock peoples in Pennsylvania.

Southern speakers of Iroquoian languages ranged from the Cherokee in the Great Smoky Mountains, to the Tuscarora and Nottoway in the interior near the modern Virginia/North Carolina border.

Subdivisions

The Iroquoian languages are usually divided into two main groups: Southern Iroquoian (Cherokee) and Northern Iroquoian (all others) based on the great differences in vocabulary and modern phonology. Northern Iroquoian is further divided by Lounsbury and Mithun into Proto-Tuscarora-Nottoway and Lake Iroquoian. Julian (2010) does not believe Lake Iroquoian to be a valid subgrouping.

History of studies

Isolated studies were done by Chafe (1977a), Michelson (1988), and Rudes (1995). There have also been several works of internal reconstruction for daughter languages, in particular Seneca and Mohawk. A preliminary full reconstruction of Proto-Iroquoian was not provided until Charles Julian's (2010) work.

Phonology

Proto-Iroquoian as reconstructed shares the Iroquoian languages' notable typological traits of small consonant inventories, complex consonant clusters, and a lack of labial consonants.

Vowels

The reconstructed vowel inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is:

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i   iː		u   uː
Mid	e   eː   ẽ   ẽː		o   oː   õ   õː
Open		a   aː

Like later Iroquoian languages, Proto-Iroquoian is distinguished in having nasal vowels /õ/ and /ẽ/, although it has more than in its daughter languages.

Consonants

The reconstructed consonant inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants (Lounsbury 1978:337).

	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	t		k   kʷ	ʔ
Affricate	ts
Fricative	s			h
Nasal	n
Approximant	ɹ	j	w

Morphology

Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010):

Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010)

