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Spanish missions in Florida

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A plaque showing the locations of a third of the missions between 1565 and 1763

Beginning in the second half of the 16th century, the Kingdom of Spain established a number of missions throughout La Florida in order to convert the Native Americans to Roman Catholicism, to facilitate control of the area, and to obstruct regional colonization by other Protestants, particularly, those from England and France.[1] Spanish Florida originally included much of what is now the Southeastern United States, although Spain never exercised long-term effective control over more than the northern part of what is now the State of Florida from present-day St. Augustine to the area around Tallahassee, southeastern Georgia, and some coastal settlements, such as Pensacola, Florida. A few short-lived missions were established in other locations, including Mission Santa Elena in present-day South Carolina, around the Florida peninsula, and in the interior of Georgia and Alabama.

The missions of what are now northern Florida and southeastern Georgia were divided into main four provinces where the bulk of missionary effort took place. These were Apalachee, comprising the eastern part of what is now the Florida Panhandle; Timucua, ranging from the St. Johns River west to the Suwanee; Mocama, the coastal areas east of the St. Johns running north to the Altamaha River; and Guale, north of the Altamaha River along the coast to the present-day Georgia Sea Islands. These provinces roughly corresponded to the areas where those dialects were spoken among the varying Native American peoples, thus, they reflected the territories of the peoples. Missionary provinces were relatively fluid and evolved over the years according to demographic and political trends, and at various times smaller provinces were established, abandoned, or merged with larger ones. There were also ephemeral attempts to establish missions elsewhere, particularly further south into Florida.

History

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The priests and religious that traveled with the early conquistadors notwithstanding, the 1549 expedition of Father Luis de Cancer and three other Dominicans to Tampa Bay was the first solely missionary effort attempted in La Florida. It ended in failure after six weeks with de Cancer's death at the hands of the Tocobaga natives, which sent shock waves through the Dominican missionary community in New Spain for many years.[2]

The first Spanish missions to Florida, starting with the foundation of St. Augustine in 1565, were attached to presidios. Between 1559 and 1567, ten presidios were established at major harbors from Port Royal Sound in modern South Carolina to Pensacola Bay on the northern Gulf of Mexico in an attempt to prevent other European powers from establishing bases on land claimed by Spain.[3] Most of the presidios were unsustainable; San Mateo (near modern Jacksonville, Florida) was destroyed by the French, the entire garrison at Tocobago was wiped out, and most of the other presidios were abandoned due to a combination of hostility from the native inhabitants, difficulty in providing supplies, and damage from hurricanes.[4] By 1573, the only remaining presidios in Florida were at St. Augustine and Santa Elena on Paris Island, South Carolina. Santa Elena was abandoned in 1587, leaving St. Augustine as the only sizeable Spanish settlement in La Florida.[5]

Modern map showing the approximate location of Spanish missions and the connecting Camino Real across northern Florida

The missions at the presidios were staffed by the Jesuits. Due to the hostility of the Native Americans, which resulted in the killing of several of the missionaries, the Jesuits withdrew from the mission field in La Florida in 1572. Franciscan friars entered into La Florida in 1573, but at first confined their activities to the immediate vicinity of St. Augustine. The Franciscans began taking their mission to the Guale and Timucua along the Atlantic coast in 1587. Starting in 1606 the Franciscans expanded their mission efforts westward across northern Florida along a primitive but lengthy road known as El Camino Real.[6] The road and the network of missions stretched across the Florida panhandle through the territory of the Timucua and reached the Apalachees in the vicinity of modern Tallahassee by 1633.[7]

The mission system functioned for decades, as the Spanish convinced most village leaders to provide food and labor in exchange for tools and protection. Regular waves of European-borne disease along with conflict with Carolina colonists to the north weakened the system as the 1600s progressed. It collapsed in the aftermath of Queen Anne's War, when colonists from the Province of Carolina, along with their Creek allies, killed or kidnapped much of the remaining native population of Spanish Florida except in areas near St. Augustine and Pensacola.[8] The network of missions was virtually destroyed by Carolina Governor James Moore's incursions into northern Florida between 1702 and 1709, a series of attacks that were later called the Apalachee massacre. Dozens of missions and surrounding villages were abandoned by the early 1700s and their locations lost, as was much of the former route of El Camino Real. As a result, only a few mission sites in Florida have been found and positively identified.[6]

