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Imperata cylindrica

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Cogongrass
Imperata cylindrica in Susami, Wakayama, Japan with mature seed heads
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Imperata
Species:
I. cylindrica
Binomial name
Imperata cylindrica
Synonyms[2]
List

Imperata cylindrica (commonly known as cogongrass /koʊˈɡoʊn/ or kunai grass /ˈkuːnaɪ/[1][3]) is a species of perennial rhizomatous grass native to tropical and subtropical Asia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia, Africa, and Southern Europe. It has also been introduced to Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Southeastern United States. It is a highly flammable pyrophyte, and can spread rapidly by colonizing disturbed areas and encouraging more frequent wildfires.[4]

Common names

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The species is most commonly known in English as "cogongrass" (also "cogon grass"),[3] from Spanish cogón, from the Tagalog and Visayan kugon.[5] Other common names in English include kunai grass, blady grass, satintail, spear grass, sword grass, thatch grass, alang-alang, lalang grass, cotton wool grass, kura-kura,[3] keri[6] among other names.

Taxonomy

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Imperata cylindrica was first described by Linnaeus in 1759 under the basionym Lagurus cylindricus.[7] They were renamed by the French entomologist and botanist Palisot de Beauvois to the current accepted name of Imperata cylindrica.

Description

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Cogongrass grows from 0.2–3 m (0.66–9.84 ft) tall, its stalk is firm and has nodes covered with long white hairs.[8][9] Each clump that grows shares an extensive rhizome network, the biomass of which accounts for 60% of the total biomass of the plant. They can penetrate up to 1.2 m (3.9 ft) deep, but 0.4 m (1.3 ft) is typical in sandy soil.[8][10]

The leaves are about 2 cm wide in average and 12–80 cm in length[9] near the base of the plant and narrow to a sharp point at the top; the margins are finely toothed and are embedded with sharp silica crystals. The main vein is a lighter colour than the rest of the leaf and tends to be nearer to one side of the leaf. The upper surface is hairy near the base of the plant while the underside is usually hairless.[8]

Its flowers small and gathered on pedicels 0.5–3 mm long from narrow panicles slightly above its stalks that grow tall as high as 28 cm.[9]

Phytochemistry

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The plant contains the triterpenoids arundoin, cylindrin and fernenol.[11]

Flammability

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Green cogongrass on fire in Papua New Guinea.

Cogongrass is a pyrophyte. It is highly flammable, even when still apparently green,[12] particularly in tropical climates. It is not uncommon to see hillsides of cogongrass on fire.[13][14] Cogongrass depends on regular fires to spread and maintain ecological dominance. Because of its density and high biomass, cogongrass provides a very high fuel load, enabling wildfires to burn faster, higher, and much hotter. This is hot enough to kill most competing plants, including trees. After a fire, cogongrass will recolonize the area using their rhizome network which was unaffected by the fire.[4][15][16][10]

A common expression in the Philippines is ningas kugon ('cogon brush fire'). It is a figure of speech for quitters, specifically people who show a fervent interest in a new project but lose interest quickly, in reference to the propensity of cogongrass to catch fire and burn out quickly.[17] Ningas kugon is somewhat related to procrastination in that people who start out strong on a project can end up procrastinating and never getting it done. They are ultimately distinct concepts, however—someone can exhibit short-lived enthusiasm and quit without procrastinating, and someone can procrastinate without ever having any enthusiasm for the task.[18]

Cultivation and uses

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A Japanese bloodgrass cultivar, Imperata cylindrica 'Red Baron', grown as an ornamental

It is regarded as an excellent plant for thatching the roofs of traditional homes throughout south-east Asia, and is even grown as a crop for this purpose.[6][19]

It is planted extensively for ground cover and soil stabilization near beach areas and other areas subject to erosion. Other uses include paper-making, thatching and weaving into mats and bags. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine.[20]

A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use as ornamental plants, including the red-leaved 'Red Baron', also known as Japanese blood grass.

