Jump to content

Polytheism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Egyptian gods in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Part of a series on
Theism
Types of faith
Specific conceptions
In particular religions
Attributes
  • Experiences
  • Practices
Related topics

Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than one god.[1][2][3] According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese Folk Religions, is really so, or whether the apparent different objects of worship are to be thought of as manifestations of a singular divinity.[1] Polytheistic belief is usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God who is, in most cases, transcendent.

In religions that accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses may be representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles; they can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator deity or transcendental absolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies).[4] Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally; they can be in monolatrists or kathenotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular deity only or at certain times (respectively).

The recognition of the existence of multiple gods and goddesses does not necessarily equate to the worship of all the deities of one or more pantheons, as the believer can either worship them as a whole, or concentrate only on a specific group of deities, determined by various conditions such as the believer's occupation, tastes, personal experience, family tradition, etc. It is also possible to worship a single deity, considered supreme, without ruling out the existence of other gods. This religious position has been called henotheism, but some prefer to call it monolatry. Although the term "henotheism" is controversial, it is recognized by scholars that the worship of a single God accompanied by belief in other deities maintains the principle of polytheism.[5]

Polytheism was the typical form of religion before the development and spread of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which enforce monotheism. It is well documented throughout history, from prehistory and the earliest records of ancient Egyptian religion and ancient Mesopotamian religion to the religions prevalent during Classical antiquity, such as ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and in ethnic religions such as Germanic, Slavic, and Baltic paganism and Native American religions. Notable polytheistic religions practiced today include Taoism, Shenism or Chinese folk religion, Japanese Shinto, Santería, most Traditional African religions,[6] and various neopagan faiths such as Wicca.

Hinduism, while popularly held as polytheistic, cannot be exclusively categorised as such as some Hindus consider themselves to be pantheists, panentheists, henotheist, polymorphist, monotheists or monist. They are compatible with Hindu texts, since there exists no consensus of standardisation in the faith. Vedanta, the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of pantheism/panentheism and polytheism, holding that Brahman is the sole ultimate reality of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping the innumerable deities that represent the Supreme Absolute Truth. Hindus who practice Bhakti ultimately believe in one God, who is known variously as Paramatman, Parabrahman, Bhagavan, Ishvara, and so on, that transcends all categories (e.g. both of form and formless). Even though God is one, God manifests in infinite forms to help His/Her devotees realise Him/Her, and this is not to be confused with the belief that there are multiple Gods/Goddesses; this can be referred to as Polymorphic Monotheism.

Terminology[edit]

The term comes from the Greek πολύ poly ("many") and θεός theos ("god") and was coined by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were just called Gentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to non-Jews) or pagans (locals) or by the clearly pejorative term idolaters (worshippers of "false" gods). In modern times, the term polytheism was first revived in French by Jean Bodin in 1580, followed by Samuel Purchas's usage in English in 1614.[7]

Soft versus hard[edit]

See also: Interpretatio graeca

A major division in modern polytheistic practices is between so-called soft polytheism and hard polytheism.[8][9]

"Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychological archetypes, personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through the lenses of different cultures (e.g. Odin, Zeus, and Indra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known as omnitheism.[10] In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures.[9]

"Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may also reject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether.[9]

Gods and divinity[edit]

Bulul statues serve as avatars of rice deities in the Anitist beliefs of the Ifugao in the Philippines.

The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories, in many ways similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights, and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

Types of deities[edit]

Further information: List of deities

Types of deities often found in polytheism may include:

Religion and mythology[edit]

Main article: Religion and mythology

In the Classical era, 4th century CE Neoplatonist Sallustius categorized mythology into five types:[11]

  1. Theological: myths that contemplate the essence of the gods, such as Cronus swallowing his children, which Sallustius regarded as expressing in allegory the essence of divinity
  2. Physical: expressing the activities of gods in the world
  3. Psychological: myths as allegories of the activities of the soul itself or the soul's acts of thought
  4. Material: regarding material objects as gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, the ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon
  5. Mixed

The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology",[12][unreliable source?] though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished[according to whom?] from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating the distinction within the religion between belief and practice.[citation needed] Scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, and Douglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancient Proto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalist numenistic religion.[citation needed] An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several religious systems of Indo-European-speaking peoples.

