Jump to content

History of the Jews in Turkey

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Judaism in Turkey)

See also: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire and Antisemitism in Turkey

Turkish Jews
Türk Yahudileri / Türk Musevileri
יהודים טורקים‎
Djudios Turkos / Cudios Turkos
Total population
est. 330,000–450,000
Regions with significant populations
 Israel280,000[1]
 Turkey14,500 (2022)[2]
14,300 (2024)[3][4][5][6]
 United States16,000[citation needed]
 Canada8,000[citation needed]
Languages
Hebrew (in Israel), Turkish, Judaeo-Spanish, English, French, Greek, Yevanic (extinct), Levantine Arabic[7] Kurdish[8]
Religion
Judaism
Related ethnic groups
Jews, Sephardic Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Spanish Jews, Greek Jews
Part of a series on
Jews and Judaism
Religion
Texts
Tanakh
Talmud
Rabbinic
History
General
Ancient Israel
Second Temple period
Rabbinic period and Middle Ages
Modern era
Communities
Related groups
Population
Land of Israel
Africa
Asia
Europe
Northern America
Latin America and Caribbean
Oceania
Denominations
Culture
Customs
Music
Art
Cuisine
Literature
Languages
Politics
Jewish political movements
Zionism
Religion in Turkey

Flag of Turkey

Secularism in Turkey
Islam in Turkey
Christianity in Turkey
Judaism in Turkey
Minor religions
Irreligion in Turkey

The history of the Jews in Turkey (Turkish: Türk Yahudileri or Türk Musevileri; Hebrew: יהודים טורקים, romanized: Yehudim Turkim; Ladino: Djudios Turkos) covers the 2400 years that Jews have lived in what is now Turkey.

There have been Jewish communities in Anatolia since at least the beginning of the common era. Anatolia's Jewish population before Ottoman times primarily consisted of Greek-speaking Romaniote Jews, with a handful of dispersed Karaite communities. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, many Sephardic Jews from Spain, Portugal and South Italy expelled by the Alhambra Decree found refuge across the Ottoman Empire, including in regions now part of Turkey. This influx played a pivotal role in shaping the predominant identity of Ottoman Jews.[9]

By the end of the sixteenth century, the Jewish population in the Ottoman Empire was double (150,000) that of Jews in Poland and Ukraine combined (75,000), far surpassing other Jewish communities to be the largest in the world.[10][11] Turkey's Jewish community was large, diverse and vibrant, forming the core of Ottoman Jewry until World War I. Early signs of change included education reforms and the rise of Zionism. The community declined sharply after World War I, with many emigrating to Israel, France and the Americas. Turkish Jews in Israel became leaders of the Sephardic community, and their Ladino language was a prominent characteristic.[12]

Today, the vast majority of Turkish Jews live in Israel, though Turkey itself still has a modest Jewish population, where the vast majority live in Istanbul, and the remainder in İzmir. Jews are one of the four ethnic minorities officially recognized in Turkey, together with Armenians, Greeks,[13][14][15] and Bulgarians.[16][17][18]

History

[edit]

Roman and Byzantine rule

[edit]
Main articles: History of the Jews in Greece, History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, and History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire
Sardis Synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex that was in use for about 450–500 years.

According to the Hebrew Bible, Noah's Ark landed on the top of Mount Ararat, a mountain in eastern Anatolia, in the Armenian Highlands, near the present-day borders of Turkey, Armenia, and Iran.[19]

In the 1st century AD, Jewish historian Josephus cited records confirming the presence of diaspora Jews in Lydia and Phrygia by the late 3rd century BC, a community established through the relocation of 2000 families by Seleucid king Antiochus III.[20] Josephus notes Jewish origins for many of the cities in Anatolia, though much of his sourcing for these passages is traditional.[21] Descendants in Sardis and other centers gained civic privileges by the Late Republican Rome.[20]

The New Testament has many mentions of Jewish populations in Anatolia: Iconium (now Konya) is said to have a synagogue in Acts of the Apostles 14:1, and Ephesus is mentioned as having a synagogue in Acts 19:1 and in Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. The Epistle to the Galatians is likewise directed at Galatia, which once held an established Jewish population.[22][23][24]

Based on physical evidence, there has been a Jewish community in Anatolia since the fourth century BCE, most notably in the city of Sardis. The subsequent Roman and Byzantine Empires included sizable Greek-speaking Jewish communities in their Anatolian domains which seem to have been relatively well-integrated and enjoyed certain legal immunities.[23]

The size of the Jewish community was not greatly affected by the attempts of some Byzantine emperors (most notably Justinian I) to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.[25] The exact picture of the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule is still being researched by historians.[26] Although there is some evidence of occasional hostility by the Byzantine populations and authorities, no systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass expulsions, etc.) is believed to have occurred in Byzantium.[27]

Jews arrived in Anatolia between the sixth century BCE and 133 BCE, when the Romans arrived. They were Romaniote Jews and first settled in Phrygia and Lydia.[28] In 2020, a seventh-century synagogue was uncovered in Side.[23]

Ottoman era

[edit]
A Krymchak, a Turkic-speaking Crimean Jew (Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire)
Main article: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire
See also: Romaniote Jews and Alhambra Decree

The first synagogue linked to Ottoman rule is "Tree of Life" (Hebrew: עץ החיים) in Bursa, which passed to Ottoman authority in 1324. The synagogue is still in use, although the modern Jewish population of Bursa has shrunk to about 140 people.[29]

The status of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire often hinged on the whims of the sultan. So, for example, while Murad III ordered that the attitude of all non-Muslims should be one of "humility and abjection" and that they should not "live near Mosques or tall buildings" or own slaves, others were more tolerant.[30]

