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Mughal Karkhanas

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Indian workers making Cotton

Mughal karkhanas (Hindi: कारखाना, Karkhana, Karkana kārakhānā, Kar-kanyas, Qur khana, Urdu: کارخانہ ) were the manufacturing houses and workshops for craftsmen, established by the Mughals in their empire. Karkhana is a Hindustani language word that means factory. These karkhanas were small manufacturing units for various arts and crafts as well as for the emperor's household and military needs. karkhanas were named and classified based on the nature of the job. For example, 'Rangkhana' and 'Chhapakhana' were for textile dyeing and printing work.[1] The term 'tushak-khana' was used to describe workshops that made shawls and embellished them with embroidery or needlework.[2] Imperial or Royal Karkhanas were for luxury goods and weapons. The karkhanas were the place for various production activities and also for the exploration of new techniques and innovations. Some operations such as weaving, embroidery work, and brocade work were often done under one roof, resembling an integrated assembly line.[3][4][5][6][7][8]

Karkhanas

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Karkhanas in the Mughal era especially in Akbar's time were much more organized and large as compared to the Sultanate period.[9] Mughals raised the standards of karkhanas attained previously by the Sultans under various dynasties.[10] [specify] Mughals viewed administrative matters with great sincerity[11] and maintained proper hierarchy in the system, for instance, the Mansabdari system founded by Akbar. The Mughal empire was divided into "Subah" which were further subdivided into "Sarkar", "Pargana", and "Gram.",[12] additionally there were three methods of revenue collection i.e. Kankut, Rai And Zabti.[13] In the Mughal empire, rapidly accelerating urbanization and the vast army size (required to properly administer such a large region), necessitated the large-scale production of weapons and other goods. Hence there were large establishments of Royal Karkhanas.[14]

Administration

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Karkhanas were the manufactories and storehouses that operated largely to fulfill state requirements.[15] These were places where the artisans were supposed to do their work as per the command (following the controllers' orders) unlike the artisan system (where there was considerable freedom and independent control over the manufacturing process).[16][17] Royal Karkhanas employed various artisans specializing in different crafts.[10]

Karkhanas were maintained by the state, nobles, mansabdars, and zamindars. One tahvildar, along with a 'Darogah' and a superintendent, was engaged at every Karkhana.[15] The khan-i-saman was the designation for the head of the royal karkhanas or workshops.[18][19] The administrators were supposed to present the best of the crafts to the emperor in compliance with the set protocols. Hence, engaging the best artisans was absolutely necessary.[4][16] As per the Ain-i-Akbari, there were 36 classified karkhanas.[20] Notably, one noble Bakhtawar established karkhanas at Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Buharanpur.[4]

Accounts

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Karkhanas operated much like the present day organized sector albeit with state funding, materials were supplied at pre-determined cost by the state, and the profit- loss accounts were maintained for each individual Karkhana.[21] There are records (of Amber rulers who were the nobles of Mughals) related to royal karkhanas explaining various accounts (heads) such as jama kharch, arhsatta, Tozi, Tozi (taujih) jama kharch topkhana, palkikhana, shutarkhana, zinkhana.[15] [further explanation needed] 'Jama' and 'Kharch' are the words for incoming and outgoing entries in the account.[22] Various other relevant terms mentioned in the records are:-

  • Jama kharch a treasury account formerly kept (the monthly receipts and disbursements).[23]
  • Arhsatta is the revenue record.[24]
  • Tozi (are the records on separate sheets)[25] for the different state workshop and warehouses, the commodities manufactured and the wages given to the workers.[26]
  • Tozi Jama Kharch -Topkhana[27] is a statistical information in fine details about the daily expenditure incurred on the raw material, wages, repairing of the arms.
  • Silekhana is about the accounts of Silehaposh (Combatants).[28]
  • Shutarkhana is for the shipments received about animals (The Risalas received animal)[29]
  • Zinkhana are the records for harness, saddles and bridles.[30]

Large halls are seen at many places, called karkhanas or workshops for the artisans. In one hall, embroiderers are busily employed, superintended by a master. In another, you see the goldsmiths; in a third, painters; in a fourth, varnishers in lacquer-work; in a fifth, joiners, turners, tailors and shoe-makers; in a sixth, manufacturers of silk, brocade and fine muslins … The artisans come every morning to their karkhanas where they remain employed the whole day; and in the evening return to their homes. In this quiet regular manner, their time glides away; no one aspiring for any improvement in the condition of life wherein he happens to be born.