Ancient and historical religions[edit]

Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods, the Egyptian gods, the pantheon attested in Classical Antiquity (in ancient Greek and Roman religion), the Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, and the Aztec gods.

In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or other places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of a culture's pantheon to that of the invaders, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the Æsir–Vanir war in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being revered in two places under different names, as seen with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the cultural transmission of elements of an extraneous religion, as with the ancient Egyptian deity Osiris, who was later worshipped in ancient Greece.

Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were incorruptible but material, blissful beings who inhabited the empty spaces between worlds and did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep.

Ancient Greece[edit]

Main article: Religion in ancient Greece
Procession of the Twelve Olympians

The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of the Twelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were:[13][14] Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia. Though it is suggested that Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was invited to Mount Olympus, this is a matter of controversy. Robert Graves' The Greek Myths cites two sources[15][16] that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did. Hades[17] was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. All of the gods had a power. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to whom was counted among their number in antiquity.[18] Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.

Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Greek religion tempered Etruscan cult and belief to form much of the later Roman religion. During the Hellenistic Era, philosophical schools like Epicureanism developed distinct theologies.[19] Hellenism is, in practice, primarily centered around polytheistic and animistic worship.

Folk religions[edit]

Main article: Folk religion
Further information: Saint, Angel, Folk Catholicism, and Shamanism

The majority of so-called "folk religions" in the world today (distinguished from traditional ethnic religions) are found in the Asia-Pacific region.[20] This fact conforms to the trend of the majority of polytheist religions being found outside the western world.[21]

Folk religions are often closely tied to animism. Animistic beliefs are found in historical and modern cultures. Folk beliefs are often labeled superstitions when they are present in monotheistic societies.[22] Folk religions often do not have organized authorities, also known as priesthoods, or any formal sacred texts.[23] They often coincide with other religions as well. Abrahamic monotheistic religions, which dominate the western world, typically do not approve of practicing parts of multiple religions, but folk religions often overlap with others.[22] Followers of polytheistic religions do not often problematize following practices and beliefs from multiple religions.

Modern religions[edit]

Further information: Theology, Pantheon (gods), Euhemerism, Interpretatio graeca, Demigod, and Apotheosis

Buddhism[edit]

Further information: God in Buddhism, Deva (Buddhism), and Nontheism § Buddhism

Depending on the type of Buddhism practiced, it may be seen as polytheistic as it at least acknowledges the existence of multiple gods. The Buddha is a leader figure but is not meant to be worshipped as a god. Devas, a Sanskrit word for gods, are also not meant to be worshipped. They are not immortal and have limited powers. They may have been humans who had positive karma in their life and were reborn as a deva.[24] A common Buddhist practice is tantra, which is the use of rituals to achieve enlightenment. Tantra focuses on seeing yourself as a deity, and the use of deities as symbols rather than supernatural agents.[25] Buddhism is most closely aligned with polytheism when it is linked with other religions, often folk religions. For example, the Japanese Shinto religion, in which deities called kami are worshipped, is sometimes mixed with Buddhism.[26]

Christianity[edit]

See also: God in Christianity and Trinity

Although Christianity is usually described as a monotheistic religion,[27][28] it is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the Trinity.[29] The Trinity believes that God consists of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Because the deity is three persons, some people believe Christianity should be considered a form of Tritheism or Polytheism.[30][31] Christians contend that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance,"[32] but that a deity cannot be a person, who has one individual identity. Christianity inherited the idea of one God from Judaism, and maintains that its monotheistic doctrine is central to the faith.

It is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the Trinity

Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism to be the normal state in human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'veneration' of the saints." On the other hand, he complains, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see a proto-monotheism or at least henotheism in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it the King of Heaven, as Matteo Ricci did.[33] In 1508, a London Lollard named William Pottier was accused of believing in six gods.[34]

Mormonism[edit]

Further information: God in Mormonism

Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying "I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods".[35] Mormonism, which emerged from Protestantism, [36] teaches exaltation defined as the idea that people can become like god in the afterlife.[37] Mormonism also affirms the existence of a Heavenly Mother,[38] and the prevailing view among Mormons is that God the Father was once a man who lived on a planet with his own higher God, and who became perfect after following this higher God.[39][40] Some critics of Mormonism argue that statements in the Book of Mormon describe a trinitarian conception of God (e.g. 2 Nephi 31:21; Alma 11:44), but were superseded by later revelations.[41] Due to teachings within Mormon cosmology, some theologians claim that it allows for an infinite number of gods.[42][43][44][45][46][47]