No. Gloss Proto-Iroquoian Proto-Northern Iroquoian 1 'negative' *teʔ 2 'coincident' (perhaps also relativizer) *ts 3 'contrastive' *thi 4 'partitive' *ijiː 5 'translocative' *wi 6 'factual' *waʔ 7 'duplicative' *teː 8 'future' *ẽː 9 'optative' *aɹa 10 'cislocative' *t 11 'repetitive' *ts 12 'non-singular animate' *ka 13 '1:2.SG' *kõː 14 '1:2.DU' *kni 15 '1:2.PL' *kwa 16 '2:1.SG' *hskʷi 17 '2:1.DU' *hskniː 18 '2:1.PL' *hskʷ… 19 '1SG:3' *ki 20 1SG:3A' (> PNI '1SG:3I') *kiji 21 '1SG:3M' *he or *hɹi 22 '2SG:3' *hsi 23 2SG:3A' (> PNI '2SG:3I') *hsiji 24 '2SG:3M' *hehse 25 '3:1SG' *wakʷi 26 3A:1SG' (> PNI '3I:1SG') *jõːkʷi 27 '3M:1SG' *hɹake 28 '3:2SG' *tsa 29 3A:2SG' (> PNI 3I:2SG') *jeːtsa 30 '3M:2SG' *hja 31 '2DU&3' *tsniː 32 '2DU&3M' *hshetsni 33 '2PL&3' *ts… 34 '2PL&3M' *hshetswa 35 '2NS&3I' *jetshi 36 '1+2DU:3' *tniː 37 '1+2DU:3M' *hshetni 38 '1+2PL:3' *t… 39 '1+2PL:3M' *hshetwa 40 '1+3DU:3' *jakni 41 '1+3DU:3M' *hshakni 42 '1+3PL:3' *jakwa 43 '1+3PL:3M' *hshakwa 44 '3:1DU' *kniː 45 '3M:1DU' *hshõkni 46 '3:1PL' *kʷ… 47 '3M:1PL' *hshõkwa 48 '1+2NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) *jethi 49 1+3NS:3I' (> Hu. 1NS:3I) *jakhi 50 3I:1NS' (> Tu. '1NS&3I') *jõkhi 51 '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 1) *ka 52 '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 2) *wa 53 '3SGM:3' *hɹa 54 '3:3SG' *juː 55 '3:3SGM' *hɹo 56 '3DU:3' *kni 57 '3DUM:3' *hni 58 3NS:3' (> PNI '3PL:3') *wantiː 59 '3PL:3' (second variant, in competition with *wati, #58) *kõti 60 '3PLM:3' *hɹati 61 '3:3NS' *juːntiː 62 '3:3NSM' *hɹoti 63 '3I:3' *je 64 '3:3I' *jako 65 '3SGM:3I' *hshako 66 3A:3SGA' (> Ch. '3NS:3SG', PNI '3I:3SG') *kõːwa 67 '3I:3SGM' *hɹõwa 68 3A:3NSA' (> Ch. '3NS:3NS', PNI '3I:3NS') *kõːwantiː 69 '3I:3NSM' *hɹõwati 70 '3NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) *jakoti 71 '3NSM:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) *hshakoti 72 '2:1.SG.IMP' *take 73 '2:1.DU.IMP' *takni 74 '1:2.PL.IMP' *takwa 75 '2SG:3.IMP' *tse 76 'reflexive' *ataːt 77 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 1) *at 78 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 2) *aɹ 79 'joiner vowel' *a 80 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 1) *hsɹ 81 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 2) *ʔtshɹ 82 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 1) *t 83 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 2) *hst 84 'instrumental' *hkw 85 'reversive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) *kʷ 86 'reversive' (lexically determined variant 2) *hsj 87 'inchoative' *ʔ 88 'dative-benefactive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) *ts 89 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 2) *ẽ 90 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 3) *ni 91 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 1) *n 92 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 2) *h 93 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 3) *ts 94 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 4) *tsɹ 95 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 5, limited to Iroquoia) *ɹ 96 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 1) *njõː 97 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 2) *nõː 98 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 3) *hõː 99 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 4) *õː 100 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 5) *ɹõː 101 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 6) *ɹjõː 102 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 7) *tsõː 103 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 8) *tsɹõː 104 'progressive' *tjeʔ 105 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) *hs 106 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) *ts 107 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) *haʔ 108 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) *h 109 'imperfective suffix' (cf. Cherokee imperfective verbs inhsk) *hsk 110 'past habitual suffix' *kʷ 111 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) *ʔ 112 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) *ẽʔ 113 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) *Ø 114 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) *n 115 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) *õh 116 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) *ẽh 117 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) *Ø 118 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) *eʔ 119 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 5) *ih 120 'past perfect suffix' *n 121 'facilitative suffix' *nskõːh 122 'modalizer suffix' *k 123 'noun suffix' *aʔ 124 'authenticative suffix' *õweh 125 'characterizer suffix' *haːʔ 126 'decessive suffix' *kẽh 127 'intensifier suffix' *tsih 128 'locative suffix' *keh 129 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) *ɹonõʔ 130 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) *kaːʔ

Lexicon

Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010):

Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010)