— François Bernier[16]

Products and types

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Karkhanas were producing arms, ammunition, and also various items for the court and emperor's need such as clothes, shawls, turbans, jewelry, gold and silverware, perfumes, medicines, carpets, beddings, tents, and for the imperial stable-harnesses for the horses in articles of iron, copper and other metals.[21][31]

  • Silakhana was the Karkhanas for manufacturing arms and arsenal.[32]
  • For textile production there were separate Karkhanas for example Chhapakhana and Rangkhana (Printing and dyeing), Toshkhana (shawl making and embellishment work), Kirkarakhana (kurkyaraq khana) (wardrobe).[32]
  • Farrash khana (for carpets, floor coverings, rugs, mats and tents)[33]

Weapons

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Karkhans or Royal stores[34] or imperial karkhanas were responsible for producing and storing the required articles for artillery needs, there were about seventy different kind and type of items including heavy guns (cannons), armours, and various types of swords, daggers, spears and lances.[8][35]

Guns

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Ganzals- a heavy gun which was carried by an elephant and, Narnals, the considerably lighter counterpart, carried by a single man.[8]

Swords

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Khasa, Kotal, Jamadhar, Yakbandi and Khapwas.[8]

Armours

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For sepoys, horses, and elephants.[8]

Further information: Mughal weapons
Further information: Mughal artillery

Textiles

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The third Mughal emperor 'Akbar paid special attention in textiles' and improving the workmanship of local artisans. Fazl wrote

His Majesty pays much attention to various stuffs; hence Irana [Iranian], European and Mongolian articles of wear are in abundance. Skillful masters and workmen have settled in this country, to teach the people an improved system of manufacture. The imperial workshops, the towns of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur, Ahmadabad, Gujarat, turn out many master-pieces of workmanship; and figures and patterns, knots and variety of fashion which now prevail, astonish experienced travellers. His Majesty himself acquired in a short time a theoretical and practical knowledge of the whole trade; and on account of the care bestowed on them the intelligent workmen of this country soon improved. All kinds of hair-weaving and silk spinning were brought to perfection; and the imperial workshops furnish all those stuffs which are made in other countries. A taste for fine material has since become general, and drapery use at feasts surpasses every description

— An observation of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak

All the Mughal emperors, including Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, took equal interest in manufacturing clothes. Mughal Clothing became a big part of discussion. As per records, Akbar employed eleven thousand tailors for the supply of household goods.[2] Even Nur Jahan was directly controlling a few karkhanas. There were exclusive karkhanas for the royal families, such as karkhanas at Sonargaon, Junglabree, and Bazetpur, producing Malboos Khas (a superior mulmul cloth reserved for the aristocracy and the members of the royal family). Rulers or nobles were directly controlling these karkhanas.[37] Mughal clothing was stitched in these karkhanas from the best-chosen cloths, for instance, silk interwoven with gold and silver. The Ain-i-Akbari mentions various cloths with Zari work brocade, Embroidery from Gujarat, and Bengal. Khasa, Bafta, Gangajal are few of the fabrics given a mention.[38] Karkhanas produced numerous kinds of cotton, silk, and woolen textile piece goods.[39]

Remarks

[edit]

François Bernier wrote "the riches and most exquisitely wrought brocades, fine linens and alachas or silk stuffs interwoven with gold and silver"[2]

Fabrics and costumes
[edit]

Ain-i-Akbari has described clothes in the imperial wardrobe (toshkhana) along with details such as price, color, and weight. There are thirty-five items listed in the order of precedence. Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak explicitly informs about the imperial workshops for court needs situated at Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Ahmedabad. The skilled artisans had their training from Persian or Turkistan trainers and then produced higher quality artistic work in local royal karkhanas. Akabar's special interests resulted the major transformation in the field of design, formerly imported stuffs from abroad could then be made in the royal workshops.[40]

Mughal clothing was characterized by luxurious styles and was made with muslin, silk, velvet and brocade. Elaborate patterns including dots, checks, and waves were used with colors from various dyes including cochineal, sulfate of iron, sulfate of copper and sulfate of antimony were used.