Mormons teach that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a oneness of purpose, not of substance.[48] They believe that the early Christian church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as Neoplatonism) into Christian doctrine.[49][50] Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God,[51] who is the literal Father of the spirits of humans.[52] It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as He is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Christ's teaching that those who receive God's word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33–36), because as literal children of God they can take upon themselves His divine attributes.[53] Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are also divine.[54]

Hinduism[edit]

Further information: Hindu views on monotheism

Hinduism is not a monolithic religion: a wide variety of religious traditions and practices are grouped together under this umbrella term and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "Hinduisms" in the plural.[55] Theistic Hinduism encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures.

Hindus venerate deities in the form of the pratima, or idol. The Puja (worship) of the pratima is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, there are sects who have advocated that there is no need of giving a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond the things which human can see or feel tangibly. Especially the Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Brahmo Samaj founded by Ram Mohan Roy (there are others also) do not worship deities. Arya Samaj favours Vedic chants and Havan, while Brahmo Samaj stresses simple prayers.[citation needed]

Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence.[citation needed] This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.

Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others.

Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four of them propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be, and is often approached through worship of Prathimas, called "Archa-Vigraha", which are described in the Vedas as identical with His various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology.

The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by Adi Shankaracharya, promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, without will, without thought, without intelligence.

In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities [citation needed] with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, and Kali, but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being".[citation needed] However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in the form of the Atman.

Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. Ram Swarup, for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic,[56] and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness."[57] Sita Ram Goel, another 20th-century Hindu historian, wrote:

"I had an occasion to read the typescript of a book [Ram Swarup] had finished writing in 1973. It was a profound study of Monotheism, the central dogma of both Islam and Christianity, as well as a powerful presentation of what the monotheists denounce as Hindu Polytheism. I had never read anything like it. It was a revelation to me that Monotheism was not a religious concept but an imperialist idea. I must confess that I myself had been inclined towards Monotheism till this time. I had never thought that a multiplicity of Gods was the natural and spontaneous expression of an evolved consciousness."[58]

Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. The Rig Veda, the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows:

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda[59]

Zoroastrianism[edit]

See also: Criticism of Zoroastrianism § Polytheism

Ahura Mazda is the supreme god, but Zoroastrianism does not deny other deities. Ahura Mazda has yazatas ("good agents") some of which include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya. Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of Pre-Islamic era worshiped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita.[60]

Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".[61] Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".[62]

Tengrism[edit]

See also: Turkic mythology, Mongol mythology, and Mongolian shamanism

The nature of Tengrism remains debatable. According to many scholars, Tengrism was originally polytheistic, but a monotheistic branch with the sky god Kök-Tengri as the supreme being evolved as a dynastical legitimation. It is at least agreed that Tengrism formed from the diverse folk religions of the local people and may have had diverse branches.[63][64][65]

It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles, [66][67][68] and, perhaps, only by the 12th–13th centuries (a late form of development of ancient animistic shamanism in the era of the Mongol empire).[69]

According to Jean-Paul Roux, the monotheistic concept evolved later out of a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...".[70]

Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, the sky deity, of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism.[71]

The term also describes several contemporary Turko-Mongolic native religious movements and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists.[72]

Modern Paganism[edit]

Modern Paganism, also known as neopaganism and contemporary paganism,[73] is a group of contemporary religious movements influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe.[74][75] Although they have commonalities, contemporary pagan religious movements are diverse and no single set of beliefs, practices, or texts are shared by them all.[76]

Founder of Wicca Gerald Gardner helped to revive ancient polytheism.[77][78] English occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of soft polytheism. In her novel The Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator."[79]

Reconstructionism[edit]

Main article: Polytheistic reconstructionism

Reconstructionist polytheists apply scholarly disciplines such as history, archaeology and language study to revive ancient, traditional religions that have been fragmented, damaged or even destroyed, such as Norse Paganism, Roman and Celtic. A reconstructionist endeavors to revive and reconstruct an authentic practice, based on the ways of the ancestors but workable in contemporary life. These polytheists sharply differ from neopagans in that they consider their religion not only as inspired by historical religions but in many cases as a continuation or revival of those religions.[80][self-published source?]

