Jump to content

Drinking culture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Social drinking)
The Merry Drinker (c. 1628–1630) by Frans Hals

Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviours that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes of brewing beer, fermenting wine, and distilling spirits, among other practices.[1] Many countries have developed their own regional cultures based on unique traditions around the fermentation and consumption of alcohol, which may also be known as a beer culture, wine culture etc. after a particularly prominent type of drink.

Alcohol, a psychoactive substance with addictive properties and other effects, has been present in numerous societies over the centuries.[2] Drinking is documented in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles,[3] in the Qur'an, in Greek and Roman literature as old as Homer, in Confucius’ Analects, and in various forms of artistic expression throughout history.

History

[edit]

Alcohol has played a significant role in human history. The production and consumption of alcoholic beverages date back to ancient civilisations. The earliest evidence of Alcohol comes from a Neolithic village dating to around 7000BC in the Yellow Valley.[4] Societies and cultures around the world have made use of intoxicating substances, with alcohol as the most popular, featured in temple rituals for ~2,000 years. In Mesopotamia, the world's oldest known recipe for beer-making can be traced back to 3200 BC, with related pictographs dated to 4000 BC.[5] Similarly, wine has ancient roots, with evidence of production in Jemdet Nasr in 3000 BC,[5] Georgia from around 6000 BC, and Iran from 5000 BC.[6][7] These practices were not just culinary but often held religious and medicinal significance.

Since the Greek and Roman eras, Bacchanalia rituals involved consuming heavy levels of alcohol to reach an ecstatic state of mind. Bacchanalian fraternities promote the festive consumption of wine.[8]

Drinking styles

[edit]

Binge drinking

[edit]
Main article: Binge drinking

Binge drinking is defined as drinking to excess.

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines binge drinking as a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. For the typical adult, this pattern corresponds to consuming five or more drinks (men), or four or more drinks (women) in about two hours.[9] As tolerance builds, the person will need more drinks to achieve the same effect or feeling.[10]

Excessive drinking can have many side effects. This includes alcoholism, a term describing the inability to control the intake of alcohol,[11] blackouts, a form of amnesia where short term memory is greatly impaired, and even sudden death associated with strokes.[11]

The concept of a "binge" has been somewhat elastic over the years, implying consumption of alcohol far beyond that which is socially acceptable. In earlier decades, "going on a binge" meant drinking over the course of several days until one was no longer able to continue drinking. This usage is known to have entered the English language as late as 1854; it derives from an English dialectal word meaning to "soak" or to "fill a boat with water". (OED, American Heritage Dictionary)

Binge drinking is found all over the world, costing the UK economy approximately £20 billion a year. It is estimated that 17 million working days are lost due to hangovers and drink-related illness each year.[12]

Drinking games

[edit]
Main article: Drinking game

Speed drinking

[edit]
Steven Petrosino achieving the Guinness World Record for speed drinking in June 1977 at the Gingerbreadman Pub in Carlisle, Pennsylvania

Speed drinking or competitive drinking is the drinking of a small or moderate quantity of beer in the shortest period of time, without an intention of getting heavily intoxicated. Unlike binge drinking, its focus is on competition or the establishment of a record. Speed drinkers typically drink a light beer, such as lager, and they allow it to warm and lose its carbonation to shorten the drinking time.

Guinness World Records (1990 edition, p. 464) listed several records for speed drinking. Among these were:

Neither of these records had been defeated when Guinness World Records banned all alcohol-related records from their book in 1991.[citation needed]

Former Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke held a record for the fastest consumption of a yard of ale. In 1954, while he was a student at Oxford University, he drank 2+1⁄2 imperial pints (1.4 litres) in 12 seconds.[14]

Moderate, responsible, and social drinking

[edit]

Moderate drinking, responsible drinking, and social drinking are often used interchangeably, but with slightly different connotations:

  • Moderate drinking - strictly focuses on the amount of alcohol consumed, following alcohol consumption recommendations (typically 1-2 drinks per day). This is called "drinking in moderation".
  • Responsible drinking - as defined by alcohol industry standards, often emphasizes personal choice and risk management, unlike terms like "social drinking" or "moderate drinking."[15]
  • Social drinking - refers to casual drinking of alcoholic beverages in a social setting without an intent to become intoxicated. A social drinker is also defined as a person who only drinks alcohol during social events, such as parties, and does not drink while alone (e.g., at home).[16]

In many cultures, good news is often celebrated by a group sharing alcoholic drinks. For example, sparkling wine may be used to toast the bride at a wedding, and alcoholic drinks may be served celebrate a baby's birth. Buying someone an alcoholic drink is often considered a gesture of goodwill, an expression of gratitude, or to mark the resolution of a dispute.