Further information: Mughal clothing

Cotton

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Mughal era coat

Cotton had the highest share in the textiles, including calicos, muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colors. Cotton contributed a large part of the empire's international (Europe) trade.[41] The production of cotton goods was across India. Coarser cotton goods have majored in western sides (Gujrat and Punjab), and fine cotton goods were renowned of the east of medieval India. Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world.[42]

The Indian subcontinent produced varieties of cotton cloths, especially fine muslins between the 16th to 18th centuries. The seven explicitly mentioned cloths are khasa, Salu, Doriya, Bafta, Dupatta, and Panchtoliya, named in the exhaustive list of cotton cloths in Ain-i-Akbari.[43]

Fine muslins
[edit]

In 1586 Ralph Fitch remarked that in Sonargaon, just fifteen miles east of Dhaka, there is the best and finest cloth made of cotton that is in all India

— Remarks of Ralph Fitch consultant for the British East India Company[44]

Khasa[45], Tansukh,[46][47] Nainsook, Chautar,[48][49] and types of Mulmul (Sarkar ali, Sarbati, Tarindam)[50][51][52][53]

Further information: Mulmul
Other cotton materials
[edit]

Abu'l-Fazl specifies the cotton fabrics of Khandesh in Ain-i-Akbari. He refers three cotton varieties in which 'Abasteh' is the fine cotton 'Sarisaf' and 'Bhiraun' were ordinary.[54][55] He also appreciated the Chautar and Khasa of Saharanpur.[56] The calicos of Calicut, muslins of Dhaka, Chintz of Machilipatnam, and Baftas of Baroch and Cambay, cotton piece goods and cloth of gold of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were famous.[57][42]


Silk

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Silk and wool was also significant but not in comparison to cotton. For selected silk, the raw materials were also imported from china.[42] Silk weaving was an important industry in Lahore, Agra and Gujrat.

Wool

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Wool was limited to the particular areas such as Kashmir and Punjab.

Shawls and carpets

[edit]

Shawl

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Shawl, an article of loose clothing, was among the symbol of Mughal royalty. The Mughals improved not only the production but also the techniques of the craft of shawl making in Kashmir. The number of looms was grown to 40000. Royal workshops (karkhanas) introduced new colors and patterns, enhanced the shawl industry, which earned wealth and prosperity for Kashmir.[58]

Mughal carpets

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Mughal carpets were a blend of Persian and Indian artistry. They were uniquely designed with scenic landscapes, floral, and animal patterns. Kashmir was producing the finest wool and silk carpets and rugs, including prayer rugs. Sometimes the knot density in these rugs was so fine and tight as 300 knots per square centimeter. Carpet weaving was renowned in Agra, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri. The Girdler's carpet is one of the best-documented examples of Mughul carpets.[59][60]

Brocade and Embroidery
[edit]

Mughals admired Zardozi work on their costumes; this supported Karkhanas. Mughal ladies' favorite were embellished clothes with brocade, and various embroidery. There were a variety of options such as, Kantha, Kimkhwab, Chickankari, kashida, phulkari, etc.[61][62] The city of Amritsar was one of several centers of fine embroidery in the Punjab.[63]

Painting workshops

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There were exclusive workshops maintained for paintings also.[64]

Further information: Mughal painting

Wages

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Wages were paid to artisans and the unskilled labor on a daily basis, and only regular employees, whether craftsmen or domestic servants, received their pay monthly. The wages of skilled workers were notedly more in the Imperial karkhanas. As described in the Ain-i-Akbari (c.1595), which is an official account of the Mughal Empire. Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (the grand vizier of the Mughal emperor Akbar, and author of the Akbarnama) explained the detailed wages for all such categories, and also stated invariably in copper coins when daily rates are quoted.[4]

End

[edit]

It is important to observe, that of this vast tract of country, a large portion is extremely fertile; the large kingdom of Bengale (Bengal), for instance, surpassing Egypt itself, not only in the production of rice, corn, and other necessaries of life, but of innumerable articles of commerce which are not cultivated in Egypt; such as silks, cotton, and indigo. There are also many parts of the Indies, where the population is sufficiently abundant, and the land pretty well tilled; and where the artisan, although naturally indolent, is yet compelled by necessity or otherwise to employ himself in manufacturing carpets, brocades, embroideries, gold and silver cloths, and the various sorts of silk and cotton goods, which are used in the country or exported abroad. It should not escape notice that gold and silver, after circulating in every other quarter of the globe, come at length to be swallowed up, lost in some measure, in Hindustan.