Young inflorescences and shoots may be eaten cooked, and the roots contain starch and sugars.[21]

Imperata Cylindrica is a common medicinal spice that could be used to potentially human cervical cancer. This plant displayed dose-dependent cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo in mice bearing tumors. Imperata C. was significantly seen to inhbit cell growth and attack against other cells.[22]

Weed problems

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The plant has become naturalized in the Americas, Northern Asia, Europe and Africa in addition to many islands and is listed as an invasive weed in some areas. In the U.S. it survives best in the Southeast (and, according to a 2003 survey, has overtaken more acreage in that region than the notorious kudzu),[23] but has been reported to exist as far north as West Virginia and Oregon. Worldwide it has been observed from 45°N to 45°S. It grows on wet lands, dry lands, areas of high salinity, organic soils, clay soils, and sandy soils of pH from 4.0 to 7.5. It prefers full sun but will tolerate some shade. In Florida, I. cylindrica is found in areas where the soil has been disturbed, such as roadsides, building sites, timber harvesting areas, and borrow pits. It is able to invade both moist and dry upland pine forests. Once established it often forms dense monocultures.[24]

In addition to outcompeting species for resources, the grass also exhibits allelopathic tendencies. The chemicals it releases as well as the dense mat of vegetation that usually accompanies a cogongrass invasion gives it an advantage over indigenous plants.[25]

It spreads both through small seeds, which are easily carried by the wind, and rhizomes which can be transported by tilling equipment and in soil transport.

In the Southeastern United States, state governments have various eradication efforts in place, and deliberate propagation is prohibited by some authorities.[26] Cogongrass came to the Southeastern United States in the early 1900s as shipping material in crates.[27] Before it was named an invasive species in the area, it was cultivated for fodder for livestock and erosion control.[28] It failed to prevent erosion because of how weedy it was, and animals would not eat it as fodder.[29] It is now listed as a Federal Noxious Weed in some Southeastern States[30] and Arkansas.[31] In Mississippi it is mostly concentrated in the south of the state.[32]

Control is typically by the use of herbicides. Currently, the most effective herbicides used to control growth are glyphosate and imazapyr.[33] Burnoff is seldom successful since the grass burns at a high temperature, causing heat damage to trees which would ordinarily be undamaged by a controlled burn; it also recovers from a burn quickly. Quarantine and extermination of this plant is especially difficult because cogongrass establishes root systems as deep as four feet, and regrowth can be triggered by rhizome segments as small as one inch.[25]

Cogongrass is difficult to contain mainly because it is highly adaptive to harsher environments, establishing itself on soils low in fertility. The grass can also grow on sand and clay. It is not eaten by many species of animal, further contributing to containment difficulties. The grass tends to be averse to dense shade, but reports indicate more shade-tolerant strains are developing.[34][timeframe?]

The legume vine Mucuna pruriens is used in the countries of Benin and Vietnam as a biological control for Imperata cylindrica.[35]