Drinking etiquette

[edit]
Reunion of gentlemen around a table in an interior, by Jacob van Schuppen

For the purposes of buying rounds of alcoholic drinks in English public houses, William Greaves, a retired London journalist, devised a set of etiquette guidelines as a Saturday morning essay in the defunct Today newspaper. Known as Greaves' Rules, the guidelines were based upon his long experience of pubs and rounds.[17] The rules were later recommissioned by The Daily Telegraph and published in that newspaper on November 20, 1993. Copies of the rules soon appeared in many pubs throughout the United Kingdom.

Kate Fox, a social anthropologist, came up with a similar idea in her book Watching the English, but concluded their rationale was the need to minimize the possibility of violence between drinking companions.[18]

When it is socially acceptable to drink differs around the world. For example, drinking at early times of the day is frowned upon in some countries, including Britain, Iceland, and the Czech Republic, whose drinkers limit themselves to the evening, some don't start until past midnight and stay out especially late.[19]

Though noon is often seen as earliest appropriate time of day to consume alcohol, especially on its own, there are some exceptions such as drinking Buck's Fizzes on Christmas Day morning.[20] In Germany, it is tradition to get a drink on Sunday morning, Frühschoppen, to commemorate when families would go to the pub after church. In the countries of Spain, France, Russia, and Germany, day drinking is more common.[19] Drinks served with breakfast or brunch, like a mimosa or bloody mary, are common in many cultures.[21] However, even in countries where day drinking is socially acceptable, it is restricted compared to the heavier periods of drinking recurrent during weekend days.[19]

Pub crawl

[edit]
Main article: Pub crawl

A pub crawl (sometimes called a bar tour, bar crawl or bar-hopping) is the act of visiting multiple pubs or bars in a single session.[22]

Session drinking

[edit]

Session drinking is a chiefly British and Irish term that refers to drinking a large quantity of beer during a "session" (i.e. a specific period of time) without becoming too heavily intoxicated.[23] A session is generally a social occasion.

A "session beer", such as a session bitter, is a beer that has a moderate or relatively low alcohol content.

Social and cultural significance

[edit]

Drinking customs vary significantly across cultures. In many Western societies, raising a toast during celebrations or milestones is a common practice. In contrast, in Japanese culture, the practice of 'nomikai' – a drinking party among colleagues or friends – is prevalent, reflecting their communal approach to drinking.[24] Similarly, in some Native American societies, alcohol consumption has historically been limited and regulated through community norms.[25]

Vertical drinking

[edit]

Vertical drinking means that all or most of the patrons in an establishment are standing while drinking. This is linked to faster rates of consumption, and can lead to tension and possibly violence as patrons attempt to maneuver around each other.[26]

Sober curious

[edit]

Sober curious is a cultural movement and lifestyle of practicing none or limited alcohol consumption that started spreading in the late 2010s.

Being sober curious means exploring sobriety at times to challenge the systematic consumption of alcohol in different situations, mostly during social interaction. The goal is to cut back when alcohol is deemed unnecessary, avoid consuming too much alcohol, and/or improve one's health. The consumption of non-alcoholic drinks is associated with the sober curious movement.[27] It is also called the 'No To Lo" beverages movement.[28]

Spiritual use

[edit]
Main articles: Religion and alcohol and List of substances used in rituals

Most religions prohibit or advise against alcohol use. However, spiritual use of alcohol is found in some religions and schools with esoteric influences, including the Sufi Bektashi Order and Alevi Jem ceremonies,[29] in the Japanese religion Shinto,[30] by the new religious movement Thelema, in Vajrayana Buddhism, and in Vodou faith of Haiti.

Health

[edit]

While moderate alcohol consumption is often cited for potential health benefits, such as reduced risk of heart disease, excessive drinking is linked to numerous health risks including liver disease, cardiovascular problems, and addiction.[31] The World Health Organization categorizes alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen,[32] indicating its causal link to cancer. It is crucial to balance these perspectives to understand the full impact of alcohol on health.

