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Bedtime procrastination

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Artist's impression of a woman using her smartphone late at night

Bedtime procrastination is a psychological phenomenon that involves needlessly and voluntarily delaying going to bed, despite foreseeably being worse off as a result.[1] Bedtime procrastination can occur due to losing track of time, or as an attempt to enjoy control over the nighttime due to a perceived lack of control over the events of the daytime; this latter phenomenon has recently been called revenge bedtime procrastination, a term which originated on the Chinese social media platform Weibo in 2014.[2][3][4]

Bedtime procrastination has been linked to shorter sleep duration, poorer sleep quality and higher fatigue during the day.[5] One of the main factors in bedtime procrastination is human behaviour.[6]

Origin

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The "revenge" prefix is believed to have been added first in China in the late 2010s, possibly relating to the 996 working hour system (72 hours per week), since many feel that it is the only way they can take any control over their daytime self.[7]

The term "bedtime procrastination" became popular based on a 2014 study from the Netherlands.[8]

Writer Daphne K. Lee popularised the term in a Twitter post using the term "revenge bedtime procrastination" (報復性熬夜), describing it as "a phenomenon in which people who don't have much control over their daytime life refuse to sleep early in order to regain some sense of freedom during late night hours."[9][10]

Now, defining bedtime procrastination is shown in multiple ways like "going to bed later than planned" and "delaying sleep."[6]

Causes

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An individual may procrastinate sleep due to a variety of causes. The person may not consciously be avoiding sleep, but rather continuing to complete activities they perceive as more enjoyable than sleep (such as watching television or browsing social media). There are many distractions in the 21st century; obtaining distractions to delay sleep is much easier than in earlier decades.[8]

Smartphone addiction directly causes bedtime procrastination. People who are addicted to a smartphone are more likely to delay their bedtime because they find it hard to stop using the phone and keep getting distracted by it before going to sleep.[11] These people enjoy the temporary satisfaction of smartphone use and want more time to entertain themselves. In addition, bedtime procrastination plays a mediated role between smartphone addiction and depression and anxiety. Smartphone addiction results in bedtime procrastination, and shorter sleep duration and lower sleep quality may trigger many negative emotions responsible for depression and anxiety.[12]

Statistics show that disturbed sleep patterns are increasingly common. In 2013, an estimated 40% of U.S. adults slept less than the recommended amount.[13] In Belgium, where data was collected for the study, 30% of adults reported difficulty sleeping, and 13% reported taking sleeping pills.[14]

A 2014 study of Dutch individuals concluded that low self-regulation could cause bedtime procrastination.[8] Due to COVID-19, 40% more people have experienced sleeping problems.[15] A 2021 study found that boredom also leads to bedtime procrastination. Boredom increases inattention,[clarification needed] which leads to increased bedtime procrastination.[16]

Another 2014 study consisting of 145 people found that 43% of the self-labelled bedtime procrastinators did not have a set bedtime or routine. This study suggests and emphasizes that inattention is a big factor in bedtime procrastination because it is not necessary for explicit awareness to be active when procrastinating. People do not procrastinate intentionally, but as a result of poor self-regulation.[6]

A 2018 study of 19 people identified three bedtime procrastination themes: deliberate procrastination, mindless procrastination and strategic delay. Deliberate procrastination results from a person consciously believing they deserve more time for themselves, causing them to intentionally stay up later. Mindless procrastination results from losing track of time during one's daily tasks and consequently staying up later without intending to. Strategic delay results from purposely staying up late in order to fall asleep easier. Strategic delay has also been found to be linked with undiagnosed insomnia.[17]

In a 2022 cross-cultural study evaluated 210 employees in the United States and 205 employees in China. The results show that off-time work-related smartphone use may provoke bedtime procrastination. The negative impact of smartphone use on bedtime procrastination is more significant in individualist countries such as the United States than in collective countries such as China. The research shows that, due to different values in two cultures, employees in the United States have a more resistant attitude than employees in China when it comes to work after hours, resulting in a higher self-control depletion and a higher possibility of bedtime procrastination.[18]

