Yakut language

Not to be confused with Yokuts language, Saka language, or Yakutia.

Yakut
Sakha
Саха тыла, saxa tıla
Pronunciation	[saχa tɯla]
Native to	Russia
Region	Yakutia, Magadan Oblast, Amur Oblast, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Evenkiysky District)
Ethnicity	Yakuts
Native speakers	c. 480,000
Language family	Turkic Common Turkic Siberian Turkic Northern Siberian Yakut
Writing system	Cyrillic (formerly Latin and Cyrillic-based)
Official status
Official language in	Russia Yakutia
Language codes
ISO 639-2	sah
ISO 639-3	sah
Glottolog	yaku1245
ELP	Yakut
Sakha language   Dolgan language
Yakut is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Yakut (/jəˈkuːt/ yə-KOOT), also known as Yakutian, Sakha, Saqa or Saxa (Yakut: саха тыла), is a Turkic language belonging to Siberian Turkic branch and spoken by around 450,000 native speakers, primarily the ethnic Yakuts and one of the official languages of Sakha (Yakutia), a federal republic in the Russian Federation.

The Yakut language differs from all other Turkic languages in the presence of a layer of vocabulary of unclear origin (possibly Paleo-Siberian). There is also a large number of words of Mongolian origin related to ancient borrowings, as well as numerous recent borrowings from Russian. Like other Turkic languages and their ancestor Proto-Turkic, Yakut is an agglutinative language and features vowel harmony.

Classification

Yakut is a member of the Northeastern Common Turkic family of languages, which also includes Shor, Tuvan and Dolgan. Like most Turkic languages, Yakut has vowel harmony, is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender. Word order is usually subject–object–verb. Yakut has been influenced by Tungusic and Mongolian languages.

Historically, Yakut left the community of Common Turkic speakers relatively early. Due to this, it diverges in many ways from other Turkic languages and mutual intelligibility between Yakut and other Turkic languages is low and many cognate words are hard to notify when heard. Nevertheless, Yakut contains many features which are important for the reconstruction of Proto-Turkic, such as the preservation of long vowels.

Geographic distribution

Yakut is spoken mainly in the Sakha Republic. It is also used by ethnic Yakuts in Khabarovsk Region and a small diaspora in other parts of the Russian Federation, Turkey, and other parts of the world. Dolgan, a close relative of Yakut, which formerly was considered by some a dialect of Yakut, is spoken by Dolgans in Krasnoyarsk Region. Yakut is widely used as a lingua franca by other ethnic minorities in the Sakha Republic – more Dolgans, Evenks, Evens and Yukagirs speak Yakut than their own languages. About 8% of the people of other ethnicities than Yakut living in Sakha claimed knowledge of the Yakut language during the 2002 census.

Phonology

See also: § Orthography

Consonants

Yakut has the following consonants phonemes, where the IPA value is provided in slashes '//' and the native script value is provided in bold followed by the romanization in parentheses.

Consonant phonemes of Yakut

		Bilabial	Dental/ alveolar	Palatal	Velar/ uvular	Glottal
Nasal		/m/ м (m)	/n/ н (n)	/ɲ/ нь (ń)	/ŋ/ ҥ (ŋ)
Plosive / Affricate	voiceless	/p/ п (p)	/t/ т (t)	/t͡ʃ/ ч (č)	/k/ к (k)
	voiced	/b/ б (b)	/d/ д (d)	/d͡ʑ/ дь (ǰ)	/ɡ/ г (g)
Fricative	voiceless		/s/ с (s)		/χ/ х (x)	/h/ һ (h)
	voiced				/ʁ/ ҕ (ɣ)
Approximant	plain		/l/ л (l)	/j/ й (y)
	nasalized			/ȷ̃/ й (ỹ)
Flap			/ɾ/ р (r)

• /n, t, d/ are laminal denti-alveolar [n̪, t̪, d̪], whereas /s, l, ɾ/ are alveolar [s, l, ɾ].
• The nasal glide /ȷ̃/ is not distinguished from /j/ in the orthography, where both are written as ⟨й⟩. Thus айыы can be ayïï [ajɯː] 'deed, creation, work' or aỹïï [aȷ̃ɯː] 'sin, transgression.' The nasal glide /ȷ̃/ has a very restricted distribution, appearing in very few words.
• /ɾ/ is pronounced as a flap /ɾ/ between vowels, e.g. орон (oron) [oɾon] 'place', and as a trill at the end of words, e.g. тур (tur) [tur] 'stand'.
  • /ɾ/ does not occur at the beginning of words in native Yakut words; borrowed Russian words with onset /ɾ/ are usually rendered with an epenthetic vowel, e.g. Russian рама (rama) > Yakut араама (araama) 'frame'.

Yakut is in many ways phonologically unique among the Turkic languages. Yakut and the closely related Dolgan language are the only Turkic languages without hushing sibilants. Additionally, no known Turkic languages other than Yakut and Khorasani Turkic have the palatal nasal /ɲ/.