The first major event in Jewish history under Turkish rule took place after the Empire gained control over Constantinople. After Mehmed the Conqueror's conquest of Constantinople he found the city in a state of disarray. After suffering many sieges, the devastating sack of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 and the arrival of the Black Death pandemic in 1347,[31] the city was a shadow of its former glory. Since Mehmed wanted the city as his new capital, he decreed its rebuilding.[32]

In order to revivify Constantinople he ordered that Muslims, Christians and Jews from all over his empire be resettled in the new capital.[32] Within months, most of the Empire's Romaniote Jews, from the Balkans and Anatolia, were concentrated in Constantinople, where they made up 10% of the city's population.[33] At the same time, the forced resettlement, though not intended as an anti-Jewish measure, was perceived as an "expulsion" by the Jews.[34] Despite this interpretation, Romaniotes would be the most influential community in the Empire for a few decades, until that position would be lost to a wave of Sephardi immigrants.

The number of Romaniotes was soon bolstered by small groups of Ashkenazi Jews that immigrated to the Ottoman Empire between 1421 and 1453.[33] Among these immigrants was Rabbi Yitzhak Sarfati, a German-born Jew of French descent[35] (צרפתי Sarfati, meaning "French"), who became Chief Rabbi of Edirne and wrote a letter inviting European Jewry to settle in the Ottoman Empire, in which he stated, "Turkey is a land wherein nothing is lacking," and asking, "Is it not better for you to live under Muslims than under Christians?"[35][36]

The greatest influx of Jews into Anatolia Eyalet and the Ottoman Empire occurred during the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror's successor, Bayezid II (1481–1512), after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily. The Sultan issued a formal invitation and refugees started arriving in the empire in great numbers. A key moment occurred in 1492, when more than 40,000 Spanish Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition.[37] At that point in time, Constantinople's population was a mere 70,000 due to the various sieges of the city during the Crusades and the Black Death, so this historical event was also significant for repopulation of the city. These Sephardi Jews settled in Constantinople, as well as Thessaloniki.

The Jews satisfied various needs in the Ottoman Empire: the Muslim Turks were largely uninterested in business enterprises and accordingly left commercial occupations to members of minority religions. They also distrusted the Christian subjects whose countries had only recently been conquered by the Ottomans and therefore it was natural to prefer Jewish subjects to which this consideration did not apply.[38]

Ottoman Jewish wedding in 1904

The Sephardi Jews were allowed to settle in the wealthier cities of the empire, especially in Rumelia (the European provinces, cities such as Constantinople, Sarajevo, Thessaloniki, Adrianople and Nicopolis), western and northern Anatolia (Bursa, Aydın, Tokat, Tire, Manisa and Amasya),[9] but also in the Mediterranean coastal regions (Jerusalem, Safed, Damascus, and Egypt). İzmir was not settled by Spanish Jews until later.

The Jewish population in Jerusalem increased from 70 families in 1488 to 1500 at the beginning of the 16th century. That of Safed increased from 300 to 2000 families and almost surpassed Jerusalem in importance. Damascus had a Sephardic congregation of 500 families. Constantinople had a Jewish community of 30,000 individuals with 44 synagogues. Bayezid allowed the Jews to live on the banks of the Golden Horn. Egypt Eyalet, especially Cairo, received a large number of the exiles, who soon outnumbered Musta'arabi Jews. Gradually, the chief center of the Sephardi Jews became Thessaloniki, where the Spanish Jews soon outnumbered coreligionists of other nationalities and, at one time, the original native inhabitants.

Although the status of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire may have often been exaggerated,[39] it is undeniable that they enjoyed tolerance. Under the millet system they were organized as a community on the basis of religion alongside the other millets (e.g. Eastern Orthodox millet, Armenian Apostolic millet, etc.). In the framework of the millet, they had a considerable amount of administrative autonomy and were represented by the Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. There were no restrictions in the professions Jews could practice analogous to those common in Western Christian countries.[40] There were restrictions in the areas Jews could live or work, but such restrictions were imposed on Ottoman subjects of other religions as well.[38]

Like all non-Muslims, Jews had to pay the haraç "head tax" and faced other restrictions in clothing, horse riding, army service etc., but they could occasionally be waived or circumvented.[41] Jews who reached high positions in the Ottoman court and administration include Mehmed the Conqueror's Minister of Finance (Defterdar) Hekim Yakup Paşa, his Portuguese physician Moses Hamon, Murad II's physician İshak Paşa and Abraham de Castro, master of the mint in Egypt.

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the millets, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of Joseph Nasi to sanjak-bey (governor, a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of Naxos.[42] Also in the first half of the 17th century the Jews were distinct in winning tax farms, Haim Gerber describes it: "My impression is that no pressure existed, that it was merely performance that counted."[43]

Friction between Jews and Turks was less common than in the Arab territories. Some examples: During the reign of Murad IV (1623–1640), the Jews of Jerusalem were persecuted by an Arab who had purchased the governorship of that city from the governor of the province.[citation needed] Under Mehmed IV (1649–1687), the 1660 destruction of Safed occurred.[44][45][46]

An additional problem was Jewish ethnic divisions. They had come to the Ottoman Empire from many lands, bringing with them their own customs and opinions, to which they clung tenaciously, and had founded separate congregations. Another tremendous upheaval was caused when Sabbatai Zevi claimed to be the Messiah. He was eventually caught by the Ottoman authorities and when given the choice between death and conversion, he opted for the latter. His remaining disciples converted to Islam too. Their descendants are today known as Dönmeh.