Several studies over recent decades have linked moderate alcohol consumption with a reduced risk of heart disease. However, experts caution that this research may not fully account for the influence of other healthy lifestyle factors or the health history of participants who abstain from drinking.[33]

Policy makers have often expressed concern over "drinking culture" due to negative health effects of excess alcohol consumption. Policy makers often focus especially on patterns of problem drinking. These patterns are often expressed in geographical terms, such as in national drinking habits.[6]

Geographic disparity

[edit]

Understanding drinking in young people should be done through a "developmental" framework.[34] This would be referred to as a "whole system" approach to underage drinking, as it takes into account a particular adolescent's unique risk and protective factors—from genetics and personality characteristics to social and environmental factors.

As early as the eighth century, Saint Boniface was writing to Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, to report how "In your diocese, the vice of drunkenness is too frequent. This is an evil peculiar to pagans and to our race. Neither the Franks nor the Gauls nor the Lombards nor the Romans nor the Greeks commit it".[35] It is probable, however, that "the vice of drunkenness" was present in all European nations. The 16th-century Frenchman Rabelais wrote comedic and absurd satires illustrating his countrymen's drinking habits, and Saint Augustin used the example of a drunkard in Rome to illustrate certain spiritual principles.

Some cultures may have a higher tolerance for alcohol consumption, while others may stigmatize it. Cultural practices, traditions, and expectations regarding masculinity can influence drinking patterns among people.[36]

Drinking habits vary significantly across the globe. In many European countries, wine and beer are integral to the dining experience, reflecting a culture of moderate, meal-centric drinking.[37] Conversely, in countries like Russia, higher rates of hard liquor consumption are observed, which has been linked to social and health issues. Furthermore, some Islamic countries have religious prohibitions against alcohol, leading to markedly different drinking practices.[38]

Some studies have noted traditional, cultural differences between Northern and Southern Europe. A difference in perception may also account to some extent for historically noted cultural differences: Northern Europeans drink beer, which in the past was often of a low alcohol content (2.5% compared to today's 5%).[dubious – discuss] In pre-industrial society, beer was safer to drink than water[dubious – discuss], because it had been boiled and contained alcohol. Southern Europeans drink wine and fortified wines (10–20% alcohol by volume). Traditionally, wine was watered and honeyed; drinking full strength wine was considered barbaric in Republican Rome. Nor does binge drinking necessarily equate with substantially higher national averages of per capita/per annum litres of pure alcohol consumption. There is also a physical aspect to national differences worldwide, which has not yet been thoroughly studied, whereby some ethnic groups have a greater capacity for alcohol metabolization through the liver enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase.[citation needed]

These varying capacities do not, however, avoid all health risks inherent in heavy alcohol consumption. Alcohol abuse is associated with a variety of negative health and safety outcomes. This is true no matter the individual's or the ethnic group's perceived ability to "handle alcohol". Persons who believe themselves immune to the effects of alcohol may often be the most at risk for health concerns and the most dangerous of all operating a vehicle.[citation needed]

Chronic heavy drinkers display functional tolerance when they show few obvious signs of intoxication, even at high blood alcohol concentrations which in others would be incapacitating or even fatal. Because the drinker does not experience significant behavioral impairment as a result of drinking, tolerance may facilitate the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol. This can result in physical dependence and alcohol-related organ damage.[39]

By country

[edit]
See also: List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita

United Kingdom

[edit]
Main article: Alcohol in the United Kingdom

Throughout its history, the United Kingdom has had the pub as a central gathering spot in the community. Into the modern day, the English pub is a common social gathering place.[40] The United Kingdom ranks 24th in the world for per capita alcohol consumption, with the prevalence of pub culture sometimes being cited as a factor in the country's high alcohol consumption.[40][41] On average, the British drink an average of 9.7 litres of alcohol per year. Statistics in 2023 have revealed that around 71.2% of adults in the United Kingdom drink at least once a week.[42]

Finland

[edit]
Main article: Finnish alcohol culture

Finland has one of the most significant drinking cultures in Europe, with the second highest rate of alcohol consumption in the Nordic countries.[43] Since the early 1960s, the total consumption of alcohol has quadrupled[44] and negative effects of alcohol have increased.[45] Intoxication is not seen as shameful, and is instead praised and seen as a sign of sociality.[46][47]