Consonant assimilation

Consonants at morpheme boundaries undergo extensive assimilation, both progressive and regressive. All suffixes possess numerous allomorphs. For suffixes which begin with a consonant, the surface form of the consonant is conditioned on the stem-final segment. There are four such archiphonemic consonants: G, B, T, and L. Examples of each are provided in the following table for the suffixes -GIt (second-person plural possessive suffix, oɣoɣut 'your [pl.] child'), -BIt (first-person plural possessive suffix, oɣobut, 'our child'), -TA (partitive case suffix, tiiste 'some teeth'), -LArA (third-person plural possessive suffix, oɣoloro 'their child'). Note that the alternation in the vowels is governed by vowel harmony (see the main article and the below section).

Yakut consonant assimilation in suffixes

Consonant archiphoneme	Immediately preceding sound (example)
	High vowel i, u, ï, ü (kihi)	Low vowel a, e, o, ö (oɣo)	/l/ (uol)	/j,ɾ/ (kötör)	Voiceless consonants (tiis)	/χ/ (ïnaχ)	Nasal (oron)
G -GIt	[g] kihigit	[ɣ] oɣoɣut	[g] uolgut	[g] kötörgüt	[k] tiiskit	[χ] ïnaχχït	[ŋ] oroŋŋut
B -BIt	[b] kihibit	[b] oɣobut	[b] uolbut	[b] kötörbüt	[p] tiispit	[p] ïnaχpït	[m] orommut
T -TA	[t] kihite	[t] oɣoto	[l] uolla	[d] kötördö	[t] tiiste	[t] ïnaχta	[n] oronnut
L -LArA	[l] kihilere	[l] oɣoloro	[l] uollara	[d] kötördörö	[t] tiistere	[t] ïnaχtara	[n] oronnoro
	'person'	'child'	'boy'	'bird'	'tooth'	'cow'	'bed'

There is an additional regular morphophonological pattern for [t]-final stems: they assimilate in place of articulation with an immediately following labial or velar. For example at 'horse' > akkït 'your [pl.] horse', > appït 'our horse'.

Debuccalization

Yakut initial s- corresponds to initial h- in Dolgan and played an important operative rule in the development of proto-Yakut, ultimately resulting in initial Ø- < *h- < *s- (example: Dolgan huoq and Yakut suox, both meaning "not"). The historical change of *s > h, known as debuccalization, is a common sound-change across the world's languages, being characteristic of such languages as Greek and Indo-Iranian in their development from Proto-Indo-European, as well as such Turkic languages as Bashkir, e.g. höt 'milk' < *süt. Debuccalization of /s/ to /h/ is also found as a diachronic change from Proto-Celtic to Brittonic, and has actually become a synchronic grammaticalised feature called lenition in the related Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish, and Manx).

Debuccalization is also an active phonological process in modern Yakut. Intervocalically the phoneme /s/ becomes [h]. For example the /s/ in кыыс (kïïs) 'girl' becomes [h] between vowels:

a.

kïïs

girl

>

>

kïïh-ïm

girl-POSS.1SG

kïïs > kïïh-ïm

girl > girl-POSS.1SG

'girl; daughter' > 'my daughter'

Vowels

Yakut has twenty phonemic vowels: eight short vowels, eight long vowels, and four diphthongs. The following table give broad transcriptions for each vowel phoneme, as well as the native script bold and romanization in italics:

Vowel phonemes of Yakut

		Front		Back
		unrounded	rounded	unrounded	rounded
Close	short	/i/ и (i)	/y/ ү (ü)	/ɯ/ ы (ï)	/u/ у (u)
	long	/iː/ ии (ii)	/yː/ үү (üü)	/ɯː/ ыы (ïï)	/uː/ уу (uu)
Diphthong		/ie/ иэ (ie)	/yø/ үө (üö)	/ɯa/ ыа (ïa)	/uɔ/ уо (uo)
Open	short	/e/ э (e)	/ø/ ө (ö)	/a/ а (a)	/ɔ/ о (o)
	long	/eː/ ээ (ee)	/øː/ өө (öö)	/aː/ аа (aa)	/ɔː/ оо (oo)

Vowel harmony

Like other Turkic languages, a characteristic feature of Yakut is progressive vowel harmony. Most root words obey vowel harmony, for example in кэлин (kelin) 'back', all the vowels are front and unrounded. Yakut's vowel harmony in suffixes is the most complex system in the Turkic family. Vowel harmony is an assimilation process where vowels in one syllable take on certain features of vowels in the preceding syllable. In Yakut, subsequent vowels all take on frontness and all non-low vowels take on lip rounding of preceding syllables' vowels. There are two main rules of vowel harmony:

1. Frontness/backness harmony:
   1. Front vowels are always followed by front vowels.
   2. Back vowels are always followed by back vowels.
2. Rounding harmony:
   1. Unrounded vowels are always followed by unrounded vowels.
   2. Close rounded vowels always occur after close rounded vowels.
   3. Open unrounded vowels do not assimilate in rounding with close rounded vowels.

