Jump to content

Cruise missile

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For a missile that follows a ballistic trajectory, see Ballistic missile.

A BGM-109 Tomahawk flying in November 2002

A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target.[1] Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision. Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at high subsonic, supersonic, or hypersonic speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.

History

[edit]
A Fieseler Fi-103, the German V-1 flying bomb

The idea of an "aerial torpedo" was shown in the British 1909 film The Airship Destroyer in which flying torpedoes controlled wirelessly are used to bring down airships bombing London.[2]

In 1916, the American aviator Lawrence Sperry built and patented an "aerial torpedo", the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, a small biplane carrying a TNT charge, a Sperry autopilot and barometric altitude control. Inspired by the experiments, the United States Army developed a similar flying bomb called the Kettering Bug. Germany had also flown trials with remote-controlled aerial gliders (Torpedogleiter) built by Siemens-Schuckert beginning in 1916.[3]

In the Interwar Period, Britain's Royal Aircraft Establishment developed the Larynx (Long Range Gun with Lynx Engine), which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s.[4]

In the Soviet Union, Sergei Korolev headed the GIRD-06 cruise missile project from 1932 to 1939, which used a rocket-powered boost-glide bomb design. The 06/III (RP-216) and 06/IV (RP-212) contained gyroscopic guidance systems.[5] The vehicle was designed to boost to 28 km altitude and glide a distance of 280 km, but test flights in 1934 and 1936 only reached an altitude of 500 meters.

In 1944, during World War II, Germany deployed the first operational cruise missiles. The V-1, often called a flying bomb, contained a gyroscope guidance system and was propelled by a simple pulsejet engine, the sound of which gave it the nickname of "buzz bomb" or "doodlebug". Accuracy was sufficient only for use against very large targets (the general area of a city), while the range of 250 km was significantly lower than that of a bomber carrying the same payload. The main advantages were speed (although not sufficient to outperform contemporary propeller-driven interceptors) and expendability. The production cost of a V-1 was only a small fraction of that of a V-2 supersonic ballistic missile with a similar-sized warhead.[6] Unlike the V-2, the initial deployments of the V-1 required stationary launch ramps which were susceptible to bombardment. Nazi Germany, in 1943, also developed the Mistel composite aircraft program, which can be seen as a rudimentary air-launched cruise missile, where a piloted fighter-type aircraft was mounted atop an unpiloted bomber-sized aircraft that was packed with explosives to be released while approaching the target. Bomber-launched variants of the V-1 saw limited operational service near the end of the war, with the pioneering V-1's design reverse-engineered by the Americans as the Republic-Ford JB-2 cruise missile.

Immediately after the war, the United States Air Force had 21 different guided missile projects, including would-be cruise missiles. All but four were cancelled by 1948: the Air Materiel Command Banshee, the SM-62 Snark, the SM-64 Navaho, and the MGM-1 Matador. The Banshee design was similar to Operation Aphrodite; like Aphrodite, it failed, and was canceled in April 1949.[7] Concurrently, the US Navy's Operation Bumblebee, was conducted at Topsail Island, North Carolina, from c. 1 June 1946, to 28 July 1948. Bumblebee produced proof-of-concept technologies that influenced the US military's other missile projects.

During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union experimented further with the concept, of deploying early cruise missiles from land, submarines, and aircraft. The main outcome of the United States Navy submarine missile project was the SSM-N-8 Regulus missile, based upon the V-1.

The United States Air Force's first operational surface-to-surface missile was the winged, mobile, nuclear-capable MGM-1 Matador, also similar in concept to the V-1. Deployment overseas began in 1954, first to West Germany and later to the Republic of China and South Korea. On 7 November 1956, the U.S. Air Force deployed Matador units in West Germany, whose missiles were capable of striking targets in the Warsaw Pact, from their fixed day-to-day sites to unannounced dispersed launch locations. This alert was in response to the crisis posed by the Soviet attack on Hungary which suppressed the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.