Researchers have also found that bedtime procrastination's main causes are low-self control and increased stress.[19]

Psychological influences

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Bedtime procrastinators engaged in more leisure and social activities in the three hours before bedtime. High and low procrastinators spend similar amounts of time watching TV and using computers. In the three hours before bedtime, high bedtime procrastinators spent 79.5 minutes on their phones, while low bedtime procrastinators spent 17.6 minutes on their phones. People who stayed up late reported more symptoms of depression and anxiety, lower sleep quality, and a higher risk of insomnia than those who went to bed earlier.[20]

Research from a survey of 317 participants in 2022 has shown that people's subjective perception of time is associated with bedtime procrastination. Sleep time perceived as the end of the day prompts people to think about the rest of their time. In the research, people who procrastinate before sleep often use their evening time to enjoy their favorite activities as a reward for the hard work of the day and tend to focus on immediate rewards and immediate benefits. When people only pursue short-term pleasures, they develop negative attitudes toward time and a poor view of future time. Bedtime procrastination causes people to feel that time is passing quickly, which can lead to anxiety and stress.[21]

For people who do not sleep well, bedtime is an abominable time. Sleep can become a task and a burden that increases people's worry about getting enough sleep, leading to nervousness, and increases their psychological stress. This can lead to a variety of negative health outcomes, including fatigue, mood swings, and difficulty concentrating.[22]

Women, students, and "night owls" (later chronotypes) are most likely to experience bedtime procrastination.[23][24] People with high daytime stress levels are more prone to bedtime procrastination.[2]

Bedtime procrastination comes in many other forms as well, such as delaying going to sleep (sleep procrastination) and delaying the time trying to fall asleep (while in bed procrastination).[3]

One third of Chinese students showed signs of sleep procrastination.[25]

Signs and symptoms

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According to researchers, there are three key factors that differentiate between bedtime procrastination and staying up late:

  • The individual experiencing bedtime procrastination must be decreasing their overall sleep time every night.
  • There must be no reason for them to stay up late (such as location or sickness).
  • The individual must be aware that the loss in sleep is impacting them negatively, but they do not care to change their routine.[3]

People with higher cell-phone addiction report more signs of bedtime procrastination.[26] This behaviour has been linked to failures in self-control. The media environment creates the atmosphere for sleep procrastination by providing plenty of fun pastimes before lights out. People use media for gratification to delay falling asleep. People with low self-control tend to prioritize short-term gains over long-term goals, while people with high self-control are able to resist the temptation of short-term gratification.[27]

Consequences

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A person who experiences bedtime procrastination is likely to face effects related to the delayed sleep. A meta-analysis found that greater bedtime procrastination was associated with poorer sleep quality, shorter sleep duration, and increased fatigue throughout the day.[5]

Bedtime procrastination results in poor sleep quality and can be a sign of poor self-regulation.[26]

Bedtime procrastinators are more likely to lose willpower, lose control of themselves, and fidget all the time. It is easy to cause a state of low interest, high dissatisfaction, and high distraction.[28]

Bedtime procrastination can cause sleep deprivation, which leads to slow thinking, low attention levels, bad memory, bad decision making, stress, anxiety, and irritation. If sleep deprivation is not treated quickly, long-term consequences can include heart disease, diabetes, obesity, weakened immune system, pain, hormone issues, and mental health issues.[19]

Bedtime procrastination can lead to short sleep, which can increase psychosis and may cause people to suffer from depression.[29]

People who have bedtime procrastination suffer from sleep disturbance and need medication to fall asleep.[29]

Bedtime procrastination can cause naps throughout the day to help lack of sleep.[30]

Prevention

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Media use interventions as treatment strategies for sleep insufficiency have been targeted mainly at reducing the volume of media use.[31] This might not be a feasible scenario for the contemporary and future media user, given the immense proliferation of media and the experience of being connected 24/7. Using a self-control perspective on electronic media use and bedtime procrastination could provide novel ways of approaching this issue. As the endpoint of media use (which often implies getting ready to go to bed) is dependent on the level of self-control, strategies aimed at improving self-control could be a valuable avenue for future exploration.[32]

It is highly important to prevent bedtime procrastination because getting the right amount of sleep is essential for the human body to function properly. Most common consequences of lack of sleep are grogginess, lack of concentration, mood swings, and there are some long-term detrimental effects to both physical and mental health.