Wicca[edit]

Main article: Wicca

Wicca is a duotheistic faith created by Gerald Gardner that allows for polytheism.[81][82][83] Wiccans specifically worship the Lord and Lady of the Isles (their names are oathbound).[82][83][84][85] It is an orthopraxic mystery religion that requires initiation to the priesthood in order to consider oneself Wiccan.[82][83][86] Wicca emphasizes duality and the cycle of nature.[82][83][87]

Serer[edit]

Main articles: Serer religion, Timeline of Serer history, and States headed by ancient Serer Lamanes

In Africa, polytheism in Serer religion dates to the Neolithic Era or possibly earlier, when the ancient ancestors of the Serer people represented their Pangool on the Tassili n'Ajjer.[88] [dubious – discuss] The supreme creator deity in Serer religion is Roog. However, there are many deities[89] and Pangool (singular : Fangool, the interceders with the divine) in Serer religion.[88] Each one has its own purpose and serves as Roog's agent on Earth.[89] Amongst the Cangin speakers, a sub-group of the Serers, Roog is known as Koox.[90]

Use as a term of abuse[edit]

The term "polytheist" is sometimes used by Sunni Muslim extremist groups such as Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as a derogatory reference to Shiite Muslims, whom they view as having "strayed from Islam's monotheistic creed because of the reverence they show for historical figures, like Imam Ali".[91]

Professor Paul Vitz, an opponent of Selfism [sic], viewed America as a "most polytheistic nation".[92]

Polydeism[edit]

Deism
Origins
Movements
Notable figures
False equivalencies
Opposition

Polydeism (from the Greek πολύ poly ("many") and Latin deus meaning god) is a portmanteau referencing a polytheistic form of deism, encompassing the belief that the universe was the collective creation of multiple gods, each of whom created a piece of the universe or multiverse and then ceased to intervene in its evolution. This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in deism, that a monotheistic God created the universe, but now expresses no apparent interest in it, by supposing that if the universe is the construct of many gods, none of them would have an interest in the universe as a whole.

Creighton University Philosophy professor William O. Stephens,[93] who has taught this concept, suggests that C. D. Broad projected this concept[94] in Broad's 1925 article, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God".[95] Broad noted that the arguments for the existence of God only tend to prove that "a designing mind had existed in the past, not that it does exist now. It is quite compatible with this argument that God should have died long ago, or that he should have turned his attention to other parts of the Universe", and notes in the same breath that "there is nothing in the facts to suggest that there is only one such being".[96] Stephens contends that Broad, in turn, derived the concept from David Hume. Stephens states:

David Hume's criticisms of the argument from design include the argument that, for all we know, a committee of very powerful, but not omnipotent, divine beings could have collaborated in creating the world, but then afterwards left it alone or even ceased to exist. This would be polydeism.

This use of the term appears to originate at least as early as Robert M. Bowman Jr.'s 1997 essay, Apologetics from Genesis to Revelation.[97] Bowman wrote:

Materialism (illustrated by the Epicureans), represented today by atheism, skepticism, and deism. The materialist may acknowledge superior beings, but they do not believe in a Supreme Being. Epicureanism was founded about 300 BC by Epicurus. Their world view might be called "polydeism:" there are many gods, but they are merely superhuman beings; they are remote, uninvolved in the world, posing no threat and offering no hope to human beings. Epicureans regarded traditional religion and idolatry as harmless enough as long as the gods were not feared or expected to do or say anything.