References

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  1. ^ a b "Imperata cylindrica". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2016-04-03.
  2. ^ "Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2024. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
  3. ^ a b c "Imperata cylindrica (cogongrass)". Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI). Retrieved November 16, 2016.
  4. ^ a b Pillion, Dennis (13 August 2017). "This 'vicious' invasive plant burns hot enough to kill trees and stabs them with its roots". Alabama Local. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
  5. ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary: Cogon". Merriam-webster.com. 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2018-07-26.
  6. ^ a b Djawanai, Stephanus (1983). Ngadha Text Tradition: The Collective Mind of the Ngadha People, Flores. Pacific Linguistics Series D – No. 55. Canberra: Australian National University. p. 25. doi:10.15144/PL-D55. hdl:1885/145062. ISBN 978-0-85883-283-1.
  7. ^ "Imperata cylindrica - Species Details". Atlas of Florida Plants. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  8. ^ a b c "Imperata cylindrica". Smithsonian Marine Station. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  9. ^ a b c Middleton, D.J.; Leong-Škorničková, J.; Lindsay, S. (2019). Flora of Singapore. Vol. 7: Poales. pp. 360–362. ISBN 978-981-14-3024-4.
  10. ^ a b Sellers, B. A.; Ferrell, J. A.; MacDonald, G. E.; Enloe, S. F.; Flory, S. L. (2002). "Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) Biology, Ecology, and Management in Florida Grazing Lands". Publication #SS-AGR-52. Agronomy Department, UF/IFAS Extensio.
  11. ^ The structures of arundoin, cylindrin and fernenol : Triterpenoids of fernane and arborane groups of imperata cylindrica var. koenigii. K. Nishimoto, M. Ito and S. Natori, Tetrahedron, 1968, Volume 24, Issue 2, Pages 735–752, doi:10.1016/0040-4020(68)88023-8
  12. ^ "Species Description: Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv". Archived from the original on 2010-07-28. Retrieved 2010-12-16.
  13. ^ "'Establishment of Stylo (Stylosanthes Guianensis) in Kunai (Imperata cylindrica) pastures and its Effect of Dry Matter Yield and Animal Production in the Markham Valley, Papua New Guinea by P.A. Chadhokar" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-30. Retrieved 2018-07-26.
  14. ^ "Fire leaves 20 without shelter". Postcourier.com.pg. Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2018-07-26.
  15. ^ Stocker, Randall; Hupp, Karen V.S. (2008). "Fire and Nonnative Invasive Plants in the Southeast Bioregion". Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and nonnative invasive plants. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forest Service, USDA. p. 103. ISBN 9780160814655.
  16. ^ Lippincott, C.L. (2000). "Effects of Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. (Cogongrass) invasion on fire regime in Florida sandhill (USA)". Natural Areas Journal. 20 (2): 140–149.
  17. ^ "Filipino Culture: What is Ningas Cogon". Archived from the original on 2011-01-15. Retrieved 2010-12-16.
  18. ^ "Little-Known Power of Ningas Kugon to Create Breakthroughs". 22 June 2022.
  19. ^ Holm, LeRoy G.; Plucknett, Donald L.; Pancho, Juan V.; Herberger, James P. (1977). The World's Worst Weeds: distribution and biology. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. p. 70. ISBN 0-8248-0295-0.
  20. ^ "Imperata". Acupuncturetoday - traditional Chinese medicine (tcm). Retrieved 22 Dec 2014.
  21. ^ "Imperata cylindrica". PFAF. Retrieved 2016-03-31.
  22. ^ Nayim, Paul; Mbaveng, Armelle T.; Sanjukta, Mukherjee; Rikesh, Jain; Kuete, Victor; Sudhir, Krishna (2021-07-15). "CD24 gene inhibition and TIMP-4 gene upregulation by Imperata cylindrica's root extract prevents metastasis of CaSki cells via inhibiting PI3K/Akt/snail signaling pathway and blocking EMT". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 275: 114111. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2021.114111. ISSN 0378-8741. PMID 33848610. S2CID 233233738.
  23. ^ "Aggressive weed becoming a menace worse than kudzu, UF researcher says". Archived from the original on 2008-05-17.
  24. ^ "Cogongrass". Invasive Non-native Plants. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
  25. ^ a b Long, Elizabeth A. "Identification and Control Methods for Cogongrass in Tennessee" (PDF). Tennessee invasives. University of Tennessee. Retrieved March 30, 2016.
  26. ^ Mazhukhina, Karina (August 27, 2021). "Avoid this plant at your local garden center. It's 'world's most invasive weed'".
  27. ^ Dickens, Ray (1974). "Cogongrass in Alabama after Sixty Years". Weed Science. 22 (2). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 177–179. doi:10.1017/s004317450003681x. ISSN 0043-1745. S2CID 86848569.
  28. ^ Hubbard, C.E. (1944). Imperata cylindrica: Taxonomy, distribution, economic significance and control. Imperial Agricultural Bureaux Joint Publication No. 7. Oxford & Aberystwyth, U.K.: Imperial Forestry Bureau & Imperial Bureau of Pastures and Forage Crops.
  29. ^ "Cogongrass Resources | National Invasive Species Information Center".
  30. ^ "Cogongrass biology and management in the southeastern U.S. University of Florida, Southern Regional Extension Forestry, 2018 Candice Prince, Gregory MacDonald, Stephen Enloe, and David Coyle".
  31. ^ "Arkansas Invasive Pests | Cogongrass". Archived from the original on 2021-09-18. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
  32. ^ Associated Press (2020-12-16). "Cogongrass: Mississippi fights to control one of world's most invasive weeds". Al.com. Retrieved 2021-01-02.
  33. ^ Dozier, Hallie; Gaffney, James F.; McDonald, Sandra K.; Johnson, Eric R. R. L.; Shilling, Donn G. (1998-01-01). "Cogongrass in the United States: History, Ecology, Impacts, and Management". Weed Technology. 12 (4): 737–743. doi:10.1017/S0890037X0004464X. JSTOR 3989097. S2CID 55181258.
  34. ^ "Imperata cylindrica | UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants". plants.ifas.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-31.
  35. ^ "Factsheet - Mucuna pruriens". www.tropicalforages.info. Archived from the original on 2008-05-15. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
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