The history of the Jews in Turkey in the 18th and 19th century is principally a chronicle of decline in influence and power; they lost their influential positions in trade mainly to the Greeks, who were able to "capitalize on their religio-cultural ties with the West and their trading diaspora".[43] An exception to this is Daniel de Fonseca, who was chief court physician and played a certain political role. He is mentioned by Voltaire, who speaks of him as an acquaintance whom he esteemed highly. Fonseca was involved in negotiations with Charles XII of Sweden.

Ottoman Jews held a variety of views on the role of Jews in the Ottoman Empire, from loyal Ottomanism to Zionism.[47] Emmanuel Carasso, for example, was a founding member of the Young Turks, and believed that the Jews of the Empire should be Turks first, and Jews second.

As mentioned before, the overwhelming majority of the Ottoman Jews lived in Rumelia. As the Empire declined however, the Jews of these region found themselves under Christian rule. The Bosnian Jews for example came under Austro-Hungarian rule after the occupation of the region in 1878, the independence of Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia further lowered the number of Jews within the borders of the Ottoman Empire.

Early republic

[edit]
See also: Single-party period of the Republic of Turkey
A 1902 Issue of La Epoca, a Ladino newspaper from Salonica (Thessaloniki) during the Ottoman Empire
Morris Schinasi, Ottoman Jewish businessman, who immigrated to the United States in 1890

The Jewish population of Ottoman Empire had reached nearly 200,000 at the start of the 20th century.[48] The territories lost between 1829 and 1913 to the new Christian Balkan states significantly lowered this number.

The troubled history of Turkey during the 20th century and the process of transforming the old Ottoman Empire into a secular nation state after 1923, however, had a negative effect on the size of all remaining minorities, including the Jews.

After 1933, a new law put into effect in Nazi Germany for mandatory retirement of officials from non-Aryan race. Thus, the law required all the Jewish scientists in Germany to be fired. Unemployed scientists led by Albert Einstein formed an association in Switzerland. Professor Schwartz, the general secretary of the association, met with the Turkish Minister of Education in order to provide jobs for 34 Jewish scientists in Turkish universities especially in Istanbul University.[49]

However, the planned deportation of Jews from East Thrace and the associated anti-Jewish pogrom in 1934 was one of the events that caused insecurity among the Turkish Jews.[50] Before the start of the pogroms, Ibrahim Tali Öngören, the Inspectorate General of the Trakya Inspectorate General, suggested to remove the Jews from the region as they presented an economic threat to the Muslim population.[51] In 1934, the Turkish government expelled all the Jews from Edirne and the Straits.[52]

The effect of the 1942 Varlık Vergisi ("Wealth Tax") was solely on non-Muslims – who still controlled the largest portion of the young republic's wealth – even though in principle it was directed against all wealthy Turkish citizens, it most intensely affected non-Muslims. The "wealth tax" is still remembered as a "catastrophe" among the non-Muslims of Turkey and it had one of the most detrimental effects on the population of Turkish Jews. Many people unable to pay the exorbitant taxes were sent to labor camps and in consequence about 30,000 Jews emigrated.[53] The tax was seen as a racist attempt to diminish the economic power of religious minorities in Turkey.[54]

World War II

[edit]
Main article: Turkey and the Holocaust
Grand Synagogue of Edirne
Administrative entrance to the Grand Synagogue of Edirne

During World War II, Turkey was officially neutral although it maintained strong diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany.[55] During the war, Turkey denaturalized 3,000 to 5,000 Jews living abroad; 2,500 Turkish Jews were deported to Nazi concentration camps such as Auschwitz, Sobibor and other extermination camps. When Nazi Germany encouraged neutral countries to repatriate their Jewish citizens, Turkish diplomats received instructions to avoid repatriating Jews even if they could prove their Turkish nationality.[56] Turkey was also the only neutral country to implement anti-Jewish laws during the war.[57] More Turkish Jews suffered as a result of discriminatory policies during the war than were saved by Turkey.[58] Although Turkey has promoted the idea that it was a rescuer of Jews during the Holocaust, this is considered a myth by historians.[59] This myth has been used to promote Armenian genocide denial.[60]

Turkey served as a transit for European Jews fleeing Nazi persecution during the 1930s and 1940s.[61][62]

A memorial stone with a bronze epitaph was inaugurated in 2012, as the third of individual country memorials (after Poland and the Netherlands) at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp for eight Turkish citizens killed during the Nazi regime in the said camp. The Turkish Ambassador to Berlin, Hüseyin Avni Karslıoğlu stated in an inauguration speech that Germany set free 105 Turkish citizens, held in camps, after a mutual agreement between the two countries, and these citizens returned to Turkey in April 1945, although there is no known official record for other Turkish Jews who died during the Holocaust in Nazi Germany.

