Jump to content

Culture of South Asia

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A depiction of South Asia (mostly orange) and its influence on neighbouring parts of Asia (lighter-orange).

The culture of South Asia, also known as Desi culture, is a mixture of several cultures in and around the Indian subcontinent. Ancient South Asian culture was primarily based in Hinduism, which itself formed as a mixture of Vedic religion and indigenous traditions (like Dravidian folk religion), and later Buddhist influences.[1] From the medieval era onwards, influences from the Muslim world (particularly Central Asia and the Middle East) and then Europe (primarily British) also became prevalent.[2][3]

South Asian culture has influenced other parts of Asia, particularly Southeast Asia (see Greater India).[4]

History

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Culture of Asia § South Asia.[edit]
Language families in South Asia
Traditional Rajasthani garments from Jaipur, Rajasthan

Evidence of Neolithic culture has been found throughout the modern states Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka that represent South Asia (also known as the Indian subcontinent). Since 3,300 B.C. in modern-day northeastern Afghanistan, in Pakistan and northwestern India a sophisticated Bronze Age cultural tradition emerged, that after only a few centuries fully flourished in urban centers. Due to the high quality of its arts, crafts, metallurgy and buildings, the accomplishments in urban planning, governance, trade and technology etc. it has been classified as one of the principal Cradles of civilization. Referred to as the Indus Valley civilisation or Harappan Civilisation it thrived for almost 2.000 years until the onset of the Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 B.C.).[5][6] The great significance of the Vedic texts (that don't mention cities or urban life) for South Asian culture, their impact on family, societal organisation, religion, morale, literature etc. has never been contested. The Indus Valley Civilisation on the other hand has only come to light by means of 20th century archaeology. Scholars, who employ several periodization models argue over whether South Asian tradition is consciously committed to the Harappan culture.[7][8]

Declining climatic conditions, (aridification) and population displacement (Indo-Aryan migration) are regarded as to have caused the fatal disruption of the Harappa culture, that was superseded by the rural Vedic culture.[9][10]

Following the Indo-Aryan settlement in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the establishment of the characteristic social groups (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) in the caste system based on the Jāti model in the Varna order, the tribal entities variously consolidated into oligarchic chiefdoms or kingdoms (the 16 Mahajanapadas), beginning in the sixth century B.C. The late Vedic political progress results in urbanization, strict social hierarchy, commercial and military rivalries among the settlers, that have spread all over the entire sub-continent.[11] The large body of Vedic texts and literature, supported by the archaeological sequence allows researchers to reconstruct a rather accurate and detailed image of the Vedic culture and political organisation. The Vedas constitute the oldest work of Sanskrit literature and form the basis of religious, ethic and philosophic ideas in South Asia. They are widely, but not exclusively regarded the basics and scriptural authority on worship, rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge for the future Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Commentaries and discussions also focus on the development of valid political ideas and concepts of societal progress and ethic conformity.[12]

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are major religions of South Asia. After a long and complex history of cosmological and religious development, adoption and decline, the Hindu-synthesis[13] and the late but thorough introduction of Islam about 80% of modern-day Indians and Nepalis identify as Hindus.[14] In Sri Lanka and Bhutan most people adhere to various forms of Buddhism.[15] Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan, the Maldives (99%), Pakistan (96%) and Bangladesh (90%).[16][17][18]

Badshahi Mosque built under the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan

Afghanistan and Pakistan are situated at the western periphery of South Asia, where the cultural character has been made by both the Indosphere and Persia.[19] Pakistan is split with its two western regions of Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sharing a greater Iranic heritage due to the native Pashtuns and Baloch people of the regions. Its two eastern regions of Punjab and Sindh share cultural links to Northwest India. Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal share a common heritage and culture based on the Bengali language. The Culture of India is diverse and a complex mixture of many influences. Nepal is culturally linked to both India and Tibet and the varied ethnic groups of the country share many of the festivals and cultural traditions used and celebrated in North and East India and Tibet. Nepali, the dominant language of Nepal uses the Devanagari alphabet which is also used to write many North Indian languages.[20][21] Bhutan is a culturally linked to Tibet and India. Tibetan Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan and the Tibetan alphabet is used to write Dzongkha, the dominant language of Bhutan. There is a cultural and linguistic divide between North and South India. Sri Lanka is culturally tied to both India and Southeast Asia.[22] Sinhala, the dominant language in the country is written in Sinhala script which is derived from the Kadamba-Pallava alphabet, certain cultural traditions, and aspects of its cuisine, for example, show South Indian influences. Cultural festivals, aspects of its cuisine and Theravada Buddhism, the dominant religion in Sri Lanka, show a Southeast Asian affinity.[23]

Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sinhala of Sri Lanka and most of North, West and East India and Nepal. Dravidian languages namely Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam languages are spoken across South India and in Sri Lanka by the Tamil community. Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in Nepal, Bhutan, and North & North East India. Iranic Languages are spoken in Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in PakistanThe main languages of Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari.

Religion

[edit]
Main article: Religion in South Asia

Languages

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Languages of South Asia.[edit]
SindhGujaratBalochistan, PakistanPunjabKhyber PakhtunkhwaHindi beltHindi beltKashmirBhutanNepalBengalNortheast IndiaTelugu statesMaharashtraOdishaKarnatakaKeralaTamil NaduSri Lankan TamilsSinhalese people
A clickable map of the official language and lingua franca spoken in each state/province of South Asia excluding Afghanistan and the Maldives. Indo-Aryan languages are in green, Iranic languages in dark green, Dravidian languages in purple, and Tibeto-Burman languages in red.

South Asia is home to several hundred languages, spanning the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. It is home to the third most spoken language in the world, Hindi–Urdu; and the sixth most spoken language, Bengali. The languages in the region mostly comprise Indo-Iranic and Dravidian languages, and further members of other language families like Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman languages.

English is considered the international lingua franca of the South Asian countries. Since the colonial era, the South Asian languages have absorbed significant influences from the English language,[24][25][26][27] with the most-spoken South Asian language Hindustani acquiring a new English-influenced variant known as Hinglish[28][29][30][31][32] which is spoken more in urban areas.[33]

Art

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Indian art.[edit]
Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts such as woven silk. Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan , and at times eastern Afghanistan. A strong sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and can be observed in its modern and traditional forms.

Cinema

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from South Asian cinema.[edit]
South Asian cinema refers to the cinema of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The broader terms Asian cinema, Eastern cinema and Oriental cinema in common usage often encompass South Asia as well as East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Cuisine

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from South Asian cuisine § Staples and common ingredients.[edit]
An assortment of spices and herbs. Spices are an indispensable food ingredient in much of the subcontinent.

Chapati, a type of flat bread, is a common part of meals to be had in many parts of the subcontinent. Other staples from many of the cuisines include rice, roti made from atta flour, and beans.

Foods in this area of the world are flavoured with various types of chilli, black pepper, cloves, and other strong herbs and spices along with the flavoured butter ghee. Ginger is an ingredient that can be used in both savory and sweet recipes in cuisines from the subcontinent. Chopped ginger is fried with meat and pickled ginger is often an accompaniment to boiled rice. Ginger juice and ginger boiled in syrup are used to make desserts. Turmeric and cumin are often used to make curries.

Common meats include lamb, goat, fish, chicken and beef. Beef is less common in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka than in other South Asian cuisines because cattle have a special place in Dharmic religions. Prohibitions against beef extend to the meat of (water) buffalo and yaks to some extent. Pork is considered as a taboo food item by all Muslims and is not taboo but avoided by many Hindus, though it is commonly eaten in some regions like Northeast India and Goa where Christianity is wide-spread. A variety of very sweet desserts which use dairy products is also found in cuisines of the subcontinent. The main ingredients in desserts of the subcontinent are reduced milk, ground almonds, lentil flour, ghee and sugar. Kheer is a dairy-based rice pudding, a common dessert.