Here are a few ways to prevent bedtime procrastination:

  • Turning off electronic devices at least one hour before bed. In a darker environment, humans produce the sleep hormone melatonin. Therefore, people should limit the light they receive before going to sleep.[15]
  • Taking a hot shower or bath to reduce stresses.[15]
  • Writing down thoughts, feelings, and experiences that stood out throughout the day.[15]
  • Maintaining a regular wake-up time and bedtime, including on non-working days.[2]
  • Setting a bedtime routine.
  • Snacking on nuts, seeds, and pulses, which are sources of the amino acid tryptophan, which helps produce melatonin.[15]
  • Avoiding alcohol or caffeine late in the afternoon or evening.[2]
  • Taking melatonin supplements (but exercise caution[33])
  • Managing one's time by doing things early in the day to avoid staying late and losing essential sleep time.[6]
  • Taking Vitamin D and magnesium supplements that may help induce sleep.[15]
  • Setting boundaries at work.
  • Reducing internet use.[34]
  • Practicing time management and priority-setting skills.[35]
  • Using a method called mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII).[36]

References

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  1. ^ Kroese, Floor M.; Nauts, Sanne; Kamphorst, Bart A.; Anderson, Joel H.; De Ridder, Denise T. D. (2016). "5". In Sirois, Fuschia M.; Pychyl, Tim A. (eds.). Procrastination, Health, and Well-Being. pp. 93–119. doi:10.1016/C2014-0-03741-0. ISBN 978-0-12-802862-9.
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  3. ^ a b c Marples, Megan (15 February 2021). "'Revenge bedtime procrastination' could be robbing you of precious sleep time". CNN Health. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
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  5. ^ a b Hill, Vanessa M.; Rebar, Amanda L.; Ferguson, Sally A.; Shriane, Alexandra E.; Vincent, Grace E. (1 December 2022). "Go to bed! A systematic review and meta-analysis of bedtime procrastination correlates and sleep outcomes". Sleep Medicine Reviews. 66: 101697. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101697. ISSN 1087-0792. PMID 36375334. S2CID 252893949.
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  21. ^ Okay, Deniz; Turkarslan, Kutlu Kagan; Cevrim, Mustafa; Bozo, Ozlem (1 March 2022). "Sleep Go Away, I Don't Have Much Time Left to Live: Is Bedtime Procrastination Related to Perceived Time Left in Life?/Uyku Seninle Ugrasamam, Yasayacak Cok Vaktim Kalmadi: Uykuyu Ertelemek Gelecek Zaman Algisiyla Iliskili mi?". Journal of Turkish Sleep Medicine. 9 (1): 57–64. doi:10.4274/jtsm.galenos.2021.24119. S2CID 246671670.
  22. ^ Suh, Sooyeon; Cho, Nayoung; Jeoung, Sonhye; An, Hyeyoung (2 November 2022). "Developing a Psychological Intervention for Decreasing Bedtime Procrastination: The BED-PRO Study". Behavioral Sleep Medicine. 20 (6): 659–673. doi:10.1080/15402002.2021.1979004. ISSN 1540-2002. PMID 34524942. S2CID 237535908.
  23. ^ Herzog-Krzywoszanska, Radoslawa; Krzywoszanski, Lukasz (2019). "Bedtime Procrastination, Sleep-Related Behaviors, and Demographic Factors in an Online Survey on a Polish Sample". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 13: 963. doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00963. ISSN 1662-453X. PMC 6759770. PMID 31619947.
  24. ^ Kühnel, Jana; Syrek, Christine J.; Dreher, Anne (2018). "Why Don't You Go to Bed on Time? A Daily Diary Study on the Relationships between Chronotype, Self-Control Resources and the Phenomenon of Bedtime Procrastination". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 77. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00077. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 5801309. PMID 29456519.