No. Gloss Proto-Iroquoian Proto-Northern Iroquoian Proto-Mohawk- Oneida Huron (Common Huron-Petun) 131 'path, road, trail' *-ah-, *-(a)hah- 132 'be bad, be ugly, be useless' *-(a)hetkẽʔ 133 'be salty, be sour' *-ahjoʔtsihs, *-oʔtsihst- 134 'bark, wood, wood chips' *-ahkaɹ- 135 'be ten' *-ahnshẽːh 136 'ear' *-(a)hõht- 137 'count' *-(a)hɹaːt- 138 'hear, speak a language, understand' *-ahɹõk- 139 'foot' *-aːhs-, *-aːhsiʔt- 140 'three' *ahsẽh 141 'string' *ahsɹijeʔ 142 'shoe' *-ahtahkʷ-, *ahtaʔ 143 'be forbidden, be prohibited, be strict, be taboo' *-ahtjawẽɹeʔ 144 'abandon, give up, leave behind, let go, quit, release' *-ahtkaʔw- 145 'disappear, vanish' *-ahtõ-, *-ahtõʔ- 146 'hide' *-ahtseht- 147 'argue for, compete for, contend for, fight for' *-ahtskehnh- 148 'not yet, still' *ahtsõh, *atsõh 149 'night' *-ahtsõːh- 150 'connect, fasten, join together' *-ahtsõtɹ- 151 'be durable, be hard, be strong' *-akanst-, *-anst-, *-kanst- 152 'be a number, be an amount, be that many' *-akeːh, *-keːh 153 'be bad' *-aksẽːh 154 'cry' *-anstaɹ- 155 'outdoors, outside' *ansteh 156 'shoe' *-aɹaːhsu- 157 'be cousins' *-aɹaʔtseːʔ 158 'about, almost, approximately' *aɹeʔ 159 'be inside, be one, be present, be within, exist' *-aːt 160 'speak, talk' *-atati-, *-atatj- 161 'bathe, swim' *-atawẽ- 162 'climb over, go over' *-atawẽːhɹat- 163 'be ashamed, be embarrassed' *-ateːhẽːh- 164 'be burning, burn' *-atek- 165 'burn, cause to burn, light a fire' *-atekaʔt- 166 'use to light a fire' *-atekaʔtahkw- 167 'be a doctor, cure, heal' *-atetsjẽʔt- 168 'food taken along, provisions' *-atẽnaʔtshɹ- 169 'be a member of the Wolf Clan' (limited to Iroquoia) *-athahjõniːh 170 'be cold, be cold out, cold' *-athoɹ-, *athoʔ 171 'hear' *-athõː- 172 'garter' (limited to Iroquoia) *-athsinh-, *-athsinhatshɹ- 173 'be burnt, be consumed, be used up, burn, use oneself up' *-athsʔaht- 174 'abandon, throw, throw out' *-ati-, *-atj-, *-õti-, *-õtj- 175 'draw, pull, stretch' *-atiɹõːt- 176 'get dressed, put on' (limited to Iroquoia) *-atjaʔtawiʔt- 177 'harbour, hold back, keep' *-atjenawahst- 178 'be cheap, be easy, be profligate, squander' *-atjets- 179 'look at' *-atkahthw- 180 'purulence, pus' *-atkẽhtsɹ- 181 'be a sorcerer, be a spirit, have inherent power' *-atkõʔ 182 'axe' *atokẽʔ 183 'spoon' (limited to Iroquoia) *-atokw-, *-atokwaʔtshɹ- 184 'hunt' *-atoɹaːt- 185 'breathe' *-atõːɹ- 186 'laugh, laugh out loud' (limited to Iroquoia) *-atõtaɹikt- 187 'meet, meet by chance' *-atɹaʔ- 188 'grandchild, have as grandchild' *-atɹe- 189 'be green, be new' *-atseːʔ 190 'be glad, be happy' *-atshẽnõni- 191 'dry out, dry up, evaporate, run dry' *-atst-, *-atstathẽ- 