The quality of the diphthongs /ie, ïa, uo, üö/ for the purposes of vowel harmony is determined by the first segment in the diphthong. Taken together, these rules mean that the pattern of subsequent syllables in Yakut is entirely predictable, and all words will follow the following pattern: Like the consonant assimilation rules above, suffixes display numerous allomorphs determined by the stem they attach to. There are two archiphoneme vowels I (an underlyingly high vowel) and A (an underlyingly low vowel).

Yakut vowel harmony

Category	Final vowel in stem	Suffix vowels
Unrounded, back	a, aa, ï, ïï, ïa	a, aa, ï, ïï, ïa
Unrounded, front	e, ee, i, ii, ie	e, ee, i, ii, ie
Rounded back	u, uu, uo	a, aa, u, uu, uo
Rounded, front, close	ü, üü, üö	e, ee, ü, üü, üö
Rounded, back	o, oo	o, oo, u, uu, uo
Rounded, open, low	ö, öö	ö, öö, ü, üü, üö

Vowel harmony of archiphonemic vowels

Archiphonemic vowel	Preceding vowel
	Front			Back
	unrounded (i, ii, ie, e, ee)	rounded		unrounded (ï, ïï, ïa, a, aa)	rounded
		high (ü, üü, üö)	low (ö, öö)		high (u, uu, uo)	low (o, oo)
I	i	ü		ï	u
A	e		ö	a		o

Examples of I can be seen in the first-person singular possessive agreement suffix -(I)m: as in (a):

a. aat-ïm name-POSS.1SG aat-ïm name-POSS.1SG 'my name'

et-im meat-POSS.1SG et-im meat-POSS.1SG 'my meat'

uol-um son-POSS.1SG uol-um son-POSS.1SG 'my son'

üüt-üm milk-POSS.1SG üüt-üm milk-POSS.1SG 'my milk'

The underlyingly low vowel phoneme A is represented through the third-person singular agreement suffix -(t)A in (b):

b. aɣa-ta father-POSS.3SG aɣa-ta father-POSS.3SG 'his/her father'

iỹe-te mother-POSS.3SG iỹe-te mother-POSS.3SG 'his/her mother'

oɣo-to child-POSS.3SG oɣo-to child-POSS.3SG 'his/her child'

töbö-tö top-POSS.3SG töbö-tö top-POSS.3SG 'his/her top'

uol-a son-POSS.3SG uol-a son-POSS.3SG 'his/her son'

Orthography

Main article: Yakut scripts

After three earlier phases of development, Yakut is currently written using the Cyrillic script: the modern Yakut alphabet, established in 1939 by the Soviet Union, consists of all the Russian characters with five additional letters for phonemes not present in Russian: Ҕҕ, Ҥҥ, Өө, Һһ, Үү, as follows:

Yakut Cyrillic alphabet (Сахалыы сурук-бичик, Saxalïï suruk-bičik)

А а	Б б	В в	Г г	Ҕ ҕ	Д д	Дь дь	Е е	Ё ё
Ж ж	З з	И и	Й й	К к	Л л	М м	Н н	Ҥ ҥ
Нь нь	О о	Ө ө	П п	Р р	С с	Һ һ	Т т	У у
Ү ү	Ф ф	Х х	Ц ц	Ч ч	Ш ш	Щ щ	Ъ ъ	Ы ы
Ь ь	Э э	Ю ю	Я я

Yakut alphabet, letter names, IPA values

Letter	А	Б	В	Г	Ҕ	Д	Дь	Е	Ё	Ж	З	И	Й	К	Л	М	Н	Ҥ	Нь	О	Ө	П	Р	С	Һ	Т	У	Ү	Ф	Х	Ц	Ч	Ш	Щ	Ъ	Ы	Ь	Э	Ю	Я
Name	а	бэ	вэ	гэ	ҕэ	дэ	дьэ	е	ё	жэ	зэ	и	ый	кы	эл	эм	эн	ҥэ	ньэ	о	ө	пэ	эр	эс	һэ	тэ	у	ү	эф	хэ	цэ	че	ша	ща		ы		э	ю	я
IPA	/a/	/b/	/v/	/g/	/ɣ/	/d/	/d͡ʒ/	/(j)e/	/jo/	/ʒ/	/z/	/i/	/j/, /ȷ̃/	/k/	/l/	/m/	/n/	/ŋ/	/ɲ/	/ɔ/	/ø/	/p/	/ɾ/	/s/	/h/	/t/	/u/	/y/	/f/	/χ/	/t͡s/	/t͡ʃ/	/ʃ/	/ɕː/	/◌.j/	/ɯ/	/◌ʲ/	/e/	/ju/	/ja/

Long vowels are represented through the doubling of vowels, e.g. үүт (üüt) /yːt/ 'milk,' a practice that many scholars follow in Romanizations of the language.

The full Yakut alphabet contains letters for consonant phonemes not present in native words (and thus not indicated in the phonology tables above): the letters В /v/, Е /(j)e/, Ё /jo|/, Ж /ʒ/, З /z/, Ф /f/, Ц /t͡s/, Ш /ʃ/, Щ /ɕː/, Ъ, Ю /ju/, Я /ja/ are used exclusively in Russian loanwords. In addition, in native Yakut words, the soft sign ⟨Ь⟩ is used exclusively in the digraphs ⟨дь⟩ and ⟨нь⟩.