  25. ^ Ma, Xiaohan; Meng, Dexin; Zhu, Liwei; Xu, Huiying; Guo, Jing; Yang, Limin; Yu, Lei; Fu, Yiming; Mu, Li (15 July 2020). "Bedtime procrastination predicts the prevalence and severity of poor sleep quality of Chinese undergraduate students". Journal of American College Health. 70 (4): 1104–1111. doi:10.1080/07448481.2020.1785474. ISSN 0744-8481. PMID 33151847. S2CID 220584393. Archived from the original on 13 June 2022. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  26. ^ a b Zhang, Meng Xuan; Wu, Anise M. S. (1 December 2020). "Effects of smartphone addiction on sleep quality among Chinese university students: The mediating role of self-regulation and bedtime procrastination". Addictive Behaviors. 111: 106552. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106552. ISSN 0306-4603. PMID 32717501. S2CID 220842214. Archived from the original on 13 June 2022. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  27. ^ Baumeister, Roy F.; Bratslavsky, Ellen; Muraven, Mark; Tice, Dianne M. (1998). "Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (5): 1252–1265. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 9599441. S2CID 14627317.
  28. ^ Teoh, Ai Ni; Ooi, Evangel Yi En; Chan, Alyssa Yenyi (1 March 2021). "Boredom affects sleep quality: The serial mediation effect of inattention and bedtime procrastination". Personality and Individual Differences. 171: 110460. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110460. ISSN 0191-8869. S2CID 226330111.
  29. ^ a b Cui, Guanghui; Yin, Yongtian; Li, Shaojie; Chen, Lei; Liu, Xinyao; Tang, Kaixuan; Li, Yawen (10 September 2021). "Longitudinal relationships among problematic mobile phone use, bedtime procrastination, sleep quality and depressive symptoms in Chinese college students: a cross-lagged panel analysis". BMC Psychiatry. 21 (1): 449. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03451-4. ISSN 1471-244X. PMC 8431882. PMID 34507561.
  30. ^ Department of Health & Human Services. (n.d.). Sleep deprivation. Better Health Channel. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/sleep-deprivation
  31. ^ Jones, Katherine E.; Otten, Jennifer J.; Johnson, Rachel K.; Harvey-Berino, Jean R. (18 June 2010). "Removing the Bedroom Television Set: A Possible Method for Decreasing Television Viewing Time in Overweight and Obese Adults". Behavior Modification. 34 (4): 290–298. doi:10.1177/0145445510370994. ISSN 0145-4455. PMID 20562322. S2CID 206440329.
  32. ^ Exelmans, Liese; Van den Bulck, Jan (June 2021). ""Glued to the Tube": The Interplay Between Self-Control, Evening Television Viewing, and Bedtime Procrastination". Communication Research. 48 (4): 594–616. doi:10.1177/0093650216686877. ISSN 0093-6502. S2CID 152228268.
  33. ^ Huberman, Andrew. ""Is it safe to take melatonin on a regular basis?"".
  34. ^ Hinsch, Christian; Sheldon, Kennon (21 November 2013). "The impact of frequent social Internet consumption: Increased procrastination and lower life satisfaction". Journal of Consumer Behaviour. 12 (6): 496–505. doi:10.1002/cb.1453.
  35. ^ Nauts, Sanne; Kamphorst, Bart A.; Stut, Wim; De Ridder, Denise T. D.; Anderson, Joel H. (2 November 2019). "The Explanations People Give for Going to Bed Late: A Qualitative Study of the Varieties of Bedtime Procrastination". Behavioral Sleep Medicine. 17 (6): 753–762. doi:10.1080/15402002.2018.1491850. ISSN 1540-2002. PMID 30058844. S2CID 51867032.
  36. ^ Valshtein, Timothy J.; Oettingen, Gabriele; Gollwitzer, Peter M. (3 March 2020). "Using mental contrasting with implementation intentions to reduce bedtime procrastination: two randomised trials". Psychology & Health. 35 (3): 275–301. doi:10.1080/08870446.2019.1652753. ISSN 0887-0446. PMID 31403339. S2CID 199540747.
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