192 'abandon, lend, let go, spare' (limited to Iroquoia) *-atwẽteht- 193 'fence, palisade' *-atʔẽhɹ- 194 'belong to, own, possess' *-awẽh 195 'stir' *-awẽɹi-, *-awẽɹj- 196 'water' *awẽʔ 197 'be small' *-aʔ-, *-aʔaːh 198 'lace, net, netting, web' (limited to Iroquoia) *-aʔaɹ- 199 'dew' *-aʔawj – 200 'strike' *-aʔe- 201 'become dark, become night' *-aʔkaɹaʔ-, *-aʔkɹaʔ- 202 'snow, snowflake' (limited to Iroquoia) *-aʔkɹ- 203 'turtle' (limited to Iroquoia) *-aʔnowaɹ-, *-ʔnowaɹ- 204 'be hot, be warm' *-aʔtaɹihẽːh 205 'heat, sweat' *-aʔtaɹihẽhsɹ- 206 'axe' *-aʔtsɹ- 207 'be extinguished, fire to go out' *-aʔtsw- 208 'extinguish, put out a fire' *-aʔtswaht- 209 'come, go, go on foot, walk' *-e- 210 'remember' *-ehjahɹ- 211 'believe, think' *-eːɹ- 212 'heart' *-eɹjahs- 213 'a lot, much' *etsoʔ, *itsoʔ, *itswaʔ 214 'above, high, over' *eʔnkẽh, *heʔnkẽh 215 'flower' (limited to Iroquoia) *-ẽh- 216 'day' (limited to Iroquoia) *-ẽhnitsɹ- 217 'be uncle to, have as nephew or niece' *-ẽhwatẽʔ, *-jẽhwatẽʔ 218 'be born, establish oneself' *-ẽnakɹaːt- 219 'day' *-ẽt- 220 'be finished, be over, be prepared, be ready, come to an end' *-ẽtaʔ- 221 'drop, fall' *-ẽʔ- 222 'nine' *ẽʔtɹõʔ, *waʔtɹõh, *waʔtɹõʔ 223 'council fire, flame, torch' *-hahsɹ- 224 'cornstalk, grass' *-heɹ- 225 'shout, yell' *-hẽɹeht- 226 'clearing, field, meadow' *-hẽt- 227 'mark, write' *-hjatõ- 228 'book, something marked, something written' *-hjatõhsɹ- 229 'claw' *-hkaɹ- 230 'current, moving water, rapids' *-hnaw- 231 'arm, shoulder' *-hnẽː- 232 'command, employ, hire' *-hnhaʔ- 233 'door' *-hnhoh-, *-hnhohw- 234 'close a door, door to be closed' *-hnhotõ- 235 'have jowls protruding' (> cattle, cow) *-hnh(o/õ)hskʷ(a/e)ɹõːt 236 'feed, put in the mouth' *-hnhõtho-, *-hnhõthw- 237 'be durable, be hard, be solid, be strong' *-hniɹ- 238 'thigh' *-hnitsh- 239 'neck, throat' *-hnj- 240 'tie' *-hnɹ- 241 'basswood' *-hohsɹ-, *-hotsɹ- 242 'bread' *-hɹahkʷ- 243 'feather' *-hɹaʔt- 244 'cut' *-hɹen- 245 'fall, fall over' *-hɹjenẽʔ-, *-ʔɹhjenẽʔ- 246 'tell' (limited to Iroquoia) *-hɹoɹi-, *-hɹoɹj- 247 'name, reputation' *-hsẽn- 248 'dough' (limited to Iroquoia) *-hsheʔɹ-,-hsheʔɹh- 249 'depression, depth, hole, hollow. *-hshõw- 250 'detest, dislike, hate' *-hshwahẽ-, *-hshwẽ- 251 'ankle, knee' *-hsinkoʔt- 252 'slow' *-hskanẽ- 253 'be good' (limited to Iroquoia) *-hskaːths 254 'deer' *-hskẽnõtõʔ 255 'bone' *-hskẽʔɹ-; *-hskẽʔɹakeht- 'be a warrior', lit. 