— Bernier's description of both agriculture and craft production.

The rise, succession, despotism

[edit]

The Karkhanas was one of the significant revenue-making establishments of Mughals. Textiles of India flourished under the Mughal Empire. Textiles became the largest manufacturing industry then.[65] The emperors acquired lot of wealth in trade but the artisans and peasants' condition was not improving. All profits were for the governmental bodies.[66]

The fall

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Luke Scrafton, resident for the East India Company at the capital of Bengal in 1758, declared that until the invasion of Nader Shah in 1739 "there was scarce a better administered government in the world. The manufactures, commerce, and agriculture flourished exceedingly; and none felt the hand of the oppression but those who were dangerous by their wealth or power."

—Luke Scrafton, Reflections on the Government of Indostan (London, 1770).[67]

The fall of Karkhanas correlated with the fall of the Mughals has many reasons.

Still, major were the successive ruling and changes in administration and corruption at various levels of hierarchy. The corruption has risen since the reign of Jahangir.[68] They were relatively weak thus government affairs went into the hands of the unscrupulous ministers. They maintained a large number of servants, slaves, horses, elephants, etc. Bernier wrote about the Mughal tyranny and made the prophecy of the decline of the Mughal Empire, but Bernier could not visualize that the worst is yet to come and the British will be the next masters of the wealthiest part of the globe.[69][70]