One major aspect of modern Finnish alcohol culture is the concept of "Pantsdrunk" (kalsarikännit), referring to a drinking practice in which the drinker consumes drinks at home dressed in very little clothing, usually underwear, with no intention of going out. Alcohol is mostly consumed on the weekends in Finland.[48]

Germany

[edit]

Drinking culture is very prevalent in Germany, particularly with beer. As of 2013, Germans drink 28 gallons of beer per capita each year.[49] Alcoholism is also an issue, with one-fifth of the population being labeled as "hazardous drinkers" in a 2022 study.[50] Germans are able to purchase and consume soft alcoholic beverages and wine at the age of 16. At 18, Germans are legally allowed to buy and drink beer, wine, and other distilled spirits. The legal limit for blood alcohol concentration is 0.5 milligrams per milliliter of blood.[51]

Islamic world

[edit]
Further information: Islamic dietary laws

Alcoholic drinks are generally prohibited under Islamic thought,[52] with the Quran including several verses that admonish the consumption of khamr, an Arabic term meaning intoxicants that is interpreted to include most forms of alcohol and psychoactive drugs.

Islamic countries have low rates of alcohol consumption, and it is completely banned in several of them while strictly controlled in others (such as consumption being allowed only in private places or by non-Muslims). However, a minority of Muslims do drink and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden,[53][54] such as the Alevi Muslims of Turkey.[55] Muslim-majority countries produce a variety of regional distilled beverages such as arrack and rakı. There is a long tradition of viticulture in the Middle East, particularly in Egypt (where it is legal) and in Iran (where it is banned).

Korea

[edit]
Main article: Drinking culture of Korea

Korea's interest in creating its own alcohol came about during the Koryo Dynasty (946–943), when exposure to foreign cultures and the introduction of distilled water created the basis and technique for distilling a unique alcohol.[56]

Alcohol drinking in Korea helps create and form ties between family members and friends. Drinking is very present throughout traditional family rituals such as honoring ancestors. Aside from traditional holiday and family ritual drinking, alcohol consumption has modernized and become a major aspect of everyday socialization in Korean culture.

Russia

[edit]
Main article: Alcohol in Russia

Alcohol consumption in Russia remains among the highest in the world. High volumes of alcohol consumption have serious negative effects on Russia's social fabric and bring political, economic and public health ramifications. Alcoholism has been a problem throughout the country's history because drinking is a pervasive, socially acceptable behavior in Russian society and alcohol has also been a major source of government revenue for centuries.

United States

[edit]

The United States is ranked 39th in the world for alcohol consumption in 2024.[57] It is ranked 1st in alcohol misuse among females, with 10.4%.[58] The U.S., in the past, prohibited alcohol from being produced in the country. This notion is still prevalent in the country with the legal drinking age being 21, and a self reported abstinence rate of 38%.[59] Culture varies significantly by state, with northern states drinking more than southern states.[60]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Our 'drinking culture' explored". www.linkedin.com. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
  2. ^ "Alcohol". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  3. ^ "A History of Alcoholic Drinks since the Ancient World". Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas. 2021-08-26. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
  4. ^ McGovern, Patrick (June 7, 2024). "The Earliest Alcoholic Beverage in the World". Penn Museum.
  5. ^ a b "Social and Cultural Aspects of Drinking - Europe: future directions". www.sirc.org. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  6. ^ a b McGovern, Patrick E. (2009-10-30). Uncorking the Past. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/9780520944688. ISBN 978-0-520-94468-8.
  7. ^ Stewart, Graham G. (2004). "A History of Beer and Brewing: by Ian S. Hornsey". Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 110 (3): 233–234. doi:10.1002/j.2050-0416.2004.tb00209.x. ISSN 0046-9750.
  8. ^ Baker, Nicolette (2022-06-28). "The History of Bacchanalia Parties Goes Beyond Your TikTok Scroll". VinePair. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
  9. ^ "Underage Drinking-Why do Adolescents Drink, What Are the Risks, and How Can Underage Drinking be Prevented?". US Department of Health and Human Services. 2006.
  10. ^ "Alcohol Addiction - How Drinking Trends Normalize Alcohol Abuse". 2022-04-08. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  11. ^ a b Olson, Steve; Gerstein, Dean R. (1985), "Drinking in America", Alcohol in America: Taking Action to Prevent Abuse, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2024-03-22
  12. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20171118173523/http://www.ave.ee/download/Alcohol%20England.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-11-18. Retrieved 2024-05-18. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. ^ "Guinness World Beer Drinking Record set in 1977". www.beerrecord.com.
  14. ^ Doherty, ben (14 June 2019). "Bob Hawke's beer-drinking record may be marked by Oxford blue plaque". Guardian. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
  15. ^ Maani Hessari, N; Petticrew, M (1 March 2018). "What does the alcohol industry mean by 'Responsible drinking'? A comparative analysis". Journal of Public Health. 40 (1): 90–97. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdx040. PMID 28398571.
  16. ^ "Definition of SOCIAL DRINKER". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2024-04-02.
  17. ^ Greaves, William (3 September 2010). "Pub Talk". Gentlemen Ranters (162). Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
  18. ^ "Watching the English - The hidden rules of English behaviour". Sirc.org. 2004-04-22. Retrieved 2011-05-22.
  19. ^ a b c "Drinking Cultures Around the World | Portside". portside.org. 2022-12-19. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  20. ^ Rudgard, Olivia. "The etiquette of drinking before noon". The Daily Telegraph.
  21. ^ Food For Net. "19 Cocktails That Are OK To Drink Before Noon". Food For Net.
  22. ^ Meghan Pescio (28 August 2013). "Livin' Local: Vegas Cycle Pub – A Pedal Powered Pub Crawl". Zip Code Magazines (pinpoint publications). Pinpoint Publications Limited Liability Company. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
  23. ^ Jason and Todd Alström (2005-12-10). "Session Beers, Defined". BeerAdvocate. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
  24. ^ Plant, M. (2002-01-01). "Drinking Occasions: Comparative Perspectives on Alcohol and Culture: By Dwight B. Heath. Brunner/Mazel (Taylor & Francis).2000, 208pp., $49.95. ISBN: 1-58391-047-6". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 37 (1): 103. doi:10.1093/alcalc/37.1.103. ISSN 1464-3502.
  25. ^ "Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals and Festivals". Reference Reviews. 19 (2): 17–18. 2005-03-01. doi:10.1108/09504120510580127. ISSN 0950-4125.
  26. ^ "Bid to stop 'vertical drinking'". Bbc.co.uk. 2006-08-02. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
  27. ^ Roberts, Nicole F. (11 January 2024). "Understanding The 'Sober Curious' Movement". Forbes. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
  28. ^ "A look into the 'sober curious' movement". NBC News. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
  29. ^ Soileau M (August 2012). "Spreading the Sofra: Sharing and Partaking in the Bektashi Ritual Meal". History of Religions. 52 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1086/665961. JSTOR 10.1086/665961. Retrieved June 5, 2021.
  30. ^ Bocking B (1997). A popular dictionary of Shintō (Rev. ed.). Richmond, Surrey [U.K.]: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007-1051-5. OCLC 264474222.
  31. ^ Nemtsov, Alexander; Neufeld, Maria; Rehm, Jürgen (September 2019). "Alcohol Policy, Alcohol Consumption, and Attributable Mortality: The Authors Respond". Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 80 (5): 505–506. doi:10.15288/jsad.2019.80.505. ISSN 1937-1888. PMID 31603750. S2CID 204331718.