'carry the bone' 256 'head' *-hskʷ- 257 'finger, hand' *-hsnõhs-, *-hsnõʔ 258 'be fast, be quick' *-hsnuːɹiʔ 259 'be ancestor to, be grandparent to' *-hsoːt 260 'build, make, prepare' *-hsɹõːn- 261 'use' *-hst- 262 'marrow' *-hstahɹõw- 263 'be little, be small' *-hsthwih, *-hstwih 264 'back' *-hsw- 265 'board, wood' *-hswẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkhaɹ- 266 'complete, exhaust, finish' *-hsʔ-, *-ihsʔ- 267 'have as older sibling, have as older maternal female cousin' *-htsiʔ 268 'colour, dye, paint' *-htsuːhw- 269 'family' *-hwatsiɹ- 270 'be round' *-hweʔnõniːh 271 'foam' *-hwẽʔnst- 272 'force, strength' *-hwihsh- 273 'five' *hwihsk 274 'metal, money' *-hwihst- 275 'be, be the one, exist' *-iː- 276 'be dead, die' *-ihej- 277 'cross over' *-ihjaʔk-, *-jahjaʔk- 278 'creek, river' *-ijhõh-, *-ijhõhw-, *-wjhõh- 279 'be beautiful, be good, be great' *-ijoːh 280 'emerge, go out, put out' *-inkẽʔ- 281 'far' *iːnõh 282 'mattress, sheet, spread' *-inskaɹ- 283 'be sitting, sit' (limited to Iroquoia) *-inskoːt 284 'saliva, spit, spittle' *-inskɹ- 285 'fish scale' *-inst- 286 'cliff, rock, rock bank' *-instẽhɹ-, *-nstẽhɹ- 287 'sleep' *-itaʔw-, *-itʔo- 288 'crowd, group' *-itjohkʷ- 289 'you' *iːts 290 'shoot' *-iʔaːk-, *-iʔjaːk-, *-ʔjaːk- 291 'clan, clay, hearth' *-iʔtaɹ-, *-ʔtaɹ- 292 'abide, dwell, reside, sit' *-iʔtɹõ- 293 'exit, go out, leave' *-jakẽʔ- 294 'footprint, gait, track' *-jan- 295 'be a chief, be good, be lawful, be proper' (limited to Iroquoia) *-janɹ- 296 'law' *-janɹehsɹ-, *-janrẽhsɹ- 297 'break, cut' *-jaʔk- 298 'being, body, carcass, corpse, person' *-jaʔt- 299 'wake up' *-je- 300 'add, contribute, mix' *-jehst- 301 'capture, catch, grab' *-jena-, *-jenaw- 302 'act, do, happen to' *-jeɹ- 303 'be complete, be just, be perfect, be right' *-jeɹi- 304 'body' *-jeːɹõʔ- 305 'smile' *-jeːts- 306 'be situated, exist, have, put down, set down, sit down' *-jẽ- 307 'hit, strike' *-jẽht- 308 'firewood, wood' (limited to Iroquoia) *-jẽt- 309 'accumulate, beget, get, obtain' *-jẽtaʔ- 310 'know' *-jẽteɹ- 311 'plant, sow' *-jẽtho-, *-jẽthw- 312 'flay, skin' *-jẽtsɹ- 313 'have as child' *-jẽʔ- 314 'smoke, tobacco' *-jẽʔkʷ- 315 'enter' *-jõ- 316 'eat' *-k- 317 'butterfly' *kahnaːwẽːh 318 'look at' (limited to Iroquoia) *-kahnɹ- 319 'eye' *-kahɹ- 320 'four' *kajeɹih 321 'be old' *-kajõ- 322 'anywhere, somewhere' (limited to Iroquoia) *kankaʔ 323 'pipe' *kanõːnowẽʔ 324 'bite' *-kaɹ- 325 'account, price, story' *-kaɹ- 326 'roll, turn around' (limited to Iroquoia) *-kaɹhateni-, *-kaɹhatenj- 327 'invert, roll over, turn over' *-kaɹhatho-, *-kaɹhathw- 328 'tree' *kaɹhit, *keɹhit, *keɹhiʔ, *kɹaheːt, *kɹahit 329 'come here!' *katsih 330 'paddle, row' *-kaweː- 331 'lift, raise' *-kensko-, *-kenskʷ- 332 'see' *-kẽ-, *-kẽːh 333 'be old' *-kẽhtsi- 334 'summer' *-kẽnh- 335 'be white' *-kẽɹat 336 