Sociologist Susan Starr Sered used the term in her 1994 book, Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women, which includes a chapter titled, "No Father in Heaven: Androgyny and Polydeism". She writes that she has "chosen to gloss on 'polydeism' a range of beliefs in more than one supernatural entity".[98] Sered used this term in a way that would encompass polytheism, rather than exclude much of it, as she intended to capture both polytheistic systems and nontheistic systems that assert the influence of "spirits or ancestors".[98] This use of the term, however, does not accord with the historical misuse of deism as a concept to describe an absent creator god.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b "Polytheism". Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  2. ^ "Polytheism". Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  3. ^ "Polytheism". Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
  4. ^ Ulrich Libbrecht. Within the Four Seas...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Peeters Publishers, 2007. ISBN 9042918128. p. 42.
  5. ^ "Monotheism - Polytheism, Dualism, Henotheism". Britannica. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
  6. ^ Kimmerle, Heinz (11 April 2006). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. 2 (2): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  7. ^ Schmidt, Francis (1987). The Inconceivable Polytheism: Studies in Religious Historiography. New York: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 10. ISBN 978-3718603671.
  8. ^ Galtsin, Dmitry (21 June 2018). "Modern Pagan religious conversion revisited". Sacra. 14 (2): 7–17. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  9. ^ Jump up to: a b c Hoff, Kraemer, Christine (2012). Seeking the mystery : an introduction to Pagan theologies. Englewood, CO: Patheos Press. ISBN 9781939221186. OCLC 855412257.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Negedu, I. A. (1 January 2014). "The Igala traditional religious belief system: Between monotheism and polytheism". OGIRISI: A New Journal of African Studies. 10 (1): 116–129. doi:10.4314/og.v10i1.7. ISSN 1597-474X.
  11. ^ Sallustius, On the Gods and the World, 4
  12. ^ Eugenie C. Scott, Evolution Vs. Creationism: An Introduction (2009), p. 58.
  13. ^ "Greek mythology". Encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 13. 1993. p. 431.
  14. ^ "Dodekatheon" [Twelve Olympians]. Papyrus Larousse Britannica (in Greek). 2007.
  15. ^ "Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 5, section 3".
  16. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece".
  17. ^ George Edward Rines, ed. (1919). Encyclopedia Americana Vol. 13. Vol. 13. Americana Corp. pp. 408–411.
  18. ^ Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (R.B. Paul trans.) (1852). Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks. Francis and John Rivington. p. 8. The limitation [of the number of Olympians] to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea
  19. ^ "On the Epicurean Gods". Society of Friends of Epicurus. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 December 2021.
  20. ^ "Folk Religionists". Pew Forum. Pew Research Center. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  21. ^ Gries, P.; Su, J.; Schak, D. (December 2012). "Toward the scientific study of polytheism: beyond forced-choice measures of religious belief". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 51 (4): 623–637. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01683.x. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  22. ^ Jump up to: a b van Baaren, Theodorus P. "Monotheism". Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  23. ^ "Folk Religionists". Pew Forum. Pew Research Center. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  24. ^ Trainor, Kevin (2004). Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 62.
  25. ^ O'Brien, Barbara. "The Role of Gods and Deities in Buddhism". Learn Religions. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  26. ^ "Buddhism and Shinto: The Two Pillars of Japanese Culture". Japanology. 20 June 2016. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  27. ^ Woodhead, Linda (2004). Christianity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. n.p.
  28. ^ "Monotheism | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts". 24 May 2023.
  29. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (1974) art. "Monotheism"
  30. ^ "Typical Jewish Misunderstandings of Christianity". Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
  31. ^ "Muslims reject the Trinity because they do understand it". thedebateinitiative. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
  32. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (1974) art. "Trinity, Doctrine of the"
  33. ^ Jordan Paper: The Deities are Many. A Polytheistic Theology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005, pp. 112 and 133.
  34. ^ Royal, S.; Milton, A. (2020). Lollards in the English Reformation: History, radicalism, and John Foxe. Politics, Culture and Society in Early Modern Britain. Manchester University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-5261-2882-9. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  35. ^ Dahl, Paul E. (1992), "Godhead", in Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.), Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Macmillan Publishing, pp. 552–553, ISBN 0-02-879602-0, OCLC 24502140