[edit]
  • Emperor Farrukhsiyar Bestows a Jewel on a Nobleman
    Emperor Farrukhsiyar Bestows a Jewel on a Nobleman
  • Sir Nawab Khwaja Salimullah was a zamindar with the title of Nawab.
    Sir Nawab Khwaja Salimullah was a zamindar with the title of Nawab.
  • Late 17th century portrait of Fírúz Jang Khán, ruler of Bijapur
    Late 17th century portrait of Fírúz Jang Khán, ruler of Bijapur
  • Late 19th century "Costume of India - Moguls" picture depicting Mogul woman (upper left), Mogul Emperor Farrukhsiyar (center) died 1719, and Emperor Humayun (upper right), died in 1556
    Late 19th century "Costume of India - Moguls" picture depicting Mogul woman (upper left), Mogul Emperor Farrukhsiyar (center) died 1719, and Emperor Humayun (upper right), died in 1556
  • Vizier Qamar ud-Din circa 1735
    Vizier Qamar ud-Din circa 1735
  • Portrait of "Mogul" father with his children in Delhi (Shepherd & Robertson) circa 1863
    Portrait of "Mogul" father with his children in Delhi (Shepherd & Robertson) circa 1863
  • Mughal soldier, 19th century.
    Mughal soldier, 19th century.
  • Mughal officer, 17th century.
    Mughal officer, 17th century.
  • Officer of the Mughal Army with large Matchlock
    Officer of the Mughal Army with large Matchlock
  • Zulfikar, a Mughal sword
    Zulfikar, a Mughal sword
  • Ain-i Akbari weaponry
    Ain-i Akbari weaponry
  • Prince Dara Shikuh's sword and scabbard (number 8), at the V&A Museum in London.
    Prince Dara Shikuh's sword and scabbard (number 8), at the V&A Museum in London.
  • Ceremonial Mace chob
    Ceremonial Mace chob
  • Dhal (shield), North India, Mughal period, 17th century, steel, gold, silk, leather - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04543
    Dhal (shield), North India, Mughal period, 17th century, steel, gold, silk, leather - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04543
  • Idealized Portrait of the Mughal Empress Nur Jahan (1577-1645)? LACMA M.81.271.7
    Idealized Portrait of the Mughal Empress Nur Jahan (1577-1645)? LACMA M.81.271.7
  • Nur Jahan with her servants
    Nur Jahan with her servants
  • A woman in fine Bengali muslin
    A woman in fine Bengali muslin
  • Jama coat worn during Mughal period, 17th century, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
    Jama coat worn during Mughal period, 17th century, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Saxena, Rajendra Kumar (2002). Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana. Publication Scheme. pp. 69, 70, 63. ISBN 978-81-86782-75-0.
  2. ^ a b c Mukherjee, Soma (2001). Royal Mughal Ladies and Their Contributions. Gyan Books. p. 86. ISBN 978-81-212-0760-7.
  3. ^ Verma, Tripta (1994). Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development. Pragati Publications. p. 34. ISBN 978-81-7307-021-1.
  4. ^ a b c d Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan; Kumar, Dharma; Habib, Professor Emeritus History Irfan; Desai, Meghnad (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, C.1200-c.1750. CUP Archive. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9.
  5. ^ Young India. Navajivan Publishing House. 1929. p. 303.
  6. ^ Saxena, Rajendra Kumar (2002). Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana. Publication Scheme. pp. 16, 20, 159. ISBN 978-81-86782-75-0.
  7. ^ Khan, Sumbul Halim (2015). Art and Craft Workshops Under the Mughals: A Study of Jaipur Karkhanas. Primus Books. ISBN 978-93-84082-30-7.
  8. ^ a b c d e Seth, Vijay K. (2017-09-29). The Story of Indian Manufacturing: Encounters with the Mughal and British Empires (1498 -1947). Springer. p. 50. ISBN 978-981-10-5574-4.
  9. ^ Khan, Hussain Ahmad (2014-12-19). Artisans, Sufis, Shrines: Colonial Architecture in Nineteenth-Century Punjab. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-78673-946-9. Archived from the original on 2023-11-13. Retrieved 2021-01-03.
  10. ^ a b Gupta, Versha (2018-07-27). Botanical Culture of Mughal India: (Ad 1526–1707). Partridge Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5437-0336-8.
  11. ^ "The Mughal karkhana were more extensive establishments compared to their counterparts in the Sultanate period. They included administrative departments ..." Artisans, Sufis, Shrines: Colonial Architecture in ... - Page 18 Archived 2023-11-13 at the Wayback Machine Hussain Ahmad Khan · 2014 Archived 2023-11-13 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ State and Society: Quarterly Journal of the Indian Institute for Regional Development Studies. The Institute. 1986. p. 18.
  13. ^ Malik, Dr Malti (1943). History of India. New Saraswati House India Pvt Ltd. p. 187. ISBN 978-81-7335-498-4.
  14. ^ "historical records to establish the fact that the best-quality steel used by Greek and Hellenistic monarchies was imported from India. ... During Mughal rule, due to the existence of a vast army and increase in extent of urbanization, the demand for iron for making weapons... manufacturing, the Mughal state had big manufacturing units which have been described by historians as royal karkhanas (factories)." Ascent and Decline of Native and Colonial Trading: Vijay K Seth · 2019 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ a b c KHAN, SUMBUL HALIM (1991). "Karkhanas of a Mughal Nobleevidence from the Amber/Jaipur Records". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 52: 432–438. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44142638.