Transliteration

There are numerous conventions for the Romanization of Yakut. Bibliographic sources and libraries typically use the ALA-LC Romanization tables for non-Slavic languages in Cyrillic script. Linguists often employ Turkological standards for transliteration, or a mixture of Turkological standards and the IPA. In addition, others employ Turkish orthography. Comparison of some of these systems can be seen in the following:

(a)

дьон

/d͡ʒon/

people

дьон

/d͡ʒon/

people

'people'

(b)

айыы

/ajɯː/

creation

айыы

/ajɯː/

creation

'creation'

(c)

бу

/bu

DEM

ыт

ɯt

dog

аттааҕар

at.taːɣar

horse-COMP

түргэнник

tyrgɛn.nɪk

fast-ADV

сүүрэр

syːrɛr/

run-PRES

бу ыт аттааҕар түргэнник сүүрэр

/bu ɯt at.taːɣar tyrgɛn.nɪk syːrɛr/

DEM dog horse-COMP fast-ADV run-PRES

'This dog runs faster than a horse'

(d)

эһэ

/ɛhɛ

bear

бөрөтөөҕөр

bøɾøtøːɣør

wolf-COMP

күүстээх

kyːstɛːχ/

strong-have

эһэ бөрөтөөҕөр күүстээх

/ɛhɛ bøɾøtøːɣør kyːstɛːχ/

bear wolf-COMP strong-have

'A bear is stronger than a wolf'

Comparison of different conventions for transcribing Yakut

		дьон	айыы	бу	ыт	аттааҕар	түргэнник	сүүрэр	эһэ	бөрөтөөҕөр	күүстээх
IPA		/d͡ʒon/	/ajɯː/	/bu/	/ɯt/	/at.taːɣar/	/tyrgɛn.nɪk/	/syːrɛr/	/ɛhɛ/	/bøɾøtøːɣør/	/kyːstɛːχ/
Turkological	Krueger	ǰon	ajıı	bu	ıt	attaaɣar	türgennik	süürer	ehe	böröötööɣör	küüsteeχ
	Johanson	ǰon	ayï:	bu	ït	atta:ɣar	türgännik	sü:rär	ähä	börötö:ɣör	kü:stä:χ
	Robbeets & Savalyev	ʤon	ïyïː	bu	ït	attaːɣar	türgennik	süːrer	ehe	börötöːɣör	kü:steːχ
ALA-LC		d'on	aĭyy	bu	yt	attaaghar	tu̇rgennik	su̇u̇rer	eḣe	bȯrȯtȯȯghȯr	ku̇u̇steekh
KNAB		djon	ajy:	bu	yt	atta:ǧar	türgennik	sü:rer	eḩe	börötö:ǧör	kü:ste:h
Turkish orthography		con	ayıı	bu	ıt	attaağar	türgennik	süürer	ehe	börötööğör	küüsteex

Grammar

Syntax

The typical word order can be summarized as subject – adverb – object – verb; possessor – possessed; adjective – noun.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Yakut distinguish between first, second, and third persons and singular and plural number.

		Singular	Plural
1st person		мин (min)	биһиги (bihigi)
2nd person		эн (en)	эһиги (ehigi)
3rd person	human	кини (kini)	кинилэр (kiniler)
	non-human	ол (ol)	олор (olor)

Although nouns have no gender, the pronoun system distinguishes between human and non-human in the third person, using кини (kini, 'he/she') to refer to human beings and ол (ol, 'it') to refer to all other things.

Grammatical number

Nouns have plural and singular forms. The plural is formed with the suffix /-LAr/, which may surface as -лар (-lar), -лэр (-ler), -лөр (-lör), -лор (-lor), -тар (-tar), -тэр (-ter), -төр (-tör), -тор (-tor), -дар (-dar), -дэр (-der), -дөр (-dör), -дор (-dor), -нар (-nar), -нэр (-ner), -нөр (-nör), or -нор (-nor), depending on the preceding consonants and vowels. The plural is used only when referring to a number of things collectively, not when specifying an amount. Nouns have no gender.

Final sound basics	Plural affix options	Examples
Vowels, /l/	-lar, -ler, -lor, -lör	kïïllar 'beasts', eheler 'bears', oɣolor 'children', börölör 'wolves'
/k, p, s, t, χ/	-tar, -ter, -tor, -tör	attar 'horses', külükter 'shadows', ottor, 'herbs', bölöxtör 'groups'
/y, r/	-dar, -der, -dor, -dör	baaydar 'rich people', ederder 'young people' xotoydor 'eagles', kötördör 'birds'
/m, n, ŋ/	-nar, -ner, -nor, -nör	kïïmnar 'sparks', ilimner 'fishing nets', oronnor 'beds', bödöŋnör 'large ones'

There is a parallel construction with plural suffix -ттАр, which can even be added to adjectives e.g.

