Mirrors for princes

Mirrors for princes or mirrors of princes (Latin: specula principum) was a literary genre of didactic political writings throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was part of the broader speculum or mirror literature genre.

The Latin term speculum regum appears as early as the 12th century and may have been used even earlier. It may have developed from the popular speculum literature popular from the 12th to 16th century, focusing on knowledge of a particular subject matter.

These texts most frequently take the form of textbooks for the instruction of kings, princes, or lesser rulers on successful governance and behaviour. The term is also used for histories or literary works presenting model images of good and bad kings. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to power. One could view them as a species of prototypical self-help book or study of leadership before the concept of a "leader" became more generalised than the concept of a monarchical head-of-state.^[1]

One of the earliest works was written by Sedulius Scottus (fl. 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem (c. 9th century). Possibly the best known European "mirror" is The Prince (c. 1513) by Niccolò Machiavelli, although this was not the most typical example.

Antiquity

Sumer

Instructions of Shuruppak (Early 3rd millennium BC)

Egypt

Ptahhotep, The Maxims of Ptahhotep (2375–2350 BC)
Kheti III, Teaching for King Merykara (c. 2150 BC)
Kheti the Scribe, Instructions of Amenemhat (c. 1971 BC), a guide-poem on kingship for Senusret I, the son of the former Pharaoh Amenemhat I.
Amenemope, Son of Kanakht, Instruction of Amenemope (c. 1100 BC)

Indian

Vishnu Sharma, Panchatantra (Between 200 BC and 300 AD)
Chanakya, Arthashastra (Between 200 BC and 300 AD)
Narayan Pandit, Hitopdesha (c. 770 – 860 AD)
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, "Budhbhushan" (c. 1670 – 1680 AD)

Greek and Roman

Plato, Republic (375 BC)
Xenophon, The Education of Cyrus (c. 370 BC)
Aristotle, Politics (c. mid-4th century BC)
Isocrates, To Nicocles and Evagoras
Philodemus, The Good King According to Homer
Dio Chrysostom, The First Discourse on Kingship and The Second Discourse on Kingship and The Third Discourse on Kingship and The Fourth Discourse on Kingship
Cicero, De Officiis (44 BC)
Seneca, De Clementia (55–56 AD)
Plutarch, Moralia (c. 100 AD)
Pliny the Younger, Panegyric of Trajan (100 AD)
Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine may be a mirror for princes. This text's precise genre, audience, and aims has been a subject of scholarly controversy. (c. 339 AD)
Ambrose, De officiis ministrorum (c. 391 AD) although the book is for clergy, many of its lessons can be applied to secular lords due to its inspiration and criticism of Cicero's original.
Augustine of Hippo, The City of God, Book V, chapter 24, "The true felicity of Christian Emperors." (c. 413–426 AD)
Salvian, De gubernatione Dei (439–451 AD)

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

Pope Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule (590 AD) Although dedicated to clergy, lessons may also apply to nobles.
Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks (late 6th century) which warns against internal strife.
De duodecim abusivis saeculi, 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a Hiberno-Latin treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent.

Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include:

Cathwulf, Epistolae (775) written for Charlemagne.
Paulinus of Aquileia, Liber exhortationis (795), for Count Heiric of Friuli.
Alcuin, De virtutibus et vitiis (c. 799–800), written for Count Wido of Brittany.
Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel, Via regia (813), arguably the first true European mirror for princes, dedicated to Louis the Pious, when king of Aquitania.
Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni (c. 814) which promotes Charlemagne's reign as something for other rulers to aspire to.
Jonas of Orléans, De Institutione Laicali (818–828), (originally) written for Count Matfrid of Orléans.
Jonas of Orléans, De Institutione Regia (c. 831), written for Pepin I of Aquitaine, apparently on the basis of a council at Orléans.^[2]
Agobard of Lyons, his letters, A Comparison of Ecclesiastical and Political Government and Wherein the Dignity of the Church Outshines the Majesty of Empires and the Liber Apologeticus. (833 AD)
Dhuoda, (841–843) Liber manualis, written for her son William.
Sedulius Scottus, De rectoribus christianis 'On Christian rulers' (c. 855–9), addressed to King Lothar II of Lotharingia.
Hincmar of Reims, De regis persona 'The Person of the King'
Hincmar of Reims, De ordine palatii 'On the management of the palace' (882), which sets out the moral duties of a king and includes an account of the organisation of the palace.