  16. ^ a b c Bernier described in 1666 what he saw in the palace at Delhi in the following terms: "Large halls are seen in many places called Karkkanas or workshop for the artisans. In one hall embroiderers are employed, superintended by a master; in another you see goldsmiths, in a third, painters in a fifth, tailors, etc., in a sixth, manufacturers of silk brocades and fine muslins." Indian Cotton Textile Industry BY M. P. GANDHI, M.A., F.R.Econ.S., F.S.S. [1] Archived 2019-12-29 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ "Indian Journals". www.indianjournals.com. Archived from the original on 2021-01-16. Retrieved 2021-01-06.
  18. ^ Nijjar, Bakhshish Singh (1968). Panjāb Under the Great Mughals, 1526-1707. Thacker. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8426-0127-6. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-10.
  19. ^ "There were also the persons having royal origins were taken ... Khan - i - Saman Head of the royal household and the royal karkhanas or buyutats (workshops); his gradual Central Administration ascendancy into ... The only lim- ministers and officers at the centre, though not as imits on the autocracy of the king were the nobility and portant as the above."[clarification needed] General Studies History 4 Upsc - Page B-93books.google.co.in › books Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Reddy · 2005 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ "The Ain separately describes 26 of the karkhanas and indirectly or briefly refers to 10 others making a total of 36. ... Classified List of Karkhanas The Mughal karkhanas as enumerated in the Zawabit" Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A ... - Page 20books.google.co.in › books Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Tripta Verma · 1994 · Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  21. ^ a b Verma, Tripta (1994). Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development. Pragati Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-7307-021-1. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  22. ^ ''THE A kind of account which the author of the “ Zubdatu ' l ķawánín ” says is the same as a monthly Jama ' kharch . ارسته که عبارت از جمع خرچ ماهواري و مجمل وازخام است “ '' Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the ... - Page 11books.google.co.in › books Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Sir Henry Miers Elliot, John Beames · 1869 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ^ Wilson, Horace Hayman (1855). A Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms: And of Useful Words Occurring in Official Documents Relating to the Administration of the Government of British India, from the Arabic, Persian, Hindustání, Sanskrit, Hindí, Bengálí, Uriya, Maráthi, Guazráthí, Telugu, Karnáta, Tamil, Malayálam, and Other Languages. W.H. Allen and Company. p. 229. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
  24. ^ Congress, Indian History (1994). Proceedings. Indian History Congress. p. 333. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  25. ^ "Development of Record". rsad.artandculture.rajasthan.gov.in. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-06.
  26. ^ "Arhsatta Karkhanejat in the Jaipur Section of RSAB contain tozi records (on separate sheets) on the different state workshop - cum - warehouses, the commodities manufactured and the wages given to the workers there." Politics of Patronage and Protest: The State, Society, and ... - Page 252 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Nandita Prasad Sahai · 2006 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ "Topkhana Hazuri (meaning 'arms store')" Building Jaipur: The Making of an Indian City - Page 49 Vibhuti Chakrabarti, Vibhuti Sachdev, Giles Henry Rupert Tillotson · 2002
  28. ^ Saxena, Rajendra Kumar (2002). Karkhanas of the Mughal Zamindars: A Study in the Economic Development of 18th Century Rajputana. Publication Scheme. pp. 135, 136. ISBN 978-81-86782-75-0. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  29. ^ "Shutarkhana, i.e. department of camel corps, which deals with the maintenance of camels and their supply to the army" Indica - Volumes 22-24 - Page 143books.google.co.in › books Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine 1985 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ Verma, Tripta (1994). Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development. Pragati Publications. p. 21. ISBN 978-81-7307-021-1. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  31. ^ Sharma, Sri Ram (1951). Mughal Government and Administration. Hind Kitabs. p. 61. Archived from the original on 2024-04-18. Retrieved 2021-01-06.
  32. ^ a b Sumit (2012). "An Eighteenth Century Survey of Jaipur "Chhapakhana" Based on Jaipur "Karkhanajat" Records". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 73: 421–430. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44156233. Archived from the original on 2024-04-18. Retrieved 2021-01-06.
  33. ^ "Farrash khana (furniture tents and carpets)" Page 174 Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A ...books.google.co.in › books Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Tripta Verma · 1994 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ Chandra, Satish (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. Har-Anand Publications. p. 140. ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2021-01-03.
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  36. ^ Ibn-Mubārak, Abu-'l-Faḍl (1873). "The" Ain i Akbari : 1. Archived from the original on 2023-02-08. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
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  38. ^ Mubārak, Abū al-Faz̤l ibn (1873). The Ain I Akbari. Asiatic Society of Bengal. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  39. ^ Verma, Tripta (1994). Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development. Pragati Publications. pp. 109, 68, 2. ISBN 978-81-7307-021-1.