• уол (uol) 'boy; son' > уолаттар (uolattar),
• эр 'man' > эрэттэр or folkloric эрэн (cf. Uzbek folkloric eran)
• хотун 'noblewoman' > хотуттар or хотут
• тойон 'commander' > тойоттор or тойот
• оҕонньор 'old man, husband' > оҕонньоттор
• кэм 'time' > кэммит
• дьон 'people' > дьоммут
• ойун 'shaman' > ойууттар
• доҕор 'friend' > доҕоттор
• күөл 'lake' > күөлэттэр
• хоһуун 'hard-working' > хоһууттар
• буур 'male' (of deer and elk) > буураттар ('male deers')
• кыыс (kïïs) 'girl; daughter' > кыргыттар (kïrgïttar) (standard, suppletive) or кыыстар (dialectal, regular).

The word кыргыттар, disregarding the composite -(ы)ттар plural suffix, has cognates in numerous Turkic languages, such as Uzbek (qirqin 'bondwoman'), Bashkir, Tatar, Kyrgyz (кыз-кыркын 'girls'), Chuvash (хӑрхӑм), Turkmen (gyrnak) and extinct Qarakhanid, Khwarezmian and Chaghatay.

Nominal inflection (cases)

Only Sakha (Yakut) has a rich case system that differs markedly from all the other Siberian Turkic languages. It has retained the ancient comitative case from Old Turkic (due to strong influence from Mongolian) while in other Turkic languages, the old comitative has become an instrumental case. However, in Sakha language the Old Turkic locative case has come to denote partitive case, thus leaving no case form for the function of locative. Instead, locative, dative and allative cases are realized through Common Turkic dative suffix:

Норуокка

"хайа

хаппыыстата"

диэн

аатынан

биллэр

хайаҕа

үүнэр

үүнээйи.

Норуокка "хайа хаппыыстата" диэн аатынан биллэр хайаҕа үүнэр үүнээйи.

A plant known among locals as "mountain cabbage" that grows on a mountain.

where -ҕа is dative and хайаҕа literally means "to the mountain". Furthermore, (in addition to locative,) genitive and equative cases are lost as well. Yakut has eight grammatical cases: nominative (unmarked), accusative -(n)I, dative -GA, partitive -TA, ablative -(t)tan, instrumental -(I)nAn, comitative -LIIn, and comparative -TAAɣAr. Examples of these are shown in the following table for a vowel-final stem eye (of Mongolian origin) 'peace' and a consonant-final stem uot 'fire':

	eye 'peace'	uot 'fire'
Nominative	eye	uot
Accusative	eyeni	uotu
Dative	eyeɣe	uokka
Partitive	eyete	uotta
Ablative	eyetten	uottan
Instrumental	eyenen	uotunan
Comitative	eyeliin	uottuun
Comparative	eyeteeɣer	uottaaɣar

The partitive object case indicates that just a part of an object is affected, e.g.:

Uː-ta

water-PTV

is!

drink-IMP.2SG

Uː-ta is!

water-PTV drink-IMP.2SG

Drink some water!

The corresponding expression below with the object in the accusative denotes wholeness:

Uː-nu

water-ACC.

is!

drink-IMP.2SG

Uː-nu is!

water-ACC. drink-IMP.2SG

Drink [all] the water!

The partitive is only used in imperative or necessitative expressions, e.g.

Uː-ta

water-PT

a-γal-ϊaχ-χa

bring-PRO-DAT

naːda.

necessary.

Uː-ta a-γal-ϊaχ-χa naːda.

water-PT bring-PRO-DAT necessary.

One has to bring some water.

Note the word naːda is borrowed from Russian надо (must).

A notable detail about Yakut case is the absence of the genitive, a feature which some argue is due to historical contact with Evenki (a Tungusic language), the language with which Sakha (i.e. Yakut) was in most intensive contact. Possessors are unmarked, with the possessive relationship only being realized on the possessed noun itself either through the possessive suffix (if the subject is a pronoun) or through partitive case suffix (if the subject is any other nominal). For example, in (a) the first-person pronoun subjects are not marked for genitive case; neither do full nominal subjects (possessors) receive any marking, as shown in (b):

a.

min

1SG.NOM

oɣo-m

child-POSS.1SG

/

/

bihigi

1PL.NOM

oɣo-but

child-POSS.1PL

min oɣo-m / bihigi oɣo-but

1SG.NOM child-POSS.1SG / 1PL.NOM child-POSS.1PL

'my son' / 'our child'

b.

Masha

Masha.NOM

aɣa-ta

father-PTV.3SG

Masha aɣa-ta

Masha.NOM father-PTV.3SG

'Masha's father'

Verbal inflection

Tenses

E. I. Korkina (1970) enumerates following tenses: present-future tense, future tense and eight forms of past tense (including imperfect).
Sakha imperfect has two forms: analytic and synthetic. Both forms are based on the aorist suffix -Ar, common to all Turkic languages. The synthetic form, despite expressing a past aspect, lacks the Common Turkic past suffix, which is very unusual for a Turkic language. This is considered by some to be another influence from Even, a Tungusic language.