Architecture

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The mission buildings of La Florida were built with posts set into the ground. The walls were palmetto thatch, wattle and daub or plank, or left open. The floors were clay, and scholars believe the roofs were thatched. The church buildings in the missions averaged some 20 m by 11 m. Other buildings situated within a palisade included a convento to house the missionaries, a barracks for the soldiers, and often a separate kitchen.[9][10]

Provinces

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The Spanish used the term "province" for the territory of a tribe or chiefdom. There was no fixed definition of province boundaries. As tribes and chiefdoms lost population and importance, the provinces associated with them would no longer appear in the records. Other provinces expanded to take in their territories. Most of the people taken into the mission system were Timucua speakers. Three major groups that spoke other languages were also taken into the mission system. The Guale Province was the territory the Guale, and covered what is now coastal Georgia and the Sea Islands north of the Altamaha River. The Guale were among the first people to be taken into the mission system, in the 1580s.

Later in the 17th century, Guale Province was sometimes referred to as extending southward and including the region otherwise known as Mocama. The Apalachee Province included the Apalachee people, who spoke a Muskogean language, and were brought into the mission system in the 1630s. It occupied the easternmost part of what is now the Florida Panhandle, along the Gulf of Mexico coast from the Aucilla River to the Ochlockonee River. The Spanish established one early mission among the Mayaca people, a non-Timucuan speaking tribe south of the Agua Fresca, and resumed efforts among them, and their relatives, the Jororo, in the late 17th century. This district, which became known as the Mayaca-Jororo Province, occupied an area to the south of Lake George, on the upper (southern) St. Johns River.[11][12][13][14]

The Timucua-speakers, most of whom were brought into the mission system in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, were initially seen by the Spanish as living in a dozen or so provinces, with the Acuera, Ibi, Mocama, Potano, Timucua (in its restricted sense, north of the Santa Fe River, and east of the Suwannee River), Utina, Yufera, and Yustaga provinces becoming major components of the mission system. During the 17th century, as Timucuan populations declined and the locations of Spanish missions were consolidated along the road between St. Augustine and Apalachee, most of these provinces were gradually consolidated in Spanish usage into a Timucua Province stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Aucilla River.[15]

The Mocama Province included the coastal areas of southeastern Georgia and northern Florida from St. Simons Island south to St. Augustine, extending westward to approximately the distance of the St. Johns River in Florida.[16] It included some of the earliest missions to be established, and served the Mocama, a Timucuan-speaking group of the coastal areas. Important missions established in the Mocama Province were San Juan del Puerto, among the Saturiwa chiefdom, and San Pedro de Mocama, among the Tacatacuru.

The Timucua Province was initially established to serve the people known to the Spanish as the Timucua (called the Northern Utina by modern scholars), who spoke the "Timucua proper" dialect. Eventually, however, it absorbed several other Timucua-speaking provinces and became the largest of all the Florida mission districts. Following shortly after the success of the Mocama missions, the Spanish established missions among the Agua Fresca (Eastern Utina or Freshwater Timucua) along the middle St. Johns River, from roughly present-day Palatka south to Lake George. Similarly, the missions among the Potano, centered on what is now Gainesville, were considered part of the Potano Province, while missions to the Acuera, who lived around the Ocklawaha River, were part of the Acuera Province. Most of these areas were eventually considered part of the larger Timucua Province, in some cases because native populations had declined to the point that they could no longer support multiple missions. (The missions in Acuera Province were abandoned after the Timucua rebellion of 1656, although non-Christian Acueras continued to live there for another 40 years.) At this stage the Timucua Province included the area between the St. Johns and Suwanee rivers. Later, the Yustaga Province, which served the Yustaga who lived to the west of the Suwanee as far as the Aucilla River, was added, and the Timucua province covered the majority of north central Florida. The coastal area south of the Mocama Province and St. Augustine was known as La Costa; though this area had some Timucua speakers, it did not see much missionary activity, perhaps because it was less densely populated. There were also a few missions established to the north and west of the Apalachee Province.[17]

Missions

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This table includes doctrinas, missions that normally had one or more resident missionaries, but does not include visitas, which never had a resident missionary, and had less substantial church buildings where services were conducted by visiting missionaries.