'peel, scrape' (limited to Iroquoia) *-kẽtsɹ- 337 'divide, separate' *-kh-, *-khahsi-, *-khahsj-, *-khahsk- 338 'elbow' *-khjuːhs- 339 'food, meal' *-khw- 340 'chipmunk' *kihɹjuʔkẽh 341 'dog' *kiːɹ 342 'hair' *-kiʔɹh- 343 'crow' *koːhkaːʔ 344 'be a lot, be many, be much' *-koʔtiʔ 345 'face' *-kõːhs- 346 'eel' *kõteh 347 'bowl, dish, plate' *-kts- 348 'acorn, oak' *kuːɹeh 349 'be big, be large' *-kuwa-, *-kʷa- 350 'pick up' *-kʷ- 351 'be able' *-kʷeni-, *-kʷenj- 352 'that, the, this' *nV(H) 353 'domestic animal, prisoner, slave' *-nahskʷ- 354 'be autochthonous, dwell, reside' *-nakɹ- 355 'bed, place, room, space' *-nakt-, *-nakʷt- 356 'camp, city, settlement, town, village' *-nat- 357 'grain, wheat' *-natsj- 358 'be melted, be warm, be wet' *-nawẽːh 359 'antler, horn' *-naʔkaɹ- 360 'imitate' *-naʔkeɹ- 361 'bread' *-naʔtaɹ- 362 'call' (limited to Iroquoia) *-naʔtõhkʷ- 363 'cauldron, kettle, pail, pot' *-naʔtsj- 364 'liquid' *-neː- 365 'ice' *-neːhst-, *-neːhstwaɹ 366 'corn, grain, kernel' *-nẽh- 367 'now' *nẽh 368 'steal' *-nẽːhskʷ- 369 'sand; stone' *-nẽːj- 370 'arm' *-nẽtsh- 371 'be stingy' (limited to Iroquoia) *-niʔ- 372 'marry' *-njaːk- 373 'neck' *-njaɹ- 374 'lake' *-njataɹ- 375 'wampum' *-nkoʔɹ-, *-nkoʔɹh- 376 'blood' *-nkõ-, *-nkʷẽhs- 377 'red' (limited to Iroquoia) *-nkʷẽhtaɹ- 378 'begin to snow' *-nkʷẽʔ- 379 'be cold' *-noːh 380 'tooth' *-noʔts-, *-noʔtsj- 381 'medicine' *-nõhkʷ-, *-nõhkʷaʔt-, *-nõhkʷaʔtshɹ- 382 'house' *-nõhs- 383 'be painful, be sore, hurt' *-nõhwakt- 384 'admire, like' *-nõhweʔ- 385 'hill, mountain' *-nõt- 386 'corn soup, hominy' (limited to Iroquoia) *-nõtaɹ- 387 'brain, head' *-nõːtsiː- 388 'breast, milk' *-nõʔt- 389 'fungus, mushroom' *-nɹahs- 390 'leaf' *-nɹaht- 391 'get involved, help' *-nsteːɹ- 392 'corn husk' *-nuːɹ- 393 'be difficult, be unable to, fail to do' *-nuːɹõ- 394 'winter, year' *-ohsɹ- 395 'throw' (limited to Iroquoia) *-ojʔaːk- 396 'split' *-oɹẽ- 397 'be, be standing, exist, stand upright' *-oːt 398 'be at the end, end' *-oʔkt- 399 'dig' (limited to Iroquoia) *-oʔkʷaːt- 400 'hand' *-oʔnj- 401 'be of a kind, be of a sort' *-oʔtẽːh 402 'earth, land, world' *-õhwẽtsj- 403 'go beyond, go through, leak, pass through, penetrate, reach' *-õːkuːh- 404 'sift' *-õːkuːhst- 405 'be a person, human being' *-õkʷeh, *-õkʷehsɹ-, *-õkʷeʔt- 406 'be alive, life, live' *-õːnh- 407 'rain' *-õnoːt- 408 'pot' *-õːt- 409 'put into the fire' *-õːt- 410 'be attached, have as a body part' *-õːt 411 'remove from the fire' *-õːtakʷ- 412 'be a lake, lake' *-õːtaɹiʔ 413 'be in, be on' *-ɹ- 414 'moon to be present, planet to be present, sun to be present' *-ɹ- 415 'moon, planet, sun' *-ɹahkʷ- 416 'erase, rub out, wipe out' *-ɹakew- 417 'choose, pick out, select' *-ɹako-, *-ɹakw- 418 'sap, syrup' *-ɹan- 419 'heel' *-ɹat- 420 'climb' *-ɹathẽ-, *-ɹaʔthẽ- 421 'adhere, stick, stick on' *-ɹaʔnẽtaːk- 422 'incantation, song, spell, witchcraft' *-ɹẽn- 423 'bush, forest, woods' *-ɹhat- 424 'coat with, put on' *-ɹho- 425 'be paternal aunt to' *-ɹhok 426 'socks, leggings' *-ɹiː- 427 'affair, business, thing, matter' *-ɹihw- 428 'fight, kill' *-ɹijo-, *-ɹjo- 429 'animal' *-ɹjoːʔ 430 'blue, sky' *-ɹõhj- 431 'log, tree' *-ɹõt- 432 'chop' *-ɹʔo-, *-ɹʔok- 433 'be present, exist' *-t- 434 'and, besides' *tahnũʔ 435 'run' *-takh- 436 'woodpecker' *taɹaːɹ 437 'flint' *tawiːhskaɹaʔ 438 'two' *tekniːh 439 'eight' *tekɹõʔ 440 'change' *-teni-, *-tenj- 441 'mosquito' *-tẽːhs- 442 'alternate, differ' *-tih- 443 'skunk' *tiʔɹ 444 'nearby' tjohskẽẽʔ 445 'snake' tjoʔxjẽtsihk 446 'decay, rot, spoil' *-tkẽː- 447 'how, how many, how much' (limited to Iroquoia) *toːh 448 'be certain, be exact, be true' *-tokẽːh 449 'stand' *-toʔn- 450 'bluejay' (limited to Iroquoia) *tɹiʔtɹiːʔ 451 'beans' *tsaheʔ, *-tsaheʔt- 452 'bottle, gourd, jar' *-tsheʔ, *-tsheʔt-, *-tsheʔw- 453 'club, fist, knot' *-tsihkʷ- 454 'robin' *tsiːhskʷoːʔkʷoːʔ 455 'otter, seal' *tsiːjẽh 456 'salt' *-tsikheʔt- 457 'be male' *-tsin 458 'fire' *-tsiːɹ 459 'coal, ember, fire, spark' *-tsist- 460 'fox, lynx' *tsitshoʔ 461 'bile, green, yellow' *-tsiʔnkʷaɹ- 462 'bird' *tsiʔtẽʔ 463 'corn tassel' *-tsiːʔtsiːʔ 464 'seven' *tsjatahk 465 'tobacco' *-tsjoːɹ- 466 'six; seven' *tsjotaɹeʔ 467 'fish' *-tsjõʔt- 468 'be daughter-in-law' *-tsoʔ 469 'dream, sleep' *-tsɹẽht- 470 'put into the water' *-uː- 471 'remove from the water' *-uːkʷ- 472 'cover' *-uːɹ- 473 'splash water, sprinkle' *-uːtsɹ- 474 'whippoorwill' *waʔkuhɹiːʔ 475 'say, speak' *-we- 476 'language, voice, word' *-wẽn- 477 'thumb' (limited to Iroquoia) *-whjõhkaɹ- 478 'young person' *-wiːnõːh 479 'baby, child, infant, offspring' *-wiɹ- 480 'arm, fin, wing' *-wj- 481 'wing' *-wjahũtsh- 482 'learn, teach' *-wjẽhst- 483 'know how, learn how' *-wjẽhw-, *-wjẽw-, *-wjẽʔ- 484 'craft, manner, skill, way' *-wjẽn- 485 'become capable, learn how' *-wjʌ̃tehtaʔ- 486 'be good' *-wohst 487 'air, wind' *-wɹ- 488 'arrow' *-ʔn- 489 'bone' *-ʔnẽj- 490 'egg' *-ʔnhõhs- 491 'mind, spirit' *-ʔnikõhɹ- 492 'be late, delay' *-ʔnitsko-, *-ʔnitskʷ- 493 'escape, flee, run away' *-ʔnjakẽʔ- 494 'nose' *-ʔnjõːhs- 495 'be envious, be jealous, envy' *-ʔnonsh- 496 'be powerful, be strong' *-ʔnshanst- 497 'drown, fall into water' *-ʔtskoʔ- 498 'drag, drive, pull, ride' *-ʔtsɹ-

References

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