Sports

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Sport in South Asia.[edit]
Kabaddi, a native South Asian sport, made its inaugural appearance at the Asian Games in 1990.
Many sports are played in South Asia, with cricket being the most popular of them; 90% of the sport's worldwide fans live in South Asia.[34] Football is followed passionately in some parts of South Asia,[35][36] such as Kerala and Bengal.[37][38][39] Field hockey was popular for several decades, with some of South Asia's greatest sporting accomplishments having taken place in this sport.[40] Some native South Asian games are played professionally in the region, such as kabaddi and kho-kho, and also feature in regional competitions such as the South Asian Games and Asian Games.[41][42]
This section is an excerpt from Traditional games of South Asia § History.[edit]

Ancient era

[edit]

Some traditional South Asian games, such as kabaddi, kho-kho, and atya-patya, are believed to be thousands of years old, finding mention in historical scriptures[43] and dating back to ancient India.[44][45][46] Kho-kho, for example, dates back to at least the fourth century BC.[47] Many South Asian games likely reflect characteristics of traditional life in the subcontinent; for example, the Bengali hopscotch game of ekka-dokka (related to Stapoo and Chindro) may reflect the concepts of land division and ownership of property in ancient times.[48]

Modern era

[edit]
An advertisement for Pro Kabaddi League (PKL). The sport was first standardised in the 1920s along the lines of English sports,[49] and PKL began in 2014.

After the British colonisation of the subcontinent which peaked from the 19th century to 1947, Western sports such as cricket, football, and hockey began to be followed to a greater extent, to the detriment of the traditional games.[50][51] The modern advent of urbanisation,[52] globalisation (which attracted people towards more globally popular games),[53] and technology (which gave people digital forms of entertainment such as the Internet, television, and video games)[54] have further diminished the traditional South Asian sports.[55] Additional reasons include religious extremism in some areas, which has restricted people from playing certain games, and lack of governmental support.[56]

However, some professional leagues are now being started for certain traditional sports, such as the Pro Kabaddi League, Ultimate Kho Kho, and Pro Panja League, which are beginning to revive interest in these sports and even globalise them;[57][58] these leagues are now some of the most-watched competitions in the subcontinent.[59]

Martial arts

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Indian martial arts.[edit]

Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent. A variety of terms are used for the English phrases "Indian martial arts", deriving from ancient sources. While they may seem to imply specific disciplines (e.g. archery, armed combat), by Classical times they were used generically for all fighting systems.

Among the most common terms today, śastra-vidyā, is a compound of the words śastra (weapon) and vidyā (knowledge).[60] Dhanurveda derives from the words for bow (dhanushya) and knowledge (veda), the "science of archery" in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts in general.[61] The Vishnu Purana text describes dhanuveda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of "applied knowledge" or upaveda, along with shastrashāstra or military science.[62] A later term, yuddha kalā, comes from the words yuddha meaning fight or combat and kalā meaning art or skill. The related term śastra kalā (lit. weapon art) usually refers specifically to armed disciplines. Another term, yuddha-vidyā or "combat knowledge", refers to the skills used on the battlefield, encompassing not only actual fighting but also battle formations and strategy. Martial arts are usually learnt and practiced in the traditional akharas.[63][64]

Music

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Music of South Asia.[edit]
South Asian music comprises a range of prominent musical genres and styles that are unique to the countries in and around the Indian subcontinent. This subregion of Asia includes countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with each region one possessing its own distinct musical traditions. South Asian styles of music reflect a diverse range of local customs, regional languages and historical traditions, that have shaped the musical practices which are still seen today.[65] Throughout history, South Asian musicians have emulated religious and spiritual beliefs into their compositions, resulting in the creation of musical styles such as Qawwali, Ghazal and Hindustani classical music. The development of forms of mass media in the 1980s and 1990s contributed to a new type of South Asian musical culture, as the rise of cinema and television resulted in the popularity of genres such as Bollywood and Lollywood. As a result of social media and modern streaming networks, folk and ritual music styles are still widely appreciated today, with many modern artists taking inspiration from the classical traditions that defined the history of South Asian music.[66]

Architecture

[edit]

Afghan architecture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Architecture of Afghanistan.[edit]

Pakistani architecture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Pakistani architecture.[edit]
Pakistani architecture is intertwined with the architecture of the broader Indian subcontinent. The major architectural styles popular in the past were Temple, Indo-Islamic, Mughal and Indo-Saracenic architecture, all of which have many regional varieties. With the beginning of the Indus civilization around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC,[67] for the first time in the area which encompasses today's Pakistan an advanced urban culture developed with large structural facilities, some of which survive to this day. This was followed by the Gandhara style of Buddhist architecture that borrowed elements from Ancient Greece. These remnants are visible in the Gandhara capital of Taxila.[68]