Imperative

Sakha, under Evenki/Even contact influence, has developed a distinction in imperative: immediate imperative ("do now!") and future/remote imperative ("do later!").^[1]

	Positive	Negative
Immediate	-∅/-(I)ŋ	-ma-∅/-ma-(I)ŋ
Remote	-A:r/-A:r-(I)ŋ	-(I)m-A:r/-(I)m-A:r-(I)ŋ

Converbs

Sakha converbs end in -(A)n as opposed to Common Turkic -(I)B. They express simultaneous and sequential action and are also used with auxiliary verbs, preceding them:

Күлүгүн

кытта

охсуһан

таҕыстыҥ

Күлүгүн кытта охсуһан таҕыстыҥ

You continuously fought with his shadow.

Questions

The Sakha yes–no question marker is enclitic duo or du:, whereas almost all other Turkic languages use markers of the type -mI, compare:

Күөрэгэй

kyœregej

lark-NOM

ырыатын

ïrïa-tï-n

song-3SG.POSS-ACC

истэҕин

ist-e-ɣin

hear-PRS-2SG

дуо?

=duo?

=Q

Күөрэгэй ырыатын истэҕин дуо?

kyœregej ïrïa-tï-n ist-e-ɣin =duo?

lark-NOM song-3SG.POSS-ACC hear-PRS-2SG =Q

Do you hear the song of larks?

and the same sentence in Uzbek (note the question suffix -mi in contrast to Sakha):

To’rg’ay jirini eshit(a)yapsanmi?

Question words in Yakut remain in-situ; they do not move to the front of the sentence. Sample question words include: туох (tuox) 'what', ким (kim) 'who', хайдах (xajdax) 'how', хас (xas) 'how much; how many', ханна (xanna) 'where', and ханнык (xannïk) 'which'.

Interrogative pronouns in Sakha ^[2]

Pronoun	Translation
ким	who
туох	what
хаһан	when
ханна	where
хайдах	how
хас	how many
төһө	how much
хайа	which, how
хайаа=	do what?

Vocabulary

Sakha has a large number of Mongolian loanwords, representing around 13% of its vocabulary (including terms pertaining to kinship and body parts). Despite the close contact with Evenki, Sakha has quite a small number of loanwords from that language.