  36. ^ Bowen, K. (2005). Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience. McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Religion. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7735-2712-6. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  37. ^ Pope, Margaret McConkie, "Exaltation", Encyclopedia of Mormonism, p. 479, archived from the original on 19 October 2017, retrieved 12 November 2014
  38. ^ Cannon, Elaine Anderson, "Mother in Heaven", Encyclopedia of Mormonism, p. 961, archived from the original on 19 October 2017, retrieved 26 March 2014
  39. ^ "Religions: An explanation of Mormon beliefs about God", BBC, 2 October 2009, retrieved 28 October 2014.
  40. ^ Riess, Jana; Bigelow, Christopher Kimball (2005), "Chapter 3: Heavenly Parents, Savior, and Holy Ghost", Mormonism for Dummies, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-7645-7195-4
  41. ^ Hoekema, Anthony (1969) [1963], The Four Major Cults: Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Seventh-Day Adventism, Exeter, England: Paternoster Press, p. 34, ISBN 0853640947, OCLC 12735425[unreliable source?]
  42. ^ Crane, S.A. (2010). Is Mormonism Now Christian?. Wipf & Stock Pub. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-60899-251-5. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  43. ^ Haddad, J.F.; Groothuis, D. (2011). Leaving Dirt Place: Love as an Apologetic for Christianity. Wipf & Stock Publishers. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-61097-217-8. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  44. ^ Parrish, S.E. (2019). Atheism?: A Critical Analysis. Wipf & Stock Publishers. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-5326-7266-8. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  45. ^ Morley, B.K. (2015). Mapping Apologetics: Comparing Contemporary Approaches. InterVarsity Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-8308-9704-9. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  46. ^ Ankerberg, J.; Weldon, J. (2019). Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Mormonism. ATRI. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-937136-51-2. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  47. ^ Tsoukalas, S. (2022). Knowing Christ in the Challenge of Heresy: A Christology of the Cults, A Christology of the Bible. Wipf & Stock Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-6667-3786-8. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  48. ^ Holland, Jeffrey R. (November 2007), "The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sent", Ensign
  49. ^ Bickmore, Barry R. (2001), Does God Have a Body In Human Form? (PDF), Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research
  50. ^ Draper, Richard R. (April 1994), "The Reality of the Resurrection", Ensign
  51. ^ Webb, Steven H. (2012), Jesus Christ, Eternal God: Heavenly Flesh and the Metaphysics of Matter, Oxford University Press, archived from the original on 14 February 2020, retrieved 24 October 2016
  52. ^ "God Is Truly Our Father", Liahona, January 2010
  53. ^ Lindsay, Jeff (ed.). "Relationships Between Man, Christ, and God". LDS FAQ: Mormon Answers. If you believe the Father and the Son are separate beings, doesn't that make you polytheistic?. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014.
  54. ^ "'The Glory of God is Intelligence' – Lesson 37: Section 93", Doctrine and Covenants Instructor's Guide: Religion 324–325 (PDF), Institutes of Religion, Church Educational System, 1981
  55. ^ Smith, Brian. "Hinduism." New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 2005. Retrieved May 22, 2013 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3424300342.html
  56. ^ Goel, Sita Ram (1987). Defence of Hindu Society. New Delhi, India: Voice of India. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2011. "In the Vedic approach, there is no single God. This is bad enough. But the Hindus do not have even a supreme God, a fuhrer-God who presides over a multiplicity of Gods." – Ram Swarup
  57. ^ Goel, Sita Ram (1987). Defence of Hindu Society. New Delhi, India: Voice of India. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
  58. ^ Goel, Sita Ram (1982). How I became a Hindu. New Delhi, India: Voice of India. p. 92.
  59. ^ "RigVeda". The Sacred Books. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
  60. ^ Richard Foltz, "Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present", Oneworld Publications, 2013, p. xiv
  61. ^ Prods Oktor Skjærvø (2006), Introduction to Zoroastrianism, 2005, Harvard University Archives, p. 15 with footnote 1
  62. ^ Brian Arthur Brown (2016). Four Testaments: Tao Te Ching, Analects, Dhammapada, Bhagavad Gita: Sacred Scriptures of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 347–349. ISBN 978-1-4422-6578-3.
  63. ^ Schmidt, Wilhelm (1949–52). Der Ursprung der Gottes [The Origin of the Idea of God] (in German). Vol. 9–10.
  64. ^ Doerfer, Gerhard (1965). Turkische und Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen (in German). Vol. 2. Wiesbaden. p. 580.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  65. ^ Pettazzoni 1956, p. 261f; Gumilyov 1967, ch. 7; Tanyu 1980; Alici 2011.