Indian architecture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Architecture of India.[edit]

Indian architecture is rooted in the history, culture, and religion of India. Among several architectural styles and traditions, the best-known include the many varieties of Hindu temple architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture, especially Rajput architecture, Mughal architecture, South Indian architecture, and Indo-Saracenic architecture. Early Indian architecture was made from wood, which did not survive due to rotting and instability in the structures. Instead, the earliest existing architecture are made with Indian rock-cut architecture, including many Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain temples.

The Hindu temple architecture is divided into the Dravidian style of southern India and the Nagara style of northern India, with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, depending on climate.

The first major Islamic kingdom in India was the Delhi Sultanate, which led to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture, combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the Mughal Empire, when Mughal architecture evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the Taj Mahal being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the Rajput and Sikh styles as well.

During the British colonial period, European styles including Neoclassical, Gothic Revival, and Baroque became prevalent across India. The amalgamation of Indo-Islamic and European styles led to a new style, known as the Indo-Saracenic style. After India's independence, modernist ideas spread among Indian architects as a way of progressing from the colonial culture. Le Corbusier - who designed the city of Chandigarh - influenced a generation of architects towards modernism in the 20th century. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with the world's economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture in the contemporary era.[69]

Dravidian architecture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Dravidian architecture.[edit]

Dravidian architecture, or the Southern Indian temple style, is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from Southern India, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century.

In contrast with North Indian temple styles, Dravidian architecture uses shorter and more pyramidal towers, called vimana, over the garbhagriha or sanctuary, where the north has taller towers, usually curving inwards as they rise, called shikharas. Larger modern Dravidian style temples, however, include one or more high gopura or gatehouse entrances to the compound as their dominating feature; large temples have several dwarfing the vimana, although these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features, such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha.

Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in early texts on vastu shastra or Hindu temple architecture, the majority of existing structures are in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, some parts of Maharashtra, Odisha and Sri Lanka.[70][71] Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas of Vidarbha, the Cholas, the Cheras, the Kakatiyas, the Reddis, the Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravida architecture.

Bengali architecture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Architecture of Bengal.[edit]

The Architecture of Bengal, which comprises the modern country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam's Barak Valley, has a long and rich history, blending indigenous elements from the Indian subcontinent, with influences from different parts of the world. Bengali architecture includes ancient urban architecture, religious architecture, rural vernacular architecture, colonial townhouses and country houses and modern urban styles. The bungalow style is a notable architectural export of Bengal. The corner towers of Bengali religious buildings were replicated in medieval Southeast Asia. Bengali curved roofs, suitable for the very heavy rains, were adopted into a distinct local style of Indo-Islamic architecture, and used decoratively elsewhere in north India in Mughal architecture.

Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and traditional Bengali architecture mostly uses brick and wood, often reflecting the styles of the wood, bamboo and thatch styles of local vernacular architecture for houses. Decorative carved or moulded plaques of terracotta (the same material as the brick) are a special feature. The brick is extremely durable and disused ancient buildings were often used as a convenient source of materials by local people, often being stripped to their foundations over the centuries.

Clothing

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent.[edit]
The Buddha wearing kāṣāya robes, Gandhara, 1st-2nd century CE. Height about 1 meter. Tokyo National Museum
History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization or earlier. Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BCE during the Harappan era. The remnants of the ancient Indian clothing can be found in the figurines discovered from the sites near the Indus Valley civilisation, the rock-cut sculptures, the cave paintings, and human art forms found in temples and monuments. These scriptures view the figures of human wearing clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the sari to that of turban and the dhoti, the traditional Indian wears were mostly tied around the body in various ways.