According to Rıfat Bali, Turkish authorities bear some responsibility for the Struma disaster, killing about 781 Jewish refugees and 10 crew, due to their refusal to allow the Jewish refugees on board to disembark in Turkey.[63][64] William Rubinstein goes further, citing British pressure on Turkey not to let Struma's passengers disembark, in accordance with Britain's White Paper of 1939 to prevent further Jewish immigration to Israel then-Palestine.[65][66]

Emigration from Turkey to Israel

[edit]
Bet Israel Synagogue (İzmir)
Hemdat Israel Synagogue

When the Republic of Turkey was established in 1923, Aliyah was not particularly popular amongst Turkish Jewry; migration from Turkey to Palestine was minimal in the 1920s.[67]

Between 1923 and 1948, approximately 7,300 Jews emigrated from Turkey to Mandatory Palestine.[68] After the 1934 Thrace pogroms following the 1934 Turkish Resettlement Law, it is estimated that 521 Jews left for Palestine from Turkey in 1934 and 1,445 left in 1935.[68] However, although the Law on Settlement may well have actually provoked the incidents’ outbreak, the national authorities did not side with the attackers but immediately intervened in the incidents. After order was restored, the governors and mayors of the provinces involved were removed from office.[69]

Immigration to Palestine was organized by the Jewish Agency and the Palestine Aliya Anoar Organization. The Varlık Vergisi, a capital tax which occurred in 1942, was also significant in encouraging emigration from Turkey to Palestine; between 1943 and 1944, 4,000 Jews emigrated.[70]

The Jews of Turkey reacted very favorably to the creation of the State of Israel. Between 1948 and 1951, 34,547 Jews immigrated to Israel, nearly 40% of the Turkish Jewish population at the time.[71] Immigration was stunted for several months in November 1948, when Turkey suspended migration permits as a result of pressure from Arab countries.[72]

In 1949, Turkey officially recognized Israel, becoming the first Muslim-majority country to do so.[73] Migration permits were reinstated and emigration continued, with 26,000 emigrating within the same year. The migration was entirely voluntary, and was primary driven by economic factors given the majority of emigrants were from the lower classes.[74] In fact, the migration of Jews to Israel is the second largest mass emigration wave out of Turkey, the first being the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[75]

After 1951, emigration of Jews from Turkey to Israel slowed perceptibly.[76]

In the mid-1950s, 10% of those who had moved to Israel returned to Turkey. A new synagogue, the Neve Şalom, was constructed in Istanbul in 1951. Generally, Turkish Jews in Israel have integrated well into society and are not distinguishable from other Israelis.[77] However, they maintain their Turkish culture and connection to Turkey, and are strong supporters of close relations between Israel and Turkey.[78]

Democratic Party period

[edit]
See also: Antisemitism in Turkey

On the night of 6/7 September 1955, the Istanbul Pogrom was unleashed. Although primarily aimed at the city's Greek population, the Jewish and Armenian communities of Istanbul were also targeted to a degree. The damage caused was mainly material (over 4,000 shops and 1,000 houses belonging to Greeks, Armenians and Jews were destroyed) it deeply shocked minorities throughout the country.[79][80]

21st century

[edit]
Neve Shalom Synagogue, completed in 1951 in the Galata district of Istanbul, Turkey
Yeniköy Synagogue in Istanbul

The present size of the Jewish community was estimated at 17,400 in 2012 according to the Jewish Virtual Library.[81] The vast majority, approximately 95%, live in Istanbul, with a community of about 2,500 in İzmir, and until the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, much smaller communities in Antakya and İskenderun. Sephardi Jews make up approximately 96% of Turkey's Jewish population, while the rest are primarily Ashkenazi Jews and Jews from Italian extraction. There is also a small community of Romaniote Jews and the community of the Constantinopolitan Karaites who are related to each other.

The city of Antakya, was home to ten Jewish families, numbering 20 members in 2014, many of whom were Syrian Jews of Mizrahi Jewish extraction, having originally come from Aleppo, Syria, 2,500 years ago. Figures were once higher but families have left for Istanbul, Israel and other countries.[82]

Turkish Jews are still legally represented by the Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. Rabbi Ishak Haleva is assisted by a religious council made up of a Rosh Bet Din and three Hahamim. 35 lay counselors look after the secular affairs of the community and an executive committee of fourteen, the president of which must be elected from among the lay counselors, runs the daily affairs. The Istanbul community also has 16 synagogues and well kept and guarded cemetery.[83]

In 2001, the Jewish Museum of Turkey was founded by the Quincentennial Foundation, an organisation established in 1982 consisting of 113 Turkish citizens, both Jews and Muslims, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the arrival of the Sephardic Jews to the Ottoman Empire.[84]

The Turkish-Jewish population is experiencing a population decline, and has dwindled to 17,000 in a few years from an original figure of 23,000.[when?] This is due to both large-scale immigration to Israel out of fear of antisemitism, but also because of natural population decline. Intermarriage with Turkish Muslims and assimilation have become common, and the community's death rate is more than twice that of its birth rate.[85][86]

As of 2022, the Jewish population in Turkey is around 14,500.[87]

In the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, the leaders of the Jewish community of Antakya were killed, the Antakya Synagogue was badly damaged, and the entire Jewish community, numbering 14 members, was evacuated from Antakya.[88][89][90]

Languages

[edit]
Late 20th – early 21st century language distribution.
• Turkish  
• Arabic speakers   are shown by religious affiliation: Alawite (circle), Christian (triangle), Sunni (square), Bedouin Sunni (rectangle), Jewish (rhombus).[91][a]

The Jewish community in Turkey was linguistically diverse. Sephardic Jews spoke Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) and French was used as a prestige language in the community. Sephardic Jews completely shifted to Turkish after the foundation of the Republic of Turkey. Ashkenazi Jews spoke Yiddish or French and similarly shifted to Turkish. In Istanbul, many Jews would also speak Greek or Armenian until the mid 20th century given the city's ethnic diversity.[92] Jews in Hatay spoke Levantine Arabic.[7] The 11 Jewish communities in Turkish Kurdistan spoke Kurdish but the community doesn't exist anymore.[8]