Missions in Spanish Florida
Mission Name Province
or Region		 Active Period[A] References
Apalo[B] Potano Unknown [ref 1]
Ajacán[B] Virginia 1570 [ref 2]
Assumpción del Puerto
or Assumpción de Nuestra Señora[C]		 Apalachee 1675 [ref 3]
Attissimi, or Atisme, or Jizime Jororo 1693–1697 [ref 4]
Cofa[B] (mouth of Suwannee River) Potano Unknown [ref 5]
Escamau-Orista[B] Santa Elena 1566–1570 [ref 6]
Espogache[B][D] Guale 1605–? [ref 7]
Guale[B] Guale 1568–1570 [ref 8]
Guatari[B] Santa Elena 1566–1570 [ref 9]
Ivitachuco at Abosaya[E] Potano 1704–1706 [ref 10]
Joadi[B] Santa Elena 1566–1570 [ref 11]
La Concepción or Santa María de Ayubale Apalachee 1655–1704 [ref 12]
La Concepción de Atoyquime or Atoquime Jororo 1693–1697 [ref 13]
La Encarnación a la Santa Cruz de Sábacola
or Santa Cruz de Sábacola El Menor		 Apalachicola 1674–1677 [ref 14]
La Natividad de Nuestra Señora de Tolomato
(Likely the successor to Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Tolomato.)		 St. Augustine 1620s–1702 [ref 15]
La Purificación de Tama or Nuestra Señora de Candelaria de Tama[F] Apalachee 1675–1704 [ref 16]
Mission to the Calusa Calusa 1697 [ref 17]
Nombre de Dios St. Augustine 1566–1587 [ref 18]
Nuestra Señora de la Soledad y San Luís Pensacola 1718–1740s [ref 19]
Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Tolomato[D][G] Guale 1587–1597, 1605–? [ref 20]
Ospo or Talapo[B] Guale 1595–1606 [ref 21]
"Our Lady of Guadaloupe" (on St. Joseph Bay)[H] Pensacola 1701–1704 [ref 22]
Palica[B] St. Augustine Early 18th century [ref 23]
San Antón de Carlos Calusa 1567–1569 [ref 24]
San Antonio de Anacape/Enacape Agua Dulce 1587–1655 [ref 25]
Señor San Antonio de Anacape/Enacape[I] St. Johns River 1680–1699 [ref 26]
San Antonio de Bacuqua Apalachee After 1657–1704 [ref 27]
San Antonio de los Chines Apalachee 1694–1704 [ref 28]
San Antonio de Punta Rasa Pensacola 1749–1761 [ref 29]
San Augustín de Urihica Northern Utina 1630-1657 [ref 30]
San Blás de Avino Acuera 1612–1620s [ref 31]
San Buenaventura de Guadalquini (moved to St. Johns River
as Santa Cruz de Guadalquini)		 Guale/Mocama 1606-1684 [ref 32]
San Buenaventura de Potano Potano 1608–1613 [ref 33]
San Carlos de Borromeo (in Achercatane or Yatcatane) Chacato 1674–1675 [ref 34]
San Carlos de los Chacatos[J] Apalachee 1675–1683 or later [ref 35][ref 36]
San Carlos de Çabacola[K] Apalachicola before 1686-1690 [ref 37]
San Cosme y San Damián de Cupaica or Cupahica, Escambi, or Escabi[L] Apalachee 1639–1704 [ref 38]
San Diego de Helaca/Laca, later moved to
San Diego de Salamototo (on St. Johns River)		 Acuera 1645–1689 [ref 39]
San Diego de Satuache Guale 1616–1675 [ref 40]
San Felipe de Alabe[M] Guale 1616–1655 [ref 41]
San Felipe (on Cumberland Island) Mocama 1675–1678 [ref 42]
San Felipe (on Amelia Island) Mocama 1689–1702 [ref 43]
San Francisco de Chuaquin Arapaha 1655–1657 [ref 44]
San Francisco de Oconi[N] Apalachee 1655–1704 [ref 45]
San Francisco de Potano Potano 1607–1706 [ref 46]
San Ildefonso de Chamini/Chamile Arapaha 1655–1657 [ref 47]
San Joseph de Escambe or San José de Escambe Pensacola 1741–1761 [ref 48]
San Joseph de Jororo Jororo 1693–1679 [ref 49]
San Joseph de Ocuya or San José de Ocuya Apalachee 1655–1704 [ref 50]
San Joseph de Sapala or San José de Zapala