Irish texts

see De duodecim abusivis saeculi above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures.
Audacht Morainn ('The Testament of Morann'), written c. 700, an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'.^[3] The legendary wise judge Morann Mac Máin is said to have sent advice to Feradach Finnfechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara.^[4]
Tecosca Cormaic, 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker Cormac mac Airt is made to instruct his son Cairbre Lifechair about a variety of matters.
Bríatharthecosc Con Culainn 'The precept-instruction of Cúchulainn' (interpolated in Serglige Con Culainn), addressed to Lugaid Réoderg.
Tecosc Cuscraid 'The instruction of Cuscraid'
Senbríathra Fithail 'The ancient precepts of Fíthal'
Briathra Flainn Fína 'The Sayings of Flann Fína'^[5]

High Middle Ages

Stephen I of Hungary, Admonitions (1010s), written for his son and heir presumptive Saint Emeric.
John of Salisbury, Policraticus = 'The Statesman's Book' (1159).
Godfrey of Viterbo, Speculum regum (c. 1183), dedicated to his Staufian imperial patrons, father Frederick Barbarossa and son Henry VI.
Pseudo-Plutarch, Institutio Traiani (first quoted in John of Salisbury's Policraticus).
Gerald of Wales, De instructione principis (c. 1193)
Jean de Limoges, Somnium morale Pharaonis (c. 1234–60), written for Thibaut IV or Thibaut V
Juan de Soria, Chronica latina regum Castellae (1239 AD) for use as a mirror for princes and to defend the rights of Castile against Leon.
Konungs skuggsjá or Speculum regale, (c. 1250) Norwegian treatise originally written for King Magnús lagabœtir.
Vincent of Beauvais, De eruditione filiorum nobilium = 'On the Education of Noble Children' (c. 1250).
Guibert of Tournai, Eruditio regum et principum = 'The Education of Kings and Princes' (1259), written for Louis IX.^[6]
Guibert of Tournai, De modo addiscendi = 'On the Method of Learning' (c. 1260) written for John de Dampierre, provost of Bruges, son of Guy of Flanders.
Thomas Aquinas, De regno (c. 1260), often conflated with the De regimine principum of Ptolemy of Lucca
Vincent de Beauvais, De morali principis institutione = 'On the Moral Instruction of the Prince' (c. 1262), probably written for Louis IX.^[7]^[8]
William Peraldus, De eruditione principum = 'On the Education of Princes' (c. 1265), formerly attributed to Thomas Aquinas.
Brunetto Latini, Li livres dou trésor (1266), written for Charles of Anjou.
Giles of Rome, De regimine principum = 'On the Rule of Princes' (c. 1278), written for Philip the Fair.

Late Middle Ages

Engelbert of Admont, Speculum virtutum moralium (c. 1310), written for Otto, Duke of Austria and Albert II, Duke of Austria
Paolino Veneto, Trattato de regimine rectoris (1313×1315), written for the Marino Badoer, duke of Crete
William of Pagula, Speculum regis, written for Edward III of England (c. 1331).
Don Juan Manuel, Tales of Count Lucanor (1335).
Don Juan Manuel, Libro Infinido o Libro de Castigos et de Consejos (1336–37)
Alvarus Pelagius, Speculum regum (1340s), written for Alfonso XI of Castile.^[9]
Um styrilsi kununga ok höfþinga (1350s), Old Swedish treatise
The III Consideracions Right Necesserye to the Good Governaunce of a Prince (c. 1350), a translation of a French treatise from 1347, intended for King John II of France.^[10]
Philip of Leyden, De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler") (c. 1355), dedicated to William V of Holland
Evrart de Trémaugon, Le songe du verger (1376).
Der Fürsten reget, (c. 1370–1380) dedicated to William, Duke of Austria
Christine de Pizan, Epistre Othea a Hector (c. 1400), Livre du corps de policie (1407), Livre de la paix (between 1412 and 1414).
Pierre Salmon, Dialogues (1409, rev. 1412/15), dedicated to Charles VI of France
Thomas Hoccleve, De regimine principum (early 1410s) written for Henry V of England.
Duarte of Portugal, Leal Conselheiro (1438), a practical manual of ethical guidance for the nobility of Portugal.
John Ireland, The Meroure of Wysedome, (1490) written for James IV of Scotland.
Phillipus de Bergamo, Spiegel der regyrunge (15th century) translated into middle German
Eyn kurz ordenunge in gemeyne allen den die da regieren huß, dorffere oder stede, (15th century) short text written on how to rule a household, village or city
Von der regeronge der stede, (15th century) text written on how to govern a city