Jews and their linguistic rights are officially recognized as a minority in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[13][14][16][15] According to this Treaty, officially recognized minorities (Armenians, Greeks and Jews) can use their mother tongue freely, especially for education purposes. At the time, the mother tongue of the majority of Turkish Jews was Ladino. French was also the medium of instruction in most Jewish schools run by the Alliance Israélite Universelle in the Ottoman Empire. However, the Turkish government considered that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the mother tongue of Jews was Hebrew, and therefore only allowed teaching in Hebrew.[93][94] The Ministry of National Education refused to change its decision despite requests from the Jewish community. For that reason, Jewish schools switched from French to Turkish.[93]

Antisemitism

[edit]
Main article: Antisemitism in Turkey

According to researchers at Tel Aviv University, antisemitism in the media and books was creating a situation in which young, educated Turks formed negative opinions against Jews and Israel.[95] Moreover, violence against Jews has also occurred. In 2003, an Istanbul dentist was murdered in his clinic by a man who admitted that he committed the crime out of antisemitic sentiment. In 2009, a number of Jewish students suffered verbal abuse and physical attacks, and a Jewish soldier in the Turkish Army was assaulted.

Bet Yaakov Synagogue was built in 1878 at the Kuzguncuk district of Istanbul.

The Neve Shalom Synagogue in Istanbul has been attacked three times.[96] First on 6 September 1986, Arab terrorists gunned down 22 Jewish worshippers and wounded 6 during Shabbat services at Neve Shalom. This attacked was blamed on the Palestinian militant Abu Nidal.[97][98][99] The Synagogue was hit again during the 2003 Istanbul bombings alongside the Beth Israel Synagogue, killing 20 and injuring over 300 people, both Jews and Muslims alike. Even though a local Turkish militant group, the Great Eastern Islamic Raiders' Front, claimed responsibility for the attacks, police claimed the bombings were "too sophisticated to have been carried out by that group",[97] with a senior Israeli government source saying: "the attack must have been at least coordinated with international terror organizations".[99]

Traditionally, aliyah from Turkey to Israel has been low since the 1950s. Despite the antisemitism and occasional violence, Jews felt generally safe in Turkey. In the 2000s, despite surging antisemitism, including antisemitic incidents, aliyah remained low. In 2008, only 112 Turkish Jews emigrated, and in 2009, that number only rose to 250.[100] However, in the aftermath of the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid, antisemitism in Turkey increased and became more open, and it was reported that the community was also subjected to economic pressure. A boycott of Jewish businesses, especially textile businesses, took place, and Israeli tourists who had frequented the businesses of Turkish Jewish merchants largely stopped visiting Turkey. As a result, the number of Turkish Jews immigrating to Israel increased.[101] By September 2010, the Jewish population of Turkey had dropped to 17,000, from a previous population of 23,000[102] Currently, the Jewish community is feeling increasingly threatened by extremists. In addition to safety concerns, some Turkish Jews also immigrated to Israel to find a Jewish spouse due to the increasing difficulty of finding one in the small Turkish Jewish community. In 2012, it was reported that the number of Jews expressing interest in moving to Israel rose by 100%, a large number of Jewish business owners were seeking to relocate their businesses to Israel, and that hundreds were moving every year.[103]

In October 2013, it was reported that a mass exodus of Turkish Jews was underway. Reportedly, Turkish Jewish families are immigrating to Israel at the rate of one family per week on average, and hundreds of young Turkish Jews are also relocating to the United States and Europe.[104]

Turkey and Israel

[edit]
Arkadaş Association in Yehud, Israel
See also: Israel–Turkey relations

Turkey was among the first countries to formally recognize the State of Israel.[105] Turkey and Israel have closely cooperated militarily and economically. Israel and Turkey have signed a multibillion-dollar project to build a series of pipelines from Turkey to Israel to supply gas, oil and other essentials to Israel.[106] In 2003 the Arkadaş Association was established in Israel. The Arkadaş Association is a Turkish–Jewish cultural center in Yehud, aiming to preserve the Turkish-Jewish heritage and promote friendship (Arkadaş being the Turkish word for Friend) between the Israeli and Turkish people. In 2004, the Ülkümen-Sarfati Society was established by Jews and Turks in Germany. The society, named after Selahattin Ülkümen and Yitzhak Sarfati, aims to promote intercultural and interreligious dialogue and wants to inform the public of the centuries of peaceful coexistence between Turks and Jews.[107][108]

Diaspora

[edit]
Main article: Turkish Jews in Israel

The various migrations outside of Turkey has produced descendants of Turkish Jews in Europe, Israel, United States, and Canada. Today, there are still various synagogues that maintain Jewish-Turkish traditions.

The Sephardic Synagogue Sephardic Bikur Holim in Seattle, Washington, was formed by Jews from Turkey, and still uses Ladino in some portions of the Shabbat services. They created a siddur called Zehut Yosef, written by Hazzan Isaac Azose, to preserve their unique traditions.

In recent years, several hundred Turkish Jews, who have been able to prove that they are descended from Jews expelled from Portugal in 1497, have emigrated to Portugal and acquired Portuguese citizenship.[109][110][111]