  32. ^ "World Health Organization (WHO)", Encyclopedia of Global Health, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2008, doi:10.4135/9781412963855.n1236, ISBN 978-1-4129-4186-0, retrieved 2023-12-15
  33. ^ "Just how bad is alcohol? Eight experts weigh in on the risks and supposed benefits of drinking". NBC News. 2023-08-12. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  34. ^ "Underage Drinking: Why Do Adolescents Drink, What Are the Risks, and How Can Underage Drinking Be Prevented?". National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (67). 2006. Retrieved 12 March 2012.
  35. ^ Hunt, Tristram (2005-08-28). "Tristram Hunt: We're still failing history". The Observer. London. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
  36. ^ Orford, Jim (September 2005). "Disabling the public interest: gambling strategies and policies for Britain". Addiction. 100 (9): 1219–1225. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01143.x. ISSN 0965-2140. PMID 16128706.
  37. ^ Poikolainen, K. (2000-03-01). "Risk Factors for Alcohol Dependence: A Case-Control Study". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 35 (2): 190–196. doi:10.1093/alcalc/35.2.190. ISSN 1464-3502. PMID 10787396.
  38. ^ Neufeld, Maria; Rehm, Jürgen (2013-01-07). "Alcohol Consumption and Mortality in Russia since 2000: Are there any Changes Following the Alcohol Policy Changes Starting in 2006?". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 48 (2): 222–230. doi:10.1093/alcalc/ags134. ISSN 0735-0414. PMID 23299570.
  39. ^ "Alcohol and Tolerance - Alcohol Alert No. 28-1995". Pubs.niaaa.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2020-04-04. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
  40. ^ a b Service, Wire (12 March 2020). "How does drinking culture differ between the US and the UK?". San Francisco Examiner.
  41. ^ "World Factbook Glyph". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 6 June 2024.
  42. ^ Johnson, Richard (2023-11-16). "Drinking Culture in the UK". ANA Treatment Centres. Retrieved 2024-06-10.
  43. ^ Anderson, Peter; Møller, Lars; Galea, Gauden (2012). "Alcohol in the European Union: Consumption, harm and policy approaches" (PDF). World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.
  44. ^ Österberg, Esa (2005). "Alkoholin kulutuksen kasvu vuonna 2004". Turmiolan Tommi: Mietteitä alkoholi- ja huumetutkimuksesta (in Finnish). Finnish society for alcohol and drug research: 7–18. ISSN 1458-9982. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  45. ^ Jussila, Noora: Kännäyskulttuuri. Suomen kuvalehti #31/2013, p. 11.
  46. ^ Based on interviews of Satu Apo, Jaana Lähteenmaa, Antti Maunu, Matti Peltonen, Mikko Salasuo and Pekka Sulkunen:
    Rämö, Matti (26 April 2007). "Rakas humala". Ylioppilaslehti (in Finnish). ISSN 1458-445X. Archived from the original on 5 February 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  47. ^ Kisnanen, Natalia: Suomalaiset erikoisuudet Archived 31 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Raitis.fi 4 August 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
  48. ^ "Alcohol use in Finland — Päihdelinkki". Retrieved 2024-06-10.
  49. ^ Nelson, Soraya Sarhaddi (February 27, 2013). "Germans Are Drinking Less Beer These Days, But Why?". NPR. Retrieved November 6, 2023.
  50. ^ Garnett, Claire; Kastaun, Sabrina; Brown, Jamie; Kotz, Daniel (February 2022). "Alcohol consumption and associations with sociodemographic and health-related characteristics in Germany: A population survey". Addictive Behaviors. 125: 107159. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107159. ISSN 0306-4603. PMC 8642732. PMID 34735981.
  51. ^ Sebastian, Cecilia (2023). "Critical Theory after Frankfurt : Angela Davis, the West German SDS, and the Critique of Fascism". KWI-Blog. doi:10.37189/kwi-blog/20231204-0830.
  52. ^ Tillier, Mathieu; Vanthieghem, Naïm (2022-09-02). "Des amphores rouges et des jarres vertes: Considérations sur la production et la consommation de boissons fermentées aux deux premiers siècles de l'hégire". Islamic Law and Society. 30 (1–2): 1–64. doi:10.1163/15685195-bja10025. ISSN 0928-9380. S2CID 252084558.
  53. ^ Michalak, Laurence; Trocki, Karen (2006). "Alcohol and Islam: An Overview". Contemporary Drug Problems. 33 (4): 523–562. doi:10.1177/009145090603300401.
  54. ^ "Nothing in the Quran Says Alcohol "is Haram": Saudi Author".
  55. ^ Turkey's Alevi Muslims look to EU for protection from intolerance.
  56. ^ woochang, shin (2008-04-24). "[alcohol story] You need to restore the 'disappeared' Korea Pearl alcohol ([술이야기]외래 술에 사라진 '한국 명주' 복원해야)". Sport Kyunghyang.
  57. ^ "Alcohol Consumption by Country 2024". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  58. ^ "Alcoholism by Country 2024". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  59. ^ Olson, Steve; Gerstein, Dean R. (1985), "Drinking in America", Alcohol in America: Taking Action to Prevent Abuse, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2024-04-28
  60. ^ Kerr, William C. (2010). "Categorizing US State Drinking Practices and Consumption Trends". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 7 (1): 269–283. doi:10.3390/ijerph7010269. PMC 2819787. PMID 20195444.

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
  • "Pub Etiquette". www.sunriseag.net. Retrieved 22 May 2011. (Greaves' Rules)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drinking_culture&oldid=1229458052#Social_drinking"