Renaissance

John Skelton, Speculum principis (1501), lost work written for the then future Henry VIII. A copy of this treatise, which may not be entirely the same as that presented to Henry, resides with the British Museum.^[11]
Erasmus, Institutio principis Christiani 'Education of a Christian Prince' (1516), written as advice to King Charles of Spain (the later Charles V).
Martin Luther. On Secular Authority (1523), a letter dedicated to John, Elector of Saxony
Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528), based on experiences of the courts of Urbino.
Antonio de Guevara, Relox de príncipes (1529), inspired by and dedicated to Charles V, a bestseller of its times, translated during the 16th century to English, Latin, Italian, German, French and Dutch.
Justus Menius, Oeconomia christiana (1529), dedicated to Sibylle of Cleves for a right ordering of a Christian Lutheran household
Machiavelli, Il Principe (c. 1513, published in 1532).
George Buchanan, De iure regni apud Scotos (1579), a work in the form of a Socratic dialogue on ideal kingship dedicated to the young James VI of Scotland
Giovanni Botero, The Reason of State (1589), a criticism of Machiavelli's Prince.
Johann Damgaard, Alithia (1597), written for the young Danish monarch King Christian IV.^[12]
Juan de Mariana, De rege et regis institutione (Toledo, 1598); The King and the Education of the King
James VI of Scotland, Basilikon Doron (1599) written as a gift to his eldest son.
Francisco de Quevedo, La política de Dios, y gobierno de Cristo (1617–1626) The Politics of God and the Government of Christ
Hugo Grotius, De jure belli ac pacis (1625) dedicated to Louis XIII of France
John Gauden, Eikon Basilike (1649) published after Charles I of England was beheaded.

Enlightenment

John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693 AD)
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture (1709 AD) dedicated to the future Louis XV of France.
Frederick II of Prussia, Anti-Machiavel (1740 AD) a critique of Machiavelli's Prince.
Frederick II of Prussia, Letter addressed to his nephew, Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg (6 February 1744 AD)^[13]
Montesquieu, The Spirit of Law (1748 AD)

Modern

Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution (1867) studied by generations of British monarchs for its insight on their role in a constitutional monarchy.

Byzantine texts

Synesius, Bishop of Cyrene, De regno, speech delivered to emperor Arcadius.
Agapetus the deacon, speech delivered to emperor Justinian I. (c. 530s)
Basil I the Macedonian, Admonitory chapters I and II to his son emperor Leo VI the Wise
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, De Administrando Imperio, a domestic and foreign policy manual for the use of Constantine's son and successor, the Emperor Romanos II. (948–952)
Kekaumenos, Strategikon (1075/1078), chapters 77 – 91.
Archbishop Theophylact of Ohrid, Paideia Basilike (Lat. Institutio Regia) (c. 1088), addressed to his pupil Constantine Doukas, son of Emperor Michael VII Doukas.
Spaneas or Didaskalia Parainetike, modelled on the Isocratean Ad Demonicum (12th century)
Nikephoros Blemmydes, Andrias Basilikos (Lat. Regia statua, "Statue of a King"), written for Theodore II Laskaris, the future Nicaean emperor (c. 1250)
Thomas Magistros, La regalita addressed to Andronikos II Palaiologos. (14th century)
Manuel II Palaiologos, Paideia Regia dedicated to his son, John VIII Palaiologos. (15th century)

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

Ewen-Nāmag ("Book of Rules"): On the Sasanian manners, customs, skills, and arts, sciences, etc. ^[14] (Between 3rd and 7th century AD)
Andarz literature.^[15] (Between 3rd and 7th century AD)

Islamic texts

Abd al-Hamid al-Katib, letter to Abdallah son of the Umayyad caliph Marwan II (c. 750)
Ibn al-Muqaffa, Kalila wa Dimna (c. 750)
Abu Yahya ibn al-Batriq (d. 815) Sirr al-Asrar (سر الأسرار) 'Secretum Secretorum'
Al-Farabi (c. 872–950), Fusul al-Madani 'Aphorisms of a Statesman'^[16]
Abu'l-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Maghribi (981–1027), Kitab fi'l-si'yasa^[17]
Al-Tha'alibi (d. 1038), Ādāb al-mulūk
Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik (fl.1053, Damascus), Mukhtār al-Hikam wa-Maḥāsin al-Kalim (مختار الحكم ومحاسن الكلم) 'Selected Maxims and Aphorisms'
Qabus nama (1082) – a Persian example of the genre
Nizam al-Mulk, Siyāset-nāmeh 'Book of Government' (c. 1090) (Persian)
Al-Imam al-Hadrami (d. 1095) – Kitâb al-Ishâra
Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), Nasihat al-muluk 'Counsel to Princes' (Persian)
Al-Ghazali (1105 AD/499AH), Alchemy of Happiness, Book XXI, Part Three, 'Disciplining the Self'
Yusuf Balasaghuni, Kutadgu Bilig (11th century)
At-Turtushi, Siraj al-Muluk 'The Lamp of Kings' (c. 1121)
Ibn Ẓafar al-Ṣiqillī's (12th century) Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'udwan al-atba 'Consolation for the Ruler during the Hostility of Subjects'; published in English (1852) as, Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort^[18]^[19]
Bahr Al-Fava'id 'Sea of (Precious) Virtues', compiled in the 12th century.^[20]
Ibn Arabi, Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah) (1194–1201 AD/590-598AH)
Saadi's Gulistan, chapter I, "The Manners of Kings", (1258, Persian).
Hussain Vaiz Kashifi's Aklhaq i Muhsini (composed in Persian AH 900/ AD 1495), translated into English as "The Morals of the Beneficent" in the mid 19th century by Henry George Keene
Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha'rani (1540s AD/946AH) "Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs"
Lütfi Pasha Asafname (Mid-16th century)
Muhammad al-Baqir Najm-I Sani, Mau‘izah-i Jahangiri 'Admonition of Jahāngír' or 'Advice on the art of governance' (1612–1613).^[21]

Slavonic texts

Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople, letter addressed to Boris I of Bulgaria (867 AD)
Poucheniye (Instruction) of Vladmir Monomakh to his children (1120s).
Izmaragd (c. 14th century) moral guide and education for children
Patriarch Antony IV of Constantinople, letter to Vasily I of Moscow (1393).
Domostroy (c. 15th century)
Neagoe Basarab (1512–1521), The teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie, one of the earliest literary works in Wallachia
Mikhail Lomonosov, (1760) Panegyric to the Sovereign Emperor, Peter the Great

Chinese texts

Ancient

Tao Te Ching – Lao Tzu Chinese philosopher (Can be interpreted as a mystical text, philosophical text, or political treatise on rulership) (late 4th century BC)
Mencius – moral advice for a ruler (late 4th century BC)
Han Fei Zi – Legalist text advice for a ruler and the art of statecraft (mid-3rd century BC) dedicated to Qin Shi Huang
The Book of Lord Shang (Multiple authors spanning centuries, starting from c. 330 BC) text advice useful for a ruler and statecraft
Shizi (c. 330 BC) particularly section 15, The Ruler's Governance

Imperial dynasties

Han dynasty

Lu Jia (c. 200 BC) Xin Yu 新语 ("New Discourses"), treatise on why empires rise and fall.
Ban Biao (c. 50 AD) Book of Han, Volume 23, Treatise on Punishment and Law
Ban Biao (c. 50 AD) Treatise on the Mandate of Kings (王命論) covers the concept of sovereignty that would influence later Chinese texts.

Tang dynasty

Ouyang Xun (624 AD) Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 ("Classified collection based on the Classics and other literature")
Kong Yingda (642 AD) Wujing Zhengyi 五經正義 ("Correct Meaning of the Five Classics")
Liu Zhi (7th century AD) Zhengdian 政典 ("Manual of politics"), a political encyclopaedia useful for young boys taking the Imperial Examination

Song dynasty

Ouyang Xiu (1060 AD) New Book of Tang, carries a treatise on how to select and appoint officials.
Sima Guang (1084 AD) Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance)
Zhu Xi (1172 AD) Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu
Zheng Qiao (12th century) Tongzhi 通治 ("Comprehensive Treatise on Government")

Ming dynasty

Zhu Yuanzhang (1373 AD) Huang-Ming Zuxun

Qing dynasty

Huang Zongxi (1661–62 AD) Waiting for the Dawn

In popular culture

Mirrors For Princes is the name of a 2010 cinematic work by Lior Shamriz. Parts of the text were based on the Instructions of Shuruppak and other Sumerian literature.^[22]

References

^ Compare: Wilson, Suze; Cummings, Stephen; Jackson, Brad; Proctor-Thomson, Sarah (2017). Revitalising Leadership: Putting Theory and Practice into Context. Routledge Studies in Leadership Research. Routledge. ISBN 9781317418122. Retrieved 2017-10-22. Monarchy was then the most common form of governance in Europe, and the truth about leadership could be found in a genre of books known as 'mirrors for princes' [...].
^ A. Dubreucq (ed.), Jonas d'Orléans, Le métier du roi (De institutione regia). Sources Chrétiennes 407. Paris, 1995. pp. 45–9.
^ Rob Meens. "Politics, mirrors of princes and the Bible: sins, kings and the well-being of the realm." Early Medieval Europe 7.3 (1998): 352
^ Kelly, Fergus, ed. (1976). Audacht Morainn. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0901282677.
^ Ireland, Colin A., ed. (1999). Old Irish Wisdom Attributed to Aldfrith of Northumbria: An Edition of Bríathra Flainn Fhína Maic Ossu. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. ISBN 0866982477.
^ Guibert de Tournai (1914). de Poorter, A. (ed.). Le traité Eruditio regum et principum de Guibert de Tournai : étude critique et texte inédit. Louvain.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Vincent de Beauvais (1995). Schneider, Robert J. (ed.). De morali principis institutione. Turnhout: Brepols.
^ Schneider, Robert J.; Rouse, Richard H. (January 1991). "The Medieval Circulation of the De morali principis institutione of Vincent of Beauvais". Viator. 22: 189–228. doi:10.1484/j.viator.2.301322. ISSN 0083-5897.
^ M. Pinto de Mencses (ed.). Espelho dos Reis por Alvaro Pais. Lisbon, 1955.
^ Jean-Philippe Genet (ed.). Four English Political Tracts of the Later Middle Ages Camden Society, 4th ser. 18 (1977). 177-9.
^ Salter, F.M. "Skelton's Speculum Principis" Speculum 9 (1934): 25–37
^ Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian (ed.). Alithia. Et dansk fyrstespejl til Christian IV. UJDS-Studier 14. Copenhagen, 2003.
^ "Mirror for Princes".
^ "Āīn-nāmā". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
^ "Andarz". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
^ Dunlop, D.M. (tr.). Fusul al-Madani: Aphorisms of the Statesman. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications. Cambridge, 1961.
^ Bosworth, C.E. (1998). "al-Maghribī, al-Ḥusayn ibnʿAlī". In Meisami, Julie Scott; Starkey, Paul (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 2: L–Z, Chronological Tables, Index. Routledge. p. 488. ISBN 0-415-18572-6.
^ Michele Amari (1852) Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort by Ibn Zafer, vol.1.
^ Michele Amari (1852) Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort by Ibn Zafer, vol.2
^ Meisami, Julie Scott (tr.). Sea of Precious Virtues. Salt Lake City, 1991.
^ Sajida Sultana Alvi. Advice on the art of governance. An Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes. State University of New York Press. 1989.
^ "Mirrors For Princes (2010): Torino Film Festival". 29 September 2023.