Yakut		Tuvan		Turkish	Uzbek	English	Classical Mongolian
Cyrillic	Latin	Cyrillic	Latin
аччыктааһын	aččïktahïn	аштаар	aštaar	açlık	ochlik	hunger	ölüsgüleŋ ᠥᠯᠥᠰᠬᠦᠯᠡᠩ
аччык	aččïk	аш	aš	aç	och	hungry
аат	aat	ат	at	at	ot	name
балык	balïk	балык	balïk	balık	baliq	fish
балыксыт	balïksït	балыкчы	balïkčï	balıkçı	baliqchi	fisherman	jiğasuçi ᠵᠢᠭᠠᠰᠤᠴᠢ
yy	uu	суг	sug	su	suv	water	usu ᠤᠰᠤ
тимир	timir	демир	demir	demir	temir	iron	temür ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ
күөл	küöl	хөл	khöl	göl	ko‘l	lake	na'ur ᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ
атах	atax		adaḳ	ayak	oyoq	foot
мурун	murun	думчук	dumčuk	burun	burun	nose
баттах	battax	дүк	dük	saç	soch	hair	üsü ᠦᠰᠦ
илии	ilii	хол	khol	el	ilik, qo‘l	hand
күн	kün	хүн	khün	gün	kun	day, sun
муус	muus	дош	doš	buz	muz	ice	mösü ᠮᠥᠰᠥ
ыт	ït	ыт	ït	it	it	dog
сүрэх	sürex	чүрек	čürek	yürek	yurak	heart	jirüke ᠵᠢᠷᠦᠬᠡ
сарсын	sarsïn	даарта, эртен	daarta, erten	yarın	ertaga	tomorrow
бүгүн	bügün	бөгүн	bögün	bugün	bugun	today
былыт	bïlït	булут	bulut	bulut	bulut	cloud
хаар	xaar	хар	khar	kar	qor	snow
хаан	xaan	хан	khan	kan	qon	blood
эт	et	эът	èt	et	et	meat
тиис	tiis	диш	tiš	diş	tish	tooth
ат	at	аът	àt	at	ot	horse
таас	taas	даш	daš	taş	tosh	stone
үүт	üüt	сүт	süt	süt	sut	milk	sün ᠰᠦᠨ
ынах	ïnax	инек	inek	inek	inak, sigir	cow
хара	xara	кара	kara	kara	qora	black	qar-a ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ
сыттык	sïttïk	сыртык	sïrtïk	yastık	yostiq	pillow
быһах	bïhax	бижек	bižek	bıçak	pichoq	knife
бытык	bïtïk			bıyık	miyiq, mo‘ylov	mustache
кыс, кыһын	kïs, kïhïn	кыш	kïš	kış, kışın	qish	winter
туус	tuus	дус	dus	tuz	tuz	salt
тыл	tïl	дыл	dïl	dil	til	tongue, language	kele ᠬᠡᠯᠡ
cаха тылa	saxa tïla	Саха дыл, Якут дыл	Sakha dïl, Yakut dïl	saha dili, sahaca	yoqut tili, yoqutcha	Yakut language
кыыс	kïïs	кыс	kïs	kız	qiz	girl, daughter
уол	uol	оол, оглу	ool, oglu	oğul, oğlan	o‘g‘il	son, boy
үөрэтээччи	üöreteečči	башкы	baškï	öğretici, öğretmen	o‘qituvchi	teacher
үөрэнээччи	üöreneečči	өөреникчи	öörenikči	öğrenci, talebe	o‘quvchi, talaba	student
уһун	uhun	узун	uzun	uzun	uzun	long, tall
кулгаах	kulgaax	кулак	kulak	kulak	quloq	ear
сыл	sïl	чыл, хар	čïl, khar	yıl	yil	year	jil ᠵᠢᠯ
киһи	kihi	кижи	kiži	kişi	kishi	human, man	kümün ᠬᠥᠮᠦᠨ
суол	suol	орук	oruk	yol	yo‘l	road, way
асчыт	asčït	белеткээр	beletkeer	aşçı	oshchi, oshpaz	cook
тараах	taraax	дыргак	dïrgak	tarak	taroq	comb
орто	orto	орта	orta	orta	o‘rta	middle
күн ортото	kün ortoto	дүш, дүъш, дүъште	düš, dǜš, dǜšte	gün ortası	kun o‘rtasi, tush	midday, noon
күл	kül	хүлүмзүрүүр	khülümzürüür	gülmek	kulmoq	to laugh; to smile
өл	öl	өлүр	ölür	ölmek	o‘lmoq	to die
ис	is	ижер	ižer	içmek	ichmoq	to drink
бил	bil	билир	bilir	bilmek	bilmoq	to know
көр	kör	көөр (көр-)	köör (kör-)	görmek	ko‘rmoq	to see	qara ᠬᠠᠷᠠ
үөрэн	üören	өөренир	öörenir	öğrenmek	o‘rganmoq	to learn
үөрэт	üöret	өөредир	ööredir	öğretmek	o‘rgatmoq	to teach
ытыр	ïtïr	ызырар	ïzïrar	ısırmak	tishlamoq	to bite
хас	xas	казар	kazar	kazmak	qozmoq, qazmoq	to dig
тик	tik	даараар	daaraar	dikiş dikmek, dikmek	tikmoq	to sew
кэл	kel	келир	kelir	gelmek	kelmoq	to come
салаа	salaa	чылгаар	čïlgaar	yalamak	yalamoq	to lick
тараа	taraa			taramak	taramoq	to comb
биэр	bier	бээр	beer	vermek	bermoq	to give
бул	bul	тывар	tïvar	bulmak	topmoq	to find
диэ	die	дe-, дi-	de-, di-	demek	demoq, aytmoq	to say
киир	kiir	кирер	kirer	girmek	kirmoq	to enter
иһит	ihit	дыңнаар	dïŋnaar	işitmek	eshitmoq, tinglamoq	to hear
ас	as	ажар	ažar	açmak	ochmoq	to open
тут	tut	тудар	tudar	tutmak	tutmoq	to hold
ый	ïy	ай	ay	ay	oy	moon
ыйытыы	ïyïtïï	айтырыг	aytïrïg	soru	savol	question
кыайыы	kïayïï	тиилелге	tiilelge	zafer	g‘alaba	victory

Numerals

Old Turkic	Turkish	Uzbek	Tuvan	Yakut	English
bir	bir	bir	bir	biir	one
eki	iki	ikki	iyi	ikki	two
üç	üç	uch	üş	üs	three
tört	dört	tŏrt	dört	tüört	four
beş	beş	besh	beş	bies	five
altı	altı	olti	aldı	alta	six
yeti	yedi	yetti	çedi	sette	seven
sekiz	sekiz	sakkiz	ses	aɣïs	eight
tokuz	dokuz	tŏqqiz	tos	toɣus	nine
on	on	ŏn	on	uon	ten

Oral and written literature

The Yakut have a tradition of oral epic in their language called Олоҥхо ("Olonkho"), traditionally performed by skilled performers. The subject matter is based on Yakut mythology and legends. Versions of many Olonkho poems have been written down and translated since the 19th century, but only a very few older performers of the oral Olonkho tradition are still alive. They have begun a program to teach young people to sing this in their language and revive it, though in a modified form.

The first printing in Yakut was a part of a book by Nicolaas Witsen published in 1692 in Amsterdam.

In 2005, Marianne Beerle-Moor, director of the Institute for Bible Translation, Russia/CIS, was awarded the Order of Civil Valour by the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) for the translation of the New Testament into Yakut.

Probably the first-ever Islamic book written in Sakha language was published in 2012 entitled "Билсин: Ислам" ("Get to know: Islam").