( Sapelo Island)		 Guale 1616–1684 [ref 51]
San Juan de Aspalaga Apalachee 1655–1704 [ref 52]
San Juan (de) Guacara (on the Suwannee River) Northern Utina 1612–1689 [ref 53]
San Juan del Puerto Mocama 1587–1702 [ref 54]
San Julian Agua Dulce 1598–1602 [ref 55]
San Lorenzo de Ibihica Ibi 1612–1630 [ref 56]
San Lorenzo de Ivitachuco Apalachee 1612(?)–1704 [ref 57]
San Luis de Acuera/Avino Agua Dulce 1616–1655 [ref 58]
San Luis de Apalachee
or San Luis de Talimali[O]		 Apalachee 1633(?)–1704 [ref 59]
San Luis de Eloquale Acuera Unknown [ref 60]
San Martín de Timucua/Ayacutu/Ayaocuto Northern Utina 1610–1659 [ref 61]
San Martín de Tomole Apalachee 1655–1704 [ref 62]
San Matheo de Tolapatafi Yustaga 1656–1689 [ref 63]
San Miguel de Asile Yustaga 1651–1689 [ref 64]
San Miguel de Potano Potano Unknown [ref 65]
San Nicolás de Tolentino Chacato 1674–1675 [ref 66]
San Nicolás de Los Chatos[P] Apalachicola 1689 [ref 67]
San Pedro de Atulteca
or San Felipe de Athulteca[Q]		 Guale 1616–1695 [ref 68]
San Pedro de Mocama (Cumberland Island) Mocama 1587–1655(?) [ref 69]
San Pedro de los Chines Apalachee 1677(?)–1689(?) [ref 70]
San Pedro de Medellin[R] Apalachee 1681 [ref 71]
San Pedro y San Pablo de Patale[S]
or San Pedro de Patali		 Apalachee 1655–1704 [ref 72]
San Pedro y San Pablo de Potohiriba
or San Pedro de Potohiriba		 Yustaga 1630–1705 [ref 73]
San Pedro Y San Pablo de Puturiba(to) Guale 1597(?)–1604(?) [ref 74]
San Salvador de Mayaca Mayaca 1655, 1680–1701 [ref 75]
San Sebastian St. Augustine 1587–1601 or 1602 [ref 76]
Santa Ana de Potano[T] Potano Uncertain [ref 77]
Santa Catalina de Ajoica
or Afuica, Ahoica, Ahojica, Nihoica, Nihayca		 Northern Utina 1655–1685 [ref 78]
Santa Catalina de Guale (St. Catherines Island,
Sapelo Island and Amelia Island, in succession)		 Guale 1595–1597,
1602–1702		 [ref 79]
Santa Catalina or Santa María de Guale Mocama 1689–1702 [ref 80]
Santa Catarina de Guale St. Augustine 1711–1717 [ref 81]
Santa Clara de Tupiqui (Sapelo River) Guale 1595–1597 [ref 82]
Santa Clara de Tupiqui (Amelia Island) Mocama c. 1616 [ref 83]
Santa Cruz de Cachipile Arapaha 1655–1657 [ref 84]
Santa Cruz de Guadalquini
Moved from San Buenaventura de Guadalquini		 Mocama 1684–1695 [ref 85][ref 86]
Santa Cruz de Ytuchafun or Ychuntafun Capoli
or Santa Cruz y San Pedro de Alcantara de Ychuntafun		 Apalachee 1672–1704 [ref 87]
Santa Cruz de Tarihica Northern Utina 1612–1695 [ref 88]
Santa Elena de Machaba Yustaga 1655–1705 [ref 89]
Santa Fe de Toloca/Teleco/Toloco Potano 1616–1702 [ref 90]
Santa Isabel de Utinahica Unknown[U] 1616 [ref 91]
Santa Lucia de Acuera Acuera 1655 [ref 92]
Santa María de Bacuqua Apalachee 1640–1657 [ref 93]
Santa María de Loreto Tequesta 1743 [ref 94]
Santa María de los Angeles de Arapaha Arapaha 1630–1657 [ref 95]
Santa Maria de la Sena Mocama 1602 [ref 96]
Santa María de los Yamasee
or Santa María de Guale		 Mocama 1675 [ref 97]
Santa Rosa de Ivitanayo Yustaga 1680s [ref 98]
Santiago de Oconi
(near the Okefenokee Swamp)		 Oconi Early 16th century - 1655 [ref 99]
Santo Domingo de Asao[V]
or Santo Domingo de Talaje[W]		 Guale 1595(?)–1680s [ref 100]
Santo Domingo (Napa or Napoyca) Mocama 1602 [ref 101]
Tequesta[B] Tequesta 1567–1570 [ref 102]
Tocoy[B] Aqua Dulce 1602–1606 [ref 103]
Tupiqui[B][D] Guale 1569–1570 [ref 104]