Literature

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from South Asian literature.[edit]
South Asian literature refers to the literature that is composed by authors in the Indian subcontinent and its diaspora. It has an extensive history with some of the earliest known pieces of literature. South Asia has many different languages that have been spoken due to its size and how long people have been inhabiting it. This has caused the region to be the most linguistically diverse region in the planet,[72] and as well as having four language families (Dravidian, Indo-European, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman), hundreds of languages and thousands of dialects.[73] Many modern pieces of South Asian literature are written in English for a global audience. Many of the ancient texts of the subcontinent have been lost due to the inability to preserve verbally transmitted literature. South Asia has many significant authors that shaped the postcolonial period and response to the British establishment in the subcontinent. Modern South Asian literature has a deep focus on independence from Britain, mainly expressed in prose, this literature commonly discusses the partition of India and how different South Asian nations, religions, and cultures interact with each other. Countries to which South Asian literature's writers are linked include India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Works from Bhutan, Myanmar, Tibet, and the Maldives are sometimes also included.

Philosophy

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Indian philosophy.[edit]

Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at."[74][75] Ānvīkṣikī means “critical inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśana, ānvīkṣikī was used to refer to Indian philosophies by classical Indian philosophers, such as Chanakya in the Arthaśāstra.[75][76]

A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas.[77][78][79] (though there are exceptions to the latter two: Mimamsa and Samkhya respectively).

There are six major (āstika) schools of Vedic philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta—and five major non-Vedic or heterodox (nāstika or sramanic) schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka. The āstika group embraces the Vedas as an essential source of its foundations, while the nāstika group does not. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.[80][81]

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era.[citation needed] Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Śaiva and Vedanta survived, but others, like Ajñana, Charvaka and Ājīvika did not.

Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.[82][page needed][83][84][85]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Micu, Alexandru (2020-07-01). "How old is Hinduism and how it all started". ZME Science. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  2. ^ "From the Achaemenids to the Mughals: A look at India's lost Persian history". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  3. ^ "How the British influenced Indian culture". DAWN.COM. 2010-06-06. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  4. ^ Pillalamarri, Akhilesh. "How India Influenced Southeast Asian Civilization". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  5. ^ Liviu Giosan, Peter D. Clift, Mark G. Macklin, Dorian Q. Fuller, Stefan Constantinescu, Julie A. Durcan, Thomas Stevens, Geoff A. T. Duller, Ali R. Tabrez, Kavita Gangal, Ronojoy Adhikari, Anwar Alizai, Florin Filip, Sam VanLaningham, James P. M. Syvitski (June 26, 2012). "Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (26). PNAS: E1688–E1694. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112743109. PMC 3387054. PMID 22645375.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ John L. Brooke (2014-03-17). Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521871648. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  7. ^ Kenoyer 1991.
  8. ^ Coningham & Young 2015, p. 27.
  9. ^ Mark McClish, Patrick Olivelle (2012-09-07). The Arthaśāstra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft. M.S. Koṭhārī. ISBN 9781603849036. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  10. ^ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the ... Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131711200. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  11. ^ Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Mediaeval India 2008, p. 200.
  12. ^ Michael Witzel. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" (PDF). Harvard University. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  13. ^ "Hindu synthesis and smriti". Speaking Tree. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  14. ^ "The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism". A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Pew Research Foundation. 18 December 2012. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  15. ^ Pew Research Center (18 December 2012). "Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists". Pew Research Center. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  16. ^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013-01-01). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9780415448512.
  17. ^ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050date=2015-04-02". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
  18. ^ Diplomat, Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The. "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Retrieved April 21, 2018.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Peter R. Blood. "Pakistan : a country study". Library of Congress. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  20. ^ Bista, Dor Bahadur (1991). Fatalism and Development: Nepal's Struggle for Modernization - Dor Bahadur Bista - Google Books. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 9788125001881. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
  21. ^ http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_26_02_01.pdf
  22. ^ Mendis, V.L.B (1985). Foreign Relations of Sri Lanka: Earliest Times to 1965. Tisara Prakasakayo. pp. 113–16.
  23. ^ Sirisena, W. M. (1978-01-01). Sri Lanka and South-East Asia: Political, Religious and Cultural Relations ... - W. M. Sirisena - Google Books. Brill Archive. ISBN 978-9004056602. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
  24. ^ Cheshire, Jenny (1991-04-26). English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-58235-0.
  25. ^ Rauch, Irmengard; Carr, Gerald F. (2018-02-19). Linguistic Method: Essays in Honor of Herbert Penzl. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-081566-5.
  26. ^ Hodges, Amy; Seawright, Leslie (2014-09-26). Going Global: Transnational Perspectives on Globalization, Language, and Education. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-6761-0.
  27. ^ Kachru, Braj B. (1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-native Englishes. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06172-1.
  28. ^ Kothari, Rita; Snell, Rupert (2011). Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341639-5.
  29. ^ "Hindi, Hinglish: Head to Head". read.dukeupress.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  30. ^ Salwathura, A. N. "Evolutionary development of ‘hinglish’language within the indian sub-continent." International Journal of Research-GRANTHAALAYAH. Vol. 8. No. 11. Granthaalayah Publications and Printers, 2020. 41-48.
  31. ^ Vanita, Ruth (2009-04-01). "Eloquent Parrots; Mixed Language and the Examples of Hinglish and Rekhti". International Institute for Asian Studies Newsletter (50): 16–17.
  32. ^ Singh, Rajendra (1985-01-01). "Modern Hindustani and Formal and Social Aspects of Language Contact". ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 70 (1): 33–60. doi:10.1075/itl.70.02sin. ISSN 0019-0829.
  33. ^ Parshad, Rana D.; Bhowmick, Suman; Chand, Vineeta; Kumari, Nitu; Sinha, Neha (2016-05-01). "What is India speaking? Exploring the "Hinglish" invasion". Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications. 449: 375–389. doi:10.1016/j.physa.2016.01.015. ISSN 0378-4371. S2CID 59247503.
  34. ^ "Explained snippets: Cricket has 1 billion fans, 90% of them in subcontinent". The Indian Express. 2018-06-28. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  35. ^ Bandyopadhyay, Kausik (2016), "Football in South Asia", Routledge Handbook of Football Studies, Routledge, doi:10.4324/9780203066430-43/football-south-asia-kausik-bandyopadhyay, ISBN 978-0-203-06643-0, retrieved 2024-05-29
  36. ^ Dimeo, Paul; Mills, James (2001). Soccer in South Asia: Empire, Nation, Diaspora. ISBN 978-0-7146-5146-0.