Between 1957 and 1961 the United States followed an ambitious and well-funded program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile, Supersonic Low Altitude Missile (SLAM). It was designed to fly below the enemy's radar at speeds above Mach 3 and carry hydrogen bombs that it would drop along its path over enemy territory. Although the concept was proven sound and the 500-megawatt engine finished a successful test run in 1961, no airworthy device was ever completed. The project was finally abandoned in favor of ICBM development.

While ballistic missiles were the preferred weapons for land targets, heavy nuclear and conventional weapon tipped cruise missiles were seen by the USSR as a primary weapon to destroy United States naval carrier battle groups. Large submarines (for example, Echo and Oscar classes) were developed to carry these weapons and shadow United States battle groups at sea, and large bombers (for example, Backfire, Bear, and Blackjack models) were equipped with the weapons in their air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) configuration.

Categories

[edit]

Cruise missiles can be categorized by payload/warhead size, speed, range, and launch platform. Often variants of the same missile are produced for different launch platforms (for instance, air- and submarine-launched versions).

Guidance systems can vary across missiles. Some missiles can be fitted with any of a variety of navigation systems (Inertial navigation, TERCOM, or satellite navigation). Larger cruise missiles can carry either a conventional or a nuclear warhead, while smaller ones carry only conventional warheads.

Hypersonic

[edit]
See also: Hypersonic weapon and Hypersonic flight

A hypersonic cruise missile travels at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5).

Supersonic

[edit]
BrahMos shown at IMDS 2007.

These missiles travel faster than the speed of sound, usually using ramjet engines. The range is typically 100–500 km, but can be greater. Guidance systems vary.

Examples:

Intercontinental-range supersonic

[edit]

Long-range subsonic

[edit]
India's Nirbhay missiles mounted on a truck-based launcher

The United States, Russia, North Korea, India, Iran, South Korea, Israel, France, China and Pakistan have developed several long-range subsonic cruise missiles. These missiles have a range of over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and fly at about 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph).[37] They typically have a launch weight of about 1,500 kilograms (3,300 lb)[38] and can carry either a conventional or a nuclear warhead. Earlier versions of these missiles used inertial navigation; later versions use much more accurate TERCOM and DSMAC systems. Most recent versions can use satellite navigation.

Examples:

Intercontinental-range subsonic

[edit]

Medium-range subsonic

[edit]
Storm Shadow (France / UK)
A Pakistani Babur cruise missile launcher

These missiles are about the same size and weight and fly at similar speeds to the above category. Guidance systems vary.

Examples:

Short-range subsonic

[edit]

These are subsonic missiles that weigh around 500 kilograms (1,102 lb) and have a range of up to 300 km (190 mi).[citation needed]

A Naval Strike Missile of the Norwegian Navy

Examples:

Hsiung Feng II Anti-Ship Missile Display in Chengkungling
Hsiung Feng II

Deployment

[edit]
AGM-129 ACM being secured on a B-52H bomber

The most common mission for cruise missiles is to attack relatively high-value targets such as ships, command bunkers, bridges and dams.[52] Modern guidance systems permit accurate attacks.

As of 2001, the BGM-109 Tomahawk missile model has become a significant part of the United States naval arsenal. It gives ships and submarines a somewhat accurate, long-range, conventional land attack weapon. Each costs about US$1.99 million.[53] Both the Tomahawk and the AGM-86 were used extensively during Operation Desert Storm. On 7 April 2017, during the Syrian Civil War, U.S. warships fired more than 50 cruise missiles into a Syrian airbase in retaliation for a Syrian chemical weapons attack against a rebel stronghold.[54]

The United States Air Force (USAF) deploys an air-launched cruise missile, the AGM-86 ALCM. The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is the exclusive delivery vehicle for the AGM-86 and AGM-129 ACM. Both missile types are configurable for either conventional or nuclear warheads.