Table Notes

  1. ^ Documentation of when missions were active is incomplete. Years listed in this column may not represent either the earliest or the latest year in which a mission was in use.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Place name. Mission name unknown.
  3. ^ Assumpción served Amacano, Chine, and Pacara people living in Apalachee Province.
  4. ^ a b c Espogache, Tolomato, and Tupiqui were neighboring towns in Guale which seem to have merged, or to have hosted the mission of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe in sequence.
  5. ^ Refugees from San Lorenzo de Ivitachuco tried to settle here, but were driven on to St. Augustine by Muscogee and other raiders.
  6. ^ La Purificación served Yamassee people living in Apalachee Province.
  7. ^ Some residents of the mission may have moved to La Natividad de Nuestra Señora de Tolomato near St. Augustine.
  8. ^ A short-lived Spanish lookout post on St. Joseph Bay had two churches, one for the Spanish, and one for Chacatos living in the area.
  9. ^ The second San Antonio mission served Yemasee people at the same site as the earlier Agua Dulce mission.
  10. ^ San Carlos de Los Chacatos served Chacato people.
  11. ^ San Carlos de Çabacola served people from Sabacola and may have served Chacato people. The mission may have been near San Nicolás de Los Chatos.
  12. ^ Moved to San Damián de Ilcombe after 1686.
  13. ^ San Felipe may have merged with San Pedro de Atulteca.
  14. ^ The mission was in an Apalachee village with no connection to either the Timuqua Oconi or the Hitchiti Oconee.
  15. ^ The mission was at Xinayca (also called Nixaxipa) until 1656.
  16. ^ San Nicolás de Los Chatos served Chacato people. The mission may have been near San Carlos de Çabacola.
  17. ^ The Atulteca mission had moved to Cumberland Island by 1675, then to Amelia Island by 1695.
  18. ^ San Pedro served Chine people living in Apalachee Province.
  19. ^ The mission may have moved more than once.
  20. ^ Hann indicates that historical mentions of a mission at Santa Ana are unreliable.
  21. ^ Santa Isabel was located somewhere in the southern part of the Altamaha River basin, northeast of the mission at Santa Cruz de Tarihica.
  22. ^ Originally by the Altamaha River on the mainland, Santo Domingo moved to St. Simon's Island by 1675.
  23. ^ Asao and Talafe were distinct towns that were later merged. Both names of the mission were used at various times.