Notable Turkish Jews

[edit]
See also: List of Turkish Jews and Category:Turkish Jews

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics - Estimated numbers of Turkish born Jews in Israel Archived 14 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine (in Hebrew)
  2. ^ Rabbi Menachem Levine (4 December 2022). "History of the Jews of Turkey". Aish Torah.
  3. ^ "https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/tr". World Jewish Congress. 20 July 2024. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  4. ^ "Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour - Jewish Virtual Library". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  5. ^ "Why Jews in Terror-stricken Turkey Aren't Fleeing to Israel Yet". Haaretz. Haaretz.com. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  6. ^ Jewish Population by country 2021
  7. ^ a b "Antiochia Arabic". Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. 30 May 2011. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_eall_com_0018.
  8. ^ a b "Kurdistan". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  9. ^ a b Yildirim, Onur (October 2010). "Anatolia". In Stillman, Norman A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Brill Reference Online.
  10. ^ Shaw, Stanford J. (27 July 2016). The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. Springer Publishing. p. 40. ISBN 9781349122356.
  11. ^ Levy, Avigdor (1992). The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire. Darwin Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 9780878500888.
  12. ^ "תורכיה". יד יצחק בן־צבי (in Hebrew). Retrieved 10 June 2024.
  13. ^ a b Kaya, Nurcan (24 November 2015). "Teaching in and Studying Minority Languages in Turkey: A Brief Overview of Current Issues and Minority Schools". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 12 (1): 315–338. doi:10.1163/9789004306134_013. ISSN 2211-6117. Turkey is a nation–state built on remnants of the Ottoman Empire where non-Muslim minorities were guaranteed the right to set up educational institutions; however, since its establishment, it has officially recognised only Armenians, Greeks and Jews as minorities and guaranteed them the right to manage educational institutions as enshrined in the Treaty of Lausanne. [...] Private language teaching courses teach 'traditionally used languages', elective language courses have been introduced in public schools and universities are allowed to teach minority languages.
  14. ^ a b Toktas, Sule (2006b). "EU enlargement conditions and minority protection : a reflection on Turkey's non-Muslim minorities". East European Quarterly. 40: 489–519. ISSN 0012-8449. Turkey signed the Covenant on 15 August 2000 and ratified it on 23 September 2003. However, Turkey put a reservation on Article 27 of the Covenant which limited the scope of the right of ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion or to use their own language. This reservation provides that this right will be implemented and applied in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Turkish Constitution and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. This implies that Turkey grants educational right in minority languages only to the recognized minorities covered by the Lausanne who are the Armenians, Greeks and the Jews.
  15. ^ a b Phillips, Thomas James (16 December 2020). "The (In-)Validity of Turkey's Reservation to Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 27 (1): 66–93. doi:10.1163/15718115-02701001. ISSN 1385-4879. S2CID 201398995. The fact that Turkish constitutional law takes an even more restrictive approach to minority rights than required under the Treaty of Lausanne was recognised by the UN Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) in its concluding observations on the combined fourth to sixth periodic reports of Turkey. The CERD noted that "the treaty of Lausanne does not explicitly prohibit the recognition of other groups as minorities" and that Turkey should consider recognising the minority status of other groups, such as Kurds. 50 In practice, this means that Turkey grants minority rights to "Greek, Armenian and Jewish minority communities while denying their possible impact for unrecognized minority groups (e.g. Kurds, Alevis, Arabs, Syriacs, Protestants, Roma etc.)".
  16. ^ a b Bayır, Derya (2013). Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law. Cultural Diversity and Law. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 88–89, 203–204. ISBN 978-1-4094-7254-4.
  17. ^ Toktas, Sule; Aras, Bulent (2009). "The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey". Political Science Quarterly. 124 (4): 697–720. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 25655744.
  18. ^ Köksal, Yonca (2006). "Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 6 (4): 501–521. doi:10.1080/14683850601016390. ISSN 1468-3857. S2CID 153761516.
  19. ^ Genesis 8:4
  20. ^ a b Rautman, Marcus (2015). "A menorah plaque from the center of Sardis". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 28: 431–438. doi:10.1017/S1047759415002573. ISSN 1047-7594. S2CID 163426553.
  21. ^ Flavius Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews (Project Gutenberg eText, William Whiston trans., 2006), Chapter 1, Book 1.
  22. ^ "Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 12 May 2024. A bronze column found in Ankara confirms the rights Emperor Augustus accorded the Jews of Asia Minor.
  23. ^ a b c "7th-century synagogue found under house - Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 26 December 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2022. "There were historical records that the Jews resided in Side, but we found out the first palpable proof," Feriştah Alanyalı, an academic from the Anadolu University, told the Demirören News Agency. Some words written in the middle of the synagogue say: "Joseph from Korakesion [today's Alanya district] dedicated it to son Daniel." According to the professor, Daniel died when he was just two and a half years old and Joseph paid the cost of the renovation of the synagogue, marking his son.
  24. ^ Jacobs, Joseph; Schloessinger, Max (1906). "GALATIA". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Gale. p. 548. Retrieved 12 May 2024. A better proof may be had from some inscriptions found in Galatia relating to Jews ("C. I. G." No. 4129; "Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique," vii. 1883; comp. "R. E. J." x. 77). R. Akiba, who is said to have been a great traveler, speaks of "Galia", which is generally identified with "Galatia" (R. H. 26a)... The chief proof, however, of the existence of Jews in Galatia is the fact that St. Paul sent thither a general epistle known as the "Epistle to the Galatians."