Examples

Article 1 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with footnotes on etymologies of some words):

Novgorodov's alphabet 1920–1929. (Latin alphabet/IPA)	зɔn barɯta beje sꭣltatɯgar ꭣnna bɯra:bɯgar teŋ bꭣlan tꭢry:ller. kiniler barɯ ꭢrkꭢ:n ꭢjdꭢ:q, sꭣbasta:q bꭣlan tꭢry:ller, ꭣnna beje bejeleriger tɯlga ki:riniges bɯhɯ:lara dɔʃɔrdɔhu: tɯ:nna:q bꭣlꭣqta:q.
Latin alphabet 1929–1939. (Yañalif)	Çon вarьta вeje suoltatьgar uonna вьraaвьgar teꞑ вuolan tɵryyller. Kiniler вarь ɵrkɵn ɵjdɵɵq, suoвastaaq вuolan tɵryyller, uonna вeje вejeleriger tьlga kiiriniges вьhььlara doƣordohuu tььnnaaq вuoluoqtaaq.
Modern Cyrillic 1939–present.	Дьон барыта бэйэ суолтатыгар уонна быраабыгар тэҥ буолан төрүүллэр. Кинилэр бары өркөн өйдөөх, суобастаах буолан төрүүллэр, уонна бэйэ бэйэлэригэр тылга кииринигэс быһыылара доҕордоһуу тыыннаах буолуохтаах.
Romanization	J̌on barïta beye suoltatïgar uonna bïraabïgar teŋ buolan törüüller. Kiniler barï örkön öydööx, suobastaax buolan törüüller, uonna beye beyeleriger tïlga kiiriniges bïsïïlara doɣordohuu tïïnnax buoluoxtaax.
English	All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

• Yakuts
• Dolgan language
• Semyon Novgorodov – the inventor of the first IPA-based Yakut alphabet

Bibliography

• Anderson, Gregory D. S. (1998). "Historical Aspects of Yakut (Saxa) Phonology". Turkic Languages. 2 (2): 1–32.
• Antonov, N. K. (1997). Tenshev, E. R. (ed.). Yazyki mira (seriya knig) (in Russian). Indrik (izdatelstvo). pp. 513–524. ISBN 5-85759-061-2.
• Baker, Mark C; Vinokurova, Nadya (2010). "Two modalities of case assignment: case in Sakha". Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. 28 (3): 593–642. doi:10.1007/s11049-010-9105-1. S2CID 18614663.
• Forsyth, James (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521477710.
• Johanson, Lars (2021). Turkic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 20, 24.
• Kharitonov, L. N. (1947). Samouchitel' jakutskogo jazyka (in Russian). Jakutskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo.
• Kirişçioğlu, M. Fatih (1999). Saha (Yakut) Türkçesi Grameri (in Turkish). Ankara: Türk Dil Kurumu. ISBN 975-16-0587-3.
• Krueger, John R. (1962). Yakut Manual. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Menz, Astrid; Monastyrev, Vladimir (2022). "Yakut". In Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva Á. (eds.). The Turkic Languages (Second ed.). Routledge. pp. 444–59. doi:10.4324/9781003243809. ISBN 978-0-415-73856-9. S2CID 243795171.
• Robbeets, Martine; Savalyev, Alexander (2020). "Romanization Conventions". In Robbeets, Martine; Savalyev, Alexander (eds.). The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. lii–lxxxii.
• Pakendorf, Brigitte (2007). Contact in the prehistory of the Sakha (Yakuts): Linguistic and genetic perspectives (Thesis). Universiteit Leiden.
• Pakendorf, Brigitte; Stapert, Eugénie (2020). "Sakha and Dolgan, the North Siberian Turkic Languages". In Robbeets, Martine; Savalyev, Alexander (eds.). The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 430–45. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0027. ISBN 978-0-19-880462-8.
• Petrova, Nyurguyana (2011). Lexicon and Clause-Linkage Properties of the Converbal Constructions in Sakha (Yakut) (Thesis). University of Buffalo.
• Stachowski, Marek; Menz, Astrid (1998). "Yakut". In Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva Á. (eds.). The Turkic Languages. Routledge.
• Ubryatova, E.I., ed. (1980). Grammatika sovremennogo jakutskogo literaturnogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
• Vinokurova, Nadezhda (2005). Lexical Categories and Argument Structure: A study with reference to Sakha (Thesis). Universiteit Utrecht.

External links

Language-related

• Yakut Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)
• Yakut thematic vocabulary lists
• [3]
• "Comparison of Yakut and Mongolian vocabulary". Archived from the original on February 5, 2008.
• Yakut texts with Russian translations in the Internet Archive – heroic poetry, fairy tales, legends, proverbs, etc.
• Sakhalyy suruk – Yakut Unicode fonts and Keyboard Layouts for PC
• Sakhatyla.ru – On-line Yakut–Russian, Russian–Yakut dictionary
• Yakut–English Dictionary Archived April 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
• BGN/PCGN romanization tool for Yakut
• Sakha Open World Archived 2006-06-19 at the Wayback Machine – MP3's of Sakha Radio

Content in Yakut

• Sakha Open World – Орто Дойду Archived 2017-09-22 at the Wayback Machine – A platform to promote the Yakut Language on the web; News, Lyrics, Music, Fonts, Forum, VideoNews (in Yakut, Unicode)
• Baayaga village website – news and stories about and by the people of Baayaga (in Yakut)
• Kyym.ru – site of Yakut newspaper
• НВК Саха (NVK Sakha) Yakut language news channel on YouTube