Table references

  1. ^ Hann 1990: 468
  2. ^ Hann 1990: 430
  3. ^ Gannon, Michael V. (1993) [1965]. The Cross in the Sand. University Presses of Florida. p. 63. ISBN 0-8130-0776-3.
  4. ^ Hann 1990: 509–510
  5. ^ Milanich 1995: 176
  6. ^ Hann 1990: 430
  7. ^ Hann 1990: 447–449
  8. ^ Hann 1990: 429
  9. ^ Hann 1990: 432
  10. ^ Hann 1990: 513
  11. ^ Hann 1990: 433
  12. ^ Hann 1990: 447–478
  13. ^ Hann 1990: 509
  14. ^ Hann 1990: 494–495
  15. ^ Hann 1990: 501–502
  16. ^ Hann 1990: 489–490
  17. ^ Hann 1990: 511–513
  18. ^ Hann 1990: 426–427
  19. ^ Worth, John E. "Persacola Colonial Frontiers Project". Faculty Homepage: Dr. John E. Worth. Retrieved July 5, 2024.
  20. ^ Hann 1990: 445
  21. ^ Hann 1990: 449–450
  22. ^ Saccente & White 2015: 301–302
  23. ^ Hann 1990: 431
  24. ^ Hann 1990: 427
  25. ^ Hann 1990: 439
  26. ^ Hann 1990: 504–506
  27. ^ Hann 1990: 482–483
  28. ^ Hann 1990: 491–492
  29. ^ "John Worth Faculty Homepage - PCF Project - Mission San Antonio". pages.uwf.edu. Retrieved 2024-06-30.
  30. ^ Hann 1990: 470
  31. ^ Boyer 2009: 46–47
  32. ^ Hann 1990: 442
  33. ^ Hann 1990: 459–460
  34. ^ Hann 2006: 29
  35. ^ Hann 1990: 492–493
  36. ^ Hann 2006: 27, 46
  37. ^ Hann 2006: 46–47
  38. ^ Hann 1990: 483–485
  39. ^ Hann 1990: 488, 502–504
  40. ^ Hann 1990: 466–467
  41. ^ Hann 1990: 467–468
  42. ^ Hann 1990: 498–499
  43. ^ Hann 1990: 499
  44. ^ Hann 1990: 471
  45. ^ Hann 1990: 478
  46. ^ Hann 1990: 458–459
  47. ^ Hann 1990: 471
  48. ^ "John Worth Faculty Homepage - PCF Project - Mission San Joseph de Escambe". pages.uwf.edu. Retrieved 2024-06-30.
  49. ^ Hann 1990: 507–509
  50. ^ Hann 1990: 479
  51. ^ Hann 1990: 456–458
  52. ^ Hann 1990: 479–480
  53. ^ Hann 1990: 462
  54. ^ Hann 1990: 436–437
  55. ^ Hann 1990: 451
  56. ^ Hann 1996a: 153–154
  57. ^ Hann 1990: 476-477
  58. ^ Hann 1990: 460
  59. ^ Hann 1990: 485–486
  60. ^ Hann 1990: 469–470
  61. ^ Hann 1990: 461
  62. ^ Hann 1990: 486–487
  63. ^ Hann 1990: 474–475
  64. ^ Hann 1990: 475–476
  65. ^ Hann 1990: 459
  66. ^ Hann 1990: 493–494
  67. ^ Hann 1990: 494
  68. ^ Hann 1990: 464–466
  69. ^ Hann 1990: 437–438
  70. ^ Hann 1990: 491
  71. ^ Hann 2006: 25–27
  72. ^ Hann 1990: 480–482
  73. ^ Hann 1990: 473–474
  74. ^ Hann 1990: 438
  75. ^ Hann 1990: 487, 506–507
  76. ^ Hann 1990: 435
  77. ^ Milanich 1995: 187
  78. ^ Hann 1990: 471–473
  79. ^ Hann 1990: 440
  80. ^ Hann 1990: 498
  81. ^ Hann 1990: 498
  82. ^ Hann 1990: 446
  83. ^ Hann 1990: 499–500
  84. ^ Hann 1990: 471
  85. ^ Hann 1996a: 270–71
  86. ^ Milanich 1999: 174
  87. ^ Hann 1990: 489
  88. ^ Hann 1990: 462–463
  89. ^ Hann 1990: 474
  90. ^ Hann 1990: 460
  91. ^ Hann 1990: 463
  92. ^ Hann 1990: 487
  93. ^ Hann 1990: 482
  94. ^ Milanich 1995: 230
  95. ^ Hann 1990: 470-471
  96. ^ Hann 1990: 453
  97. ^ Hann 1990: 497–498
  98. ^ Hann 1990: 502
  99. ^ Hann 1990: 463–464
  100. ^ Hann 1990: 443–445
  101. ^ Hann 1990: 452
  102. ^ Hann 1990: 428
  103. ^ Hann 1990: 451
  104. ^ Hann 1990: 429

See also

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References

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  1. ^ ""Episode 07 Spanish Mission Bell" by Robert Cassanello and Kevin Stapleton". stars.library.ucf.edu. Retrieved 2016-01-10.
  2. ^ Burnett, Gene (1986). Florida's Past, Volume 1. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press. pp. 156–158. ISBN 1-56164-115-4. Retrieved October 9, 2013.
  3. ^ "Luna Expedition". UWF Anthropology and Archeology. University of West Florida. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  4. ^ "Selected Chronology of European Colonization in the Southeastern U.S." University of West Florida. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  5. ^ Childers, Ronald Wayne (2004). "The Presidio System in Spanish Florida 1565–1763". Historical Archaeology. 38 (3): 24–32. doi:10.1007/BF03376651. JSTOR 25617178. S2CID 160809833.
  6. ^ a b Milanich, Jerald (1999). Laboring in the fields of the Lord : Spanish missions and Southeastern Indians. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1560989408.
  7. ^ "El Camino Real – Division of Historical Resources". dos.myflorida.com. Florida Department of State. Retrieved 31 July 2018.
  8. ^ McEwan. pp. xix–xx.
  9. ^ Saunders. pp. 51–56.
  10. ^ Thomas. pp. 9–19.
  11. ^ Griffin: xv
  12. ^ Hann 1993: 92, 128.
  13. ^ Milanich: 97, 98, 99
  14. ^ Saunders: 35–36
  15. ^ Hann 1996b: 2, 5–7, 9, 12
  16. ^ Milanich: 98
  17. ^ Milanich: 98–99

Sources

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