  37. ^ Bastian, Ron (2022-11-13). "For football-crazy Kerala, FIFA World Cup is its biggest festival". thefederal.com. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  38. ^ "Why Bengal is obsessed with football?". The Indian Express. 2018-06-14. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  39. ^ "50 years of Victory: What has Bangladesh achieved in the field of sports?". The Business Standard. 2021-12-16. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  40. ^ History of hockey in India: Taught by the British, India conquered the world https://olympics.com/ Rahul Venkat
  41. ^ Taneja, Nidhima (2023-01-27). "Pro kabaddi, kho-kho leagues chase IPL viewership. India rediscovering regional sports". ThePrint. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  42. ^ "OCA » Ancient tag game of kho kho catching on fast". ocasia.org. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  43. ^ Jacob, Megha; Nandini, Brij; Sharma, Niytanshi (2023-07-17). "Indigenous Sports of India: Connecting Past to the Present". Artha Journal of Social Sciences. 22 (1): 1–23. doi:10.12724/ajss.64.1. ISSN 0000-0000.
  44. ^ Kabaddi: How to play India’s 4000-year-old indigenous sport Olympics.com
  45. ^ Kho Kho, a kabaddi-like sport linked with Indian epic Mahabharata – know all about it Olympics.com
  46. ^ Arasu, S. T. (4 July 2020). "Galah Panjang and its Indian roots". On the sport. Be part of it. Retrieved 2022-11-19.
  47. ^ "The Evolution Of Kho Kho Mats In India: A Historical Overview". English Jagran. 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2023-08-08.
  48. ^ A Historical Study of the Origin and Features of Some Selected Folk Games in North Bengal Badal Roy https://ir.nbu.ac.in/
  49. ^ Love, Adam; Dzikus, Lars (2020-02-26). "How India came to love cricket, favored sport of its colonial British rulers". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  50. ^ Vaczi, Mariann; Bairner, Alan (2023-10-06). Indigenous, Traditional, and Folk Sports: Contesting Modernities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-98328-9.
  51. ^ Disappearance of Traditional games by the imitation of Colonial Culture through the Historical parameters of Cultural Colonialism Md Abu Nasim https://dergipark.org.tr/
  52. ^ Games and Sports in West Bengal under Global Urbanization: An Ethnographic Approach Dr. Abhijit Das http://www.ijhssi.org/
  53. ^ Bengal Traditional Games and Sports Culture Around in Twentieth-Century North Bengal Badal Roy & Dr. Sudash Lamahttps://ir.nbu.ac.in/
  54. ^ Pant, Charu (16 August 2015). "Five Indian Origin Games on the verge of extinction – Sports". Retrieved 2022-11-19.
  55. ^ TRADITIONAL GAMES AND SPORTS Siben Paul http://oldror.lbp.world/
  56. ^ Folk Games Dying in Pashtun Belt: A Combination of Religious Extremism Confining Girls to Their Homes and Urbanisation Providing New Options nayadaur.tv
  57. ^ India's defeat reflects Kabaddi's globalisation: Coach Reddy https://www.business-standard.com/
  58. ^ "Format, game tweaks have helped draw fans on TV: Ultimate kho kho CEO". Hindustan Times. 3 September 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-19.
  59. ^ Taneja, Nidhima (2023-01-27). "Pro kabaddi, kho-kho leagues chase IPL viewership. India rediscovering regional sports". ThePrint. Retrieved 2023-08-08.
  60. ^ attested in Classical Sanskrit only, specifically in the Anargharāghava.
  61. ^ attested from Epic Sanskrit; see Luijendijk, D.H. (2008). Kalarippayat: The Essence and Structure of an Indian Martial Art. Oprat (LuLu.com). ISBN 978-1-58160-480-1.
  62. ^ "Actualizing Power and Crafting a Self in Kalarippayattu". Spa.ex.ac.uk. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
  63. ^ James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 23–4. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  64. ^ Agrawal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120805927.
  65. ^ Menon, Narayana (October 1972). "Music of South Asia". Music Educators Journal. 59 (2): 40–43. doi:10.2307/3394138. JSTOR 3394138. S2CID 193335418.
  66. ^ Manuel, Peter (1992). "Popular Music and Media Culture in South Asia: Prefatory Considerations". Asian Music. 24 (1): 91–100. JSTOR 834451.
  67. ^ Guisepi, R.A. . Retrieved on February 6, 2008
  68. ^ Meister, M.W. (1997). Gandhara-Nagara Temples of the Salt Range and the Indus. Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress. Vol 4 (1997-98), pp. 45-52.
  69. ^ See Raj Jadhav, pp. 7–13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
  70. ^ Fergusson, James (1864). The Rock-cut Temples of India: Illustrated by Seventy-four Photographs Taken on the Spot by Major Gill. J. Murray.
  71. ^ Hardy, Adam (2007). The Temple Architecture of India. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-02827-8.
  72. ^ "'South Asia most diverse with 650 languages'". The Hindu. 2018-01-08. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  73. ^ Nakassis, Constantine & Annamalai, E. (2020). Linguistic Diversity in South Asia, Reconsidered. University of Chicago. pp. 1–21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. ^ "Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary 1899 Basic". www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Retrieved 2024-05-24.
  75. ^ a b Adamson, Peter; Ganeri, Jonardon (2020). Classical Indian philosophy: a history of philosophy without any gaps. Oxford New York (N.Y.): Oxford university press. ISBN 978-0-19-885176-9.
  76. ^ Kauṭalya; Olivelle, Patrick (2013). King, governance, and law in ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra: a new annotated translation. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5.
  77. ^ Bowker 1999, p. 259.
  78. ^ Doniger 2014, p. 46.
  79. ^ Nicholson 2010, Chapter 9.
  80. ^ Cowell & Gough 2001, p. xii.
  81. ^ Nicholson 2010, pp. 158–162.
  82. ^ Perrett, Vol. 3 2000.
  83. ^ Phillips, Stephen H. (2013). Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-51898-0.
  84. ^ Sharma, Arvind (1982). The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. ISBN 9789993624318.
  85. ^ Bilimoria, Purusottama; Prabhu, Joseph; Sharma, Renuka M., eds. (2007). Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3.

Referenced works

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_South_Asia&oldid=1239946202"