  40. ^ "A further refinement took into account the colours, of which thirty five are listed in the order of precedence. Abul Fazl further records that imperial workshops had been set up in the cities of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Ahmedabad, where the best of the local craftsmen were requisitioned to supply the needs of the court. 2 Persian masters were brought in to teach improved techniques. It is questionable whether the Hindu weaver had much to learn from Persia in this traditional field of cotton and silk weaving. What does seem likely is that, while the shawl industry which Akbar improved may itself have been a foreign import to Kashmir by Muslim craftsmen from Turkistan as late as the 15th century. 3 Whatever the impact of the Persian intervention in the technical field and Ain-i-Akbari states that many categories of 81 textile formerly imported from abroad could then be made in the royal workshops there can be no doubt that by far the greatest transformation took place in the field of design." Page 80, 81 [2] Archived 2022-01-09 at the Wayback Machine
  41. ^ Karl J. Schmidt (2015), An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History, page 100 Archived 2023-09-22 at the Wayback Machine, Routledge
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  45. ^ Museum, Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II; Museum, Maharaja of Jaipur (1979). Textiles and Costumes from the Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum. Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum Trust. pp. XII.
  46. ^ Khadi Gramodyog. Khadi & Village Industries Commission. 2001. p. 88.
  47. ^ Congress, Indian History (1967). Proceedings. Indian History Congress. p. 243.
  48. ^ Burnell, Arthur Coke (2017-05-15). The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies: From the Old English Translation of 1598. The First Book, containing his Description of the East. In Two Volumes Volume I. Taylor & Francis. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-317-01231-3.
  49. ^ Sangar, Pramod (1993). Growth of the English Trade Under the Mughals. ABS Publications. p. 171. ISBN 978-81-7072-044-7.
  50. ^ Sinha, Narendra Krishna (1961). The Economic History of Bengal from Plassey to the Permanent Settlement. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 177.
  51. ^ "Cotton clothes: 1. Khasa per piece (than) - 3 rupiya to 15 muhr 2. Chautar per piece - 2 rupiya to 9 muhr 3. Malmal per piece - 4 rupiya 4. Tansukh per piece - 4 rupiya to 5 muhr" Page 87 https://ir.nbu.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/2751/13/13_chapter%205.pdf Archived 2022-01-09 at the Wayback Machine
  52. ^ Chaudhury, Sushil (2020-03-10). Spinning Yarns: Bengal Textile Industry in the Backdrop of John Taylor's Report on 'Dacca Cloth Production' (1801). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-07920-3. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-04.
  53. ^ Bhattacharya, Ranjit Kumar; Chakrabarti, S. B. (2002). Indian Artisans: Social Institutions and Cultural Values. Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Culture, Youth Affairs and Sports, Department of Culture. p. 87. ISBN 978-81-85579-56-6. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  54. ^ Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Khandesh. Printed at the Government Central Press. 1880. p. 248. Archived from the original on 2024-05-16. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  55. ^ "kinds of cloth. Ain - i - Akbari mentions the cotton products of Khandesh and the stuffs called 'sarisaf' and Bhiram coming from Dharangam. ... Abul Fazl says that His Majesty encouraged the production of Kashmir shawls. He started their ..." History of India and Pakistan - Volume 2 - Page 683 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Muhammad Tariq Awan · 1991 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  56. ^ "Abul Fazl, in his Ain - i - Akbari, refers to the cotton fabrics of Khandesh." A Social, Cultural, and Economic History of India - Page 98books.google.co.in › books Pran Nath Chopra, Baij Nath Puri, Manmath Nath Das · 1974 A_Social_Cultural_and_Economic_History_o/Sw5uAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq= Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
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  58. ^ Ashfaque, Farzana (2009). "Shawl and Carpet Industry in Kashmir Under the Mughals". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 70: 285–296. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44147675. Archived from the original on 2021-01-07. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
  59. ^ Bell, James Elton; Bell, Frances Jean (2007). Sir Robert Bell and His Early Virginia Colony Descendants: A Compilation of 16th, 17th, and 18th Century English and Scottish Families with the Surname Bell, Beale, Le Bel ... Et Al. Wheatmark, Inc. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-58736-747-2.
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  66. ^ "The nobles maintained households with a large number of wives, concubines, slaves and domestic servants. The Mughal emperor's own harem consisted of 5,000 females divided into two categories: (a) mahim-bano, that is, ..." Ascent and Decline of Native and Colonial Trading: Tale of ...books.google.co.in › books Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Vijay K Seth · 2019 Archived 2024-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
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