  66. ^ Roux 1956; Roux 1984; Róna-Tas 1987, pp. 33–45; Kodar 2009.
  67. ^ Meserve, R., Religions in the central Asian environment. In: History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. 4 Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, Part Two: The achievements, p. 68:
    • "The 'imperial' religion was more monotheistic, centred around the all-powerful god Tengri, the sky god."
  68. ^ Fergus, Michael; Jandosova, Janar. Kazakhstan: Coming of Age, Stacey International, 2003, p. 91:
    • "... a profound combination of monotheism and polytheism that has come to be known as Tengrism."
  69. ^ Bira 2011, p. 14.
  70. ^ Roux 1956, p. 242.
  71. ^ Stebleva 1971; Klyashtornyj 2008.
  72. ^ Laruelle 2006, pp. 3–4.
  73. ^ Adler 2006, p. xiii.
  74. ^ Lewis 2004, p. 13.
  75. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 84.
  76. ^ Carpenter 1996, p. 40.
  77. ^ "Gerald Gardner: Blue plaque for 'father of witchcraft' – BBC News". BBC News. 13 June 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
  78. ^ Hodge, B. (2016). World Religions and Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions. World of Religions and Cults. New Leaf Publishing Group, Incorporated. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-61458-504-6. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
  79. ^ Fortune, Dion; Knight, Gareth (30 June 2003). The Sea Priestess. Weiser. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-57863-290-9. All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator.
  80. ^ Alexander, T.J. (2007). Hellenismos Today. Lulu.com. p. 14. ISBN 9781430314271. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
  81. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 165–166. ISBN 0939708027.
  82. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Hutton, Ronald (2003). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 0192854496.
  83. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Lamond, Frederic (2005). Fifty Years of Wicca. Green Magic. ISBN 0954723015.
  84. ^ Bracelin, J (1999). Gerald Gardner: Witch. Pentacle Enterprises. p. 199. ISBN 1872189083.
  85. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0939708027.
  86. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 21–22, 28–29, 69, 116. ISBN 0939708027.
  87. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. ISBN 0939708027.
  88. ^ Jump up to: a b (in French) Gravrand, Henry, "La civilisation Sereer – Pangool", Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal, (1990), ISBN 2-7236-1055-1. pp 9, 20, 77
  89. ^ Jump up to: a b (in English) Kellog, Day Otis, and Smith, William Robertson, "The Encyclopædia Britannica: latest edition. A dictionary of arts, sciences and general literature", Volume 25, p 64, Werner (1902)
  90. ^ (in French) Ndiaye, Ousmane Sémou, "Diversité et unicité sérères : l'exemple de la région de Thiès", Éthiopiques, no. 54, vol. 7, 2e semestre 1991 [1] Archived 2020-06-30 at the Wayback Machine
  91. ^ Callimachi, Rukmini; Coker, Margaret (2018). "ISIS Claims Responsibility for Baghdad Bombings". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 21 January 2018. The second refers to the group's view that Shiites have strayed from Islam's monotheistic creed because of the reverence they show for historical figures, like Imam Ali.
  92. ^ Institute, T.P. (2013). Newman and the Intellectual Tradition: Portsmouth Review. Sheed & Ward. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-58051-249-7. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
  93. ^ "Article on "Bill" Stephens". Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  94. ^ "article on C. D. Broad's concept projection". Archived from the original on 21 June 2006. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  95. ^ C. D. Broad, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God", reprinted in C. D. Broad, Religion, Philosophy and Psychical Research, (1953), 159–174.
  96. ^ Id. at 171.
  97. ^ "Apologetics – From Genesis to Revelation" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2006. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
  98. ^ Jump up to: a b Susan Starr Sered, Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women (1994), p. 169.

Further reading[edit]

  • Assmann, Jan, 'Monotheism and Polytheism' in: Sarah Iles Johnston (ed.), Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press (2004), ISBN 0-674-01517-7, pp. 17–31.
  • Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, Blackwell (1985), ISBN 0-631-15624-0.
  • Greer, John Michael; A World Full of Gods: An Inquiry Into Polytheism, ADF Publishing (2005), ISBN 0-9765681-0-1
  • Iles Johnston, Sarah; Ancient Religions, Belknap Press (September 15, 2007), ISBN 0-674-02548-2
  • Paper, Jordan; The Deities are Many: A Polytheistic Theology, State University of New York Press (March 3, 2005), ISBN 978-0-7914-6387-1
  • Penchansky, David, Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible (2005), ISBN 0-664-22885-2.
  • Swarup, Ram, & Frawley, David (2001). The word as revelation: Names of gods. New Delhi: Voice of India. ISBN 978-8185990682

External links[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Polytheism.
Look up polytheism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polytheism&oldid=1231724724"