  25. ^ G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State
  26. ^ For a sample of views, see J. Starr The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204; S. Bowman, The Jews of Byzantium;, R. Jenkins Byzantium; Averil Cameron, "Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium", Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 20
  27. ^ The Oxford History of Byzantium, C. Mango (ed.) (2002)
  28. ^ "Searching for a Jewish history in Turkey before 1492". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  29. ^ International Jewish Cemetery Project – Turkey Archived 7 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ M. J. Akbar, "The shade of swords: jihad and the conflict between Islam and Christianity", 2003, (p. 89)
  31. ^ The Black Death, Channel 4 – History.
  32. ^ a b Inalcik, Halil. "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): p. 236
  33. ^ a b Avigdor Levy; The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, New Jersey, (1994)
  34. ^ J. Hacker, Ottoman policies towards the Jews and Jewish attitudes towards Ottomans during the Fifteenth Century in "Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire", New York (1982)
  35. ^ a b "Letter of Rabbi Isaac Zarfati". turkishjews.com. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  36. ^ B. Lewis, "The Jews of Islam", New York (1984), pp. 135 – 136
  37. ^ Kamen, Henry (1998). The Spanish Inquisition: a Historical Revision. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07522-9.
  38. ^ a b H. Inalcik; The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600, Phoenix Press, (2001)
  39. ^ B. Lewis, The Jews of Islam, PUP, (1987) 137–141
  40. ^ L. Stavrianos; The Balkans since 1453, NYU Press (2000)
  41. ^ D. Quataert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922, CUP, 2005
  42. ^ Charles Issawi & Dmitri Gondicas; Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism, Princeton, (1999)
  43. ^ a b Studies in Ottoman Social & Economic Life, Heidelberg, (1999); the essay is entitled: Muslims & Zimmis in the Ottoman culture and society by Haim Gerber, Jerusalem, (1999)
  44. ^ Sidney Mendelssohn.The Jews of Asia: especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. (1920) p. 241. "Long before the culmination of Sabbathai (Zevi)'s mad career, Safed had been destroyed by the Arabs and the Jews had suffered severely, while in the same year (1660) there was a great fire in Constantinople in which they endured heavy losses..."
  45. ^ Isidore Singer; Cyrus Adler (1912). The "A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Vol. 12. Funk and Wagnalls. p. 283. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  46. ^ Franco, Moïse (1897). Essai sur l'histoire des Israélites de l'Empire ottoman: depuis les origines jusqu'à nos jours. Librairie A. Durlacher. p. 88. Retrieved 15 December 2014. Moins de douze ans après, en 1660, sous Mohammed IV, la ville de Safed, si importante autrefois dans les annales juives parce qu'elle était habitée exclusivement par les Israélites, fut détruite par les Arabes, au point qu'il n' y resta, dit une chroniquer une seule ame juive.
  47. ^ Michelle U. Campos, "Between "Beloved Ottomania" and"The Land of Israel": The Struggle over Ottomanism and Zionism Among Palestine's Sephardi Jews, 1908–13", International Journal of Middle East Studies 37:461–483 (2005).doi:10.1017/s0020743805052165
  48. ^ "Электронная еврейская энциклопедия – ЭЕЭ ®. The Society for Research on Jewish Communities, Jerusalem". eleven.co.il. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  49. ^ Klaus-Derlev GROTHUSEN, 1933 Yılından Sonra Alman Bilim Adamlarının Türkiye'ye göçü, Belleten, sayi 180 T.T.K Ankara s.537
  50. ^ Rifat Bali, Yeni Bilgiler ve 1934 Trakya Oraylari-I, in Tarih ve Toplum 186/1999
  51. ^ Bali, Rıfat (23 September 2008). "The 1934 Thrace events: continuity and change within Turkish state policies regarding non-Muslim minorities. An interview with Rıfat Bali". European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey (7). doi:10.4000/ejts.2903. ISSN 1773-0546.
  52. ^ (Strauß, Johann (14 July 2008), "Turc—grec", Kontaktlinguistik, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 1560–1565, doi:10.1515/9783110151541.2.14.1560, ISBN 978-3-11-020324-0, retrieved 8 October 2023)
  53. ^ Faik Ökte, "The tragedy of the Turkish Capital Tax", Kent 1987
  54. ^ Tavernise, Sabrina (14 February 2009). "The New York Times - A Jewish Voice for Turkish democracy". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  55. ^ Webman, Esther (2014). "Corry Guttstadt. Turkey, the Jews and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) p. 370". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 46 (2): 426–428. doi:10.1017/S0020743814000361. S2CID 162685190.
  56. ^ Baer 2020, pp. 202–203.
  57. ^ Baer 2020, p. 202.
  58. ^ Baer, Marc David (2015). "Corry Guttstadt. Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Translated from German by Kathleen M. Dell'Orto, Sabine Bartel, and Michelle Miles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. p. 353 I. Izzet Bahar. Turkey and the Rescue of European Jews. New York and London: Routledge, 2015. p. 308". AJS Review. 39 (2): 467–470. doi:10.1017/S0364009415000252.
  59. ^ Baer 2020, p. 4.
  60. ^ Baer 2020, p. 207.
  61. ^ "David Ben-Gurion". Jewishmag.com. 14 May 1948. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
  62. ^ Mallet, Laurent-Olivier (2008). La Turquie, les Turcs et les Juifs – Histoire, Représentations, Discours et Stratégies. Istanbul: Editions ISIS. p. not cited. ISBN 978-9754283556.
  63. ^ Bali, Rıfat N (2000). Bir Türkleştirme Serüveni (1923-1945): Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri (in Turkish). İletişim Yayınları. pp. 346–352. ISBN 978-975-470-763-2.
  64. ^ Bali, R.N. (1999). Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri: bir Türkleştirme serüveni (1923-1945). İletişim. ISBN 9789754707632. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  65. ^ Rubinstein, WD (2002) [1997]. The Myth of Rescue: Why the Democracies Could Not Have Saved More Jews from the Nazis. London: Routledge. p. 249, n. 13. ISBN 113461568X.