The USAF adopted the AGM-86 for its bomber fleet while AGM-109 was adapted to launch from trucks and ships and adopted by the USAF and Navy. The truck-launched versions, and also the Pershing II and SS-20 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles, were later destroyed under the bilateral INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces) treaty with the USSR.

The British Royal Navy (RN) also operates cruise missiles, specifically the U.S.-made Tomahawk, used by the RN's nuclear submarine fleet. UK conventional warhead versions were first fired in combat by the RN in 1999, during the Kosovo War (the United States fired cruise missiles in 1991). The Royal Air Force uses the Storm Shadow cruise missile on its Typhoon and previously its Tornado GR4 aircraft. It is also used by France, where it is known as SCALP EG, and carried by the Armée de l'Air's Mirage 2000 and Rafale aircraft.

The Indian Army's BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles mounted on Mobile Autonomous Launchers (MAL)

India and Russia have jointly developed the supersonic cruise missile BrahMos. There are three versions of the Brahmos: ship/land-launched, air-launched, and sub-launched. The ship/land-launched version was operational as of late 2007. The Brahmos have the capability to attack targets on land. Russia also continues to operate other cruise missiles: the SS-N-12 Sandbox, SS-N-19 Shipwreck, SS-N-22 Sunburn and SS-N-25 Switchblade. Germany and Spain operate the Taurus missile while Pakistan has made the Babur missile[55] Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) have designed several cruise missile variants, such as the well-known C-802, some of which are capable of carrying biological, chemical, nuclear, and conventional warheads.

Nuclear warhead versions

[edit]

China

[edit]
See also: China and weapons of mass destruction

China has CJ-10 land attack cruise missile which is capable of carrying a nuclear warhead.[56] Additionally, China appears to have tested a hypersonic cruise missile in August 2021, a claim it denies.[57]

France

[edit]
See also: France and weapons of mass destruction

The French Force de Frappe nuclear forces include both land and sea-based bombers with Air-Sol Moyenne Portée (ASMP) high-speed medium-range nuclear cruise missiles. Two models are in use, ASMP and a newer ASMP-Amelioré (ASMP-A), which was developed in 1999. An estimated 40 to 50 were produced.[58][59]

India

[edit]
See also: India and weapons of mass destruction

India in 2017 successfully flight-tested its indigenous Nirbhay ('Fearless') land-attack cruise missile, which can deliver nuclear warheads to a strike range of 1,000 km.[60] Nirbhay had been flight-tested successfully.[60][61]

India currently operates 7 variants of Brahmos cruise missile operational range of 300-1000 km.

India is currently developing hypersonic BRAHMOS-II which is going to be the fastest cruise missile.

Israel

[edit]
See also: Israel and weapons of mass destruction

The Israel Defense Forces reportedly deploy the medium-range air-launched Popeye Turbo ALCM and the Popeye Turbo SLCM medium-long range cruise missile with nuclear warheads on Dolphin class submarines.[62]

Pakistan

[edit]
See also: Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction

Pakistan currently has four cruise missile systems: the air-launched Ra'ad-I and its enhanced version Ra'ad-II; the ground and submarine launched Babur;[63][64][65] ship-launched Harbah missile[66] and surface launched Zarb missile.[67] Both, Ra'ad and Babur, can carry nuclear warheads between 10 and 25 kt, and deliver them to targets at a range of up to 300 km (190 mi) and 450 km (280 mi) respectively.[68] Babur has been in service with the Pakistan Army since 2010, and Pakistan Navy since 2018.[69]

Russia

[edit]
See also: Russia and weapons of mass destruction
Export variant of the Kalibr missile

Russia has Kh-55SM cruise missiles, with a range similar to the United States' AGM-129 range of 3000 km, but are able to carry a more powerful warhead of 200 kt. They are equipped with a TERCOM system which allows them to cruise at an altitude lower than 110 meters at subsonic speeds while obtaining a CEP accuracy of 15 meters with an inertial navigation system. They are air-launched from either Tupolev Tu-95s, Tupolev Tu-22Ms, or Tupolev Tu-160s, each able to carry 16 for the Tu-95, 12 for the Tu-160, and 4 for the Tu-22M. A stealth version of the missile, the Kh-101 is in development. It has similar qualities as the Kh-55, except that its range has been extended to 5,000 km, is equipped with a 1,000 kg conventional warhead, and has stealth features which reduce its probability of intercept.[70]

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the most recent cruise missile developed was the Kalibr missile which entered production in the early 1990s and was officially inducted into the Russian arsenal in 1994. However, it only saw its combat debut on 7 October 2015, in Syria as a part of the Russian military campaign in Syria. The missile has been used 14 more times in combat operations in Syria since its debut.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union was attempting to develop cruise missiles. In this short time frame, the Soviet Union was working on nearly ten different types of cruise missiles. However, due to resources, most of the initial types of cruise missiles developed by the Soviet Union were Sea-Launched Cruise Missiles or Submarine-Launched Cruise Missiles (SLCMs). The SS-N-1 cruise missile was developed to have different configurations to be fired from a submarine or a ship. However, as time progressed, the Soviet Union began to work on air-launched cruise missiles as well (ALCM). These ACLM missiles were typically delivered via bombers designated as "Blinders" or "Backfire". The missiles in this configuration were called the AS-1, and AS-2 with eventual new variants with more development time. The main purpose of Soviet-based cruise missiles was to have defense and offensive mechanisms against enemy ships; in other words, most of the Soviet cruise missiles were anti-ship missiles. In the 1980s the Soviet Union had developed an arsenal of cruise missiles nearing 600 platforms which consisted of land, sea, and air delivery systems.[71]

United States

[edit]
See also: United States and weapons of mass destruction
An AGM-129 ACM of the United States Air Force

The United States has deployed nine nuclear cruise missiles at one time or another.

Efficiency in modern warfare

[edit]

Currently, cruise missiles are among the most expensive of single-use weapons, up to several million dollars apiece. One consequence of this is that its users face difficult choices in target allocation, to avoid expending the missiles on targets of low value. For instance, during the 2001 strikes on Afghanistan the United States attacked targets of very low monetary value with cruise missiles, which led many to question the efficiency of the weapon. However, proponents of the cruise missile counter that the weapon can not be blamed for poor target selection, and the same argument applies to other types of UAVs: they are cheaper than human pilots when total training and infrastructure costs are taken into account, not to mention the risk of loss of personnel. As demonstrated in Libya in 2011 and prior conflicts, cruise missiles are much more difficult to detect and intercept than other aerial assets (reduced radar cross-section, infrared and visual signature due to smaller size), suiting them to attacks against static air defense systems.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Cruise Missile Basics". MDAA.
  2. ^ "Remote Piloted Aerial Vehicles : The 'Aerial Target' and 'Aerial Torpedo' in Britain". Ctie.monash.edu.au. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  3. ^ Roger Branfill-Cook, "Torpedo", Seaforth Publishing, Great Britain 2014
  4. ^ "[1.0] The Aerial Torpedo". 13 August 2007. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007.
  5. ^ "Object No. 212", 1936 report in _Tvorcheskoi Nasledie Akedemika Sergeya Pavlovicha Koroleva_
  6. ^ Both missiles were manufactured under the heavy use of Nazi slave labour.
  7. ^ The Evolution of the Cruise Missile by Werrell, Kenneth P. see PDF page 92
  8. ^ "Russia will refit nuclear powered guided missile cruiser with mach 5 hypersonic 3M22 missiles with 2022 deployment". NextBigFuture.com. 21 February 2016.
  9. ^ "3M22 Zircon Missile, Russia's Fastest Missile". Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  10. ^ "Russia used an advanced hypersonic missile for the first time in recent strike, Ukraine claims". CNN. 13 February 2024.
  11. ^ Jump up to: a b "Hypersonic BrahMos-II missile may include tech from Tsirkon missile". Naval News. 2 August 2022.
  12. ^ "Counting the cost of deterrence: France's nuclear recapitalisation". IISS. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  13. ^ Wright, Timothy (1 May 2022). "Hypersonic Missile Proliferation: An Emerging European Problem?" (PDF). The EU Non-Proliferation Consortium. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  14. ^ "India to develop BrahMos-II missile". Brahmos.com.
  15. ^ "Hypersonic version of Brahmos on the way". The Times of India. 9 October 2011.
  16. ^ "India, Russia to develop new hypersonic cruise missile". Archived from the original on 28 June 2010. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
  17. ^ Philip, Snehesh Alex (12 June 2019). "DRDO test-fires futuristic missile tech, but its success is in doubt". ThePrint. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
  18. ^ "DRDO starts work on 'next-gen' hypersonic weapon". Hindustan Times. 20 October 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
  19. ^ "Sea Air Space 2021: Boeing Unveils New Hypersonic Cruise Missile Concept". 4 August 2021.
  20. ^ "US tested hypersonic missile in mid-March but kept it quiet to avoid escalating tensions with Russia | CNN Politics". CNN. 5 April 2022.
  21. ^ "Second Successful Flight for DARPA Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC)". DARPA. 4 May 2022.
  22. ^ "HALO programme accelerates US Navy hypersonic capability drive". 5 September 2022.
  23. ^ "FY18 Navy Programs – Offensive Anti-Surface Warfare (OASuW) Increment 1" (PDF). Director, Operational Test and Evaluation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2020.
  24. ^ "Raytheon/Northrop Grumman team selected for HACM hypersonic weapon". Janes.com. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  25. ^ "US Air Force Selects Raytheon Missiles & Defense, Northrop Grumman to Deliver First Hypersonic Air-Breathing Missile". Northrop Grumman Newsroom. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  26. ^ "Department of Defense Announces New Allied Prototyping Initiative Effort With Australia to Continue Partnership in Developing Air Breathing Hypersonic Vehicles". United States Department of Defense (Press release). 30 November 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  27. ^ Defence Minister Linda Reynolds (1 December 2020). "Australia collaborates with the US to develop and test high speed long-range hypersonic weapons". Department of Defence Ministers (Press release). Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  28. ^ "SCIFiRE Hypersonics". Royal Australian Air Force. 16 July 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  29. ^ "Contracts For Sept. 3, 2021". United States Department of Defence (Press release). 3 September 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  30. ^ "Contracts For Sept. 1, 2021". United States Department of Defence (Press release). 1 September 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  31. ^ "India now working on 1,500-km range BrahMos supersonic cruise missile". The Print. 24 November 2020. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
  32. ^ Janes – Perseus: MBDA's missile of the future? Archived 13 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  33. ^ "International Institute for Strategic Studies – IISS". Archived from the original on 28 June 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
  34. ^ Harding, Thomas (21 June 2011). "New British missile three times as fast as current weapons". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
  35. ^ "MBDA Systems" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2013.
  36. ^ "PARIS: Perseus set to go on the attack". Flightglobal.com. 22 June 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
  37. ^ (Retd.), Col Y. Udaya Chandar (2017). The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces. Notion Press. p. 314. ISBN 978-1-946983-79-4.
  38. ^ Chandar, Col. Y Udaya (2017). The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-946983-79-4.
  39. ^ "Nirbhay cruise missile test-fired; indigenous engine a success, say officials". 11 August 2021.
  40. ^ "Iran unveils new 'Paveh' cruise missile that can reach Israel". The Times of Israel. 25 February 2023.
  41. ^ "Iranian Air Force unveils Asef new cruise missile mounted on Su-24 bomber". 9 February 2023.
  42. ^ "Iran unveils long-range Hoveyzeh cruise missile". 2 February 2019.
  43. ^ "Description of the characteristics of 'Martyr Haj Qasem' and 'Martyr Abu Mahdi' missiles". 20 August 2020.
  44. ^ "Turkey one step closer to develop indigenous cruise missile - Naval News". 5 October 2020. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
  45. ^ Ümit Enginsoy (February 2012). "BUSINESS – Turkey aims to increase ballistic missile ranges". Hurriyetdailynews.com. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  46. ^ "Tübıta: Hedefimiz 2 bin 500 kilometre menzilli füze yapmak". Hurriyet.com.tr. 14 January 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  47. ^ "Türk Füzesi SOM İçin Geri Sayım Başladı – Haber – TRT Avaz". Trt.net.tr. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  48. ^ "FOTO: Caça F-5M voando com o míssil de cruzeiro MICLA-BR" (in Portuguese). Poder Aéreo. 1 October 2019.
  49. ^ "Ukraine Tests Advanced Subsonic Cruise Missile 'Neptune'". Defense World. 31 January 2018. Archived from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
  50. ^ "Yerli seyir füzesi, 180 kilometreden hedefini vuracak – Hürriyet Gündem". Hurriyet.com.tr. 4 June 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  51. ^ "Yerli seyir füzesi, 180 kilometreden hedefinin vuracak – Kirpi HABER Cesur | Özgür | Tarafsız Habercilik". Kirpihaber.com. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  52. ^ "Raytheon: Tomahawk Cruise Missile". www.raytheon.com. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  53. ^ "FY 2017 Program Acquisition Costs by Weapon System - Tactical Tomahawk Cruise Missile" (PDF). comptroller.defense.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2016.
  54. ^ "US missiles blast Syria; Trump demands 'end the slaughter'". AP News. 20 April 2021.
  55. ^ "Hatf 7 "Babur"".
  56. ^ Bommakanti, Kartik (4 December 2020). "China's Cruise Missile Capabilities: Implications for the Indian Army and Air Force". Observer Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  57. ^ "China Denies Testing Nuclear-Capable Hypersonic Cruise Missile". BBC News. 18 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  58. ^ Missile Defense Project, "Air-Sol Moyenne Portée (ASMP/ ASMP-A)", Missile Threat, Center for Strategic and International Studies, November 30, 2016, last modified June 15, 2018, https://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/asmp/ .
  59. ^ James O’Halloran, IHS Jane's Weapons: Strategic 2015-2016, 2015, (United Kingdom: IHS), 134-135.
  60. ^ Jump up to: a b "India successfully tests its first nuclear-capable cruise missile". The Times of India. 7 November 2017.
  61. ^ "Nuclear-capable Nirbhay cruise missile's test fails for the fourth time". The Times of India. 21 December 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  62. ^ Udaya Chandar, Y (2017). The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces. Notion Press. ISBN 9781946983794.
  63. ^ "Hatf 7 "Babur" – Missile Threat". CSIS.org. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
  64. ^ Panda, Ankit; Parameswaran, Prashanth. "South Asian Strategic Stability and Pakistan's Babur-3 Submarine-Launched Cruise Missile". The Diplomat. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  65. ^ "Pakistan announces cruise missile success". BBC News. 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  66. ^ Panda, Ankit. "Pakistan Tests An Indigenously Developed Anti-Ship Cruise Missile". The Diplomat. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
  67. ^ Haider, Mateen (9 April 2016). "Pakistan Navy inducts coastal anti-ship 'Zarb' missile after successful test". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  68. ^ "Nirbhay: Nuclear-capable Nirbhay cruise missile's test fails for the fourth time | India News - Times of India". The Times of India. 21 December 2016.
  69. ^ Mason, Shane. "Pakistan's Babur and Ra'ad Cruise Missiles: Strategic Implications for India". Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  70. ^ "Kh-101 – Russian and Soviet Nuclear Forces". Fas.org. Retrieved 13 February 2012.
  71. ^ Arkin, William (May 1983). "Soviet Cruise Missile Programs". Arms Control Today. 13 (4): 3–4. JSTOR 23623103.
  72. ^ "Cruise missile career comes to a close". U.S. Air Force, Tinker Air Force Base public affairs. 24 April 2012. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2012.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cruise_missile&oldid=1235471271"