  66. ^ Rubinstein, W.D. (1999). The Myth of Rescue: Why the Democracies Could Not Have Saved More Jews from the Nazis. Routledge. p. 249. ISBN 9780415212496. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  67. ^ Aytürk, İlker (October 2010). "Aliya to Mandatory Palestine and Israel". Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. New York University. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
  68. ^ a b Toktas 2006, p. 507.
  69. ^ Toprak, Zafer. 1996 ‘1934 Trakya olaylarında hukumetin ve CHP’in sorumlulugu (Government responsibility and the CHP in the 1934 Thracian incidents), Toplumsal Tarih, vol. 34, pp. 19-25.
  70. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 508.
  71. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 508a.
  72. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 508b: "Turkey, having not recognized Israel immediately after its proclamation of statehood, suspended permits to emigrate there in November 1948, in response to objections from Arab countries. However, this restriction did not stop the emigration of Jews by illegal means."
  73. ^ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  74. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 505-9:"However, the emigration of the Jews was not part of a government-mandated population exchange. On the contrary, the Jews immigrated to Israel of their own free will...In the great wave of 1948–51, a large majority of the emigrants came from the lower classes... These lower classes were less influenced by the Alliance Israelite Universelle schools and the republic's modernizing trends... Even so, economic factors were the dominant theme among lower-class emigrants in their motivation to move."
  75. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 505:"The migration of Jews from Turkey to Israel is the second largest mass emigration movement out of Turkey, the first being labour migration to Europe. The largest mass emigration of minorities from Turkey was that of the Greeks during the Turkish–Greek population exchanges of the early 1920s."
  76. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 511:"After the emigration of 34,547 Turkish Jews to Israel in 1948–51, in the period up to 2001 another 27,473 made their way to the Jewish state... A total of 6,871 emigrants arrived in Israel in 1952–60, 4,793 in 1961–64, 9,280 in 1965–71, 3,118 in 19702–79, 2,088 in 1980–89, 1,215 in 1990–2000, and 108 in 2001.36 The migration figures then decrease greatly. Only 68 immigrants arrived in Israel in 2002, 53 in 2003 and just 52 in 2004."
  77. ^ Toktas, Sule. "Cultural Identity, Minority Position and Immigration: Turkey's Jewish Minority vs. Turkish-Jewish Immigrants in Israel." Middle Eastern Studies 44.3 (2008): 511-25. Print.
  78. ^ Toktas 2006, p. 513.
  79. ^ Dilek Güven, Nationalismus, Sozialer Wandel und Minderheiten: Die Ausschreitungen gegen die Nichtmuslime der Tuerkei (6/7 September 1955), Universitaet Bochum, 2006
  80. ^ On the history of the Jews in Turkey from the multi-party period onward, see Rifat Bali, Model Citizens of the State: The Jews of Turkey during the Multi-Party Period. Lanham, Maryland: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press and Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2012.
  81. ^ "Jewish Population of the World - Jewish Virtual Library". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  82. ^ "Head of tiny Jewish community in Turkey: There's no love between Israeli citizens – Features Israel News - Haaretz". Haaretz. haaretz.com. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  83. ^ "The Jews of Turkey". The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from the original on 25 June 2018. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
  84. ^ "www.musevicemaati.com". musevicemaati.com. Archived from the original on 12 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  85. ^ "TURKEY – Turkey's Jewish community dwindling due to migration, death". hurriyetdailynews.com. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  86. ^ DolstenMay 28, Josefin; Aiello, 2016Shmuel (28 May 2016). "Turkish Jews Proudly Defend Last Sephardic Homeland – Even as Some Flee". The Forward.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ History of the Jews of Turkey by Rabbi Menachem Levine December 4, 2022 Aish Torah
  88. ^ Lazar Berban (16 February 2023). "14 Jews rescued from devastated Turkish city of Antakya, given shelter in Istanbul". Times of Israel.
  89. ^ "Antakya Jewish Community was also Destroyed by the Earthquake". Şalom. 13 February 2023.
  90. ^ "Turkey earthquake: 2500-year-old Jewish presence in Antakya may come to an end". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  91. ^ Werner, Arnold (2000). "The Arabic dialects in the Turkish province of Hatay and the Aramaic dialects in the Syrian mountains of Qalamun: Two minority languages compared". In Owens, Jonathan (ed.). Arabic as a minority language. Walter de Gruyter. p. 368. ISBN 9783110805451.
  92. ^ Strauß, Johann (14 July 2008), "European Turkey", Kontaktlinguistik, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 1554–1560, doi:10.1515/9783110151541.2.14.1554, ISBN 978-3-11-020324-0, retrieved 9 October 2023
  93. ^ a b Zetler, Reyhan (2014). "Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?" (PDF). Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung (23): 26. OCLC 865002828.
  94. ^ Yağmur, Kutlay (2001), Extra, G.; Gorter, D. (eds.), "Turkish and other languages in Turkey", The Other Languages of Europe, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 407–427, ISBN 978-1-85359-510-3, retrieved 6 October 2023, "Mother tongue" education is mostly limited to Turkish teaching in Turkey. No other language can be taught as a mother tongue other than Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty, see below. [...] In order to guarantee civic, religious, educational, commercial, judicial, and political rights of Armenian, Greek, and Jewish people living in Turkey, clear-cut and strict stipulations were made in the Treaty of Lausanne. [...] Like Jews and Greeks, Armenians enjoy the privilege of an officially recognized minority status. [...] No language other than Turkish can be taught at schools or at cultural centers. Only Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew are exceptions to this constitutional rule.
  95. ^ "Antisemitism and Racism - the Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary". Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
  96. ^ Helicke, James C. (15 November 2003). "Dozens killed as suicide bombers target Istanbul synagogues". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  97. ^ a b Arsu, Sebnem; Filkins, Dexter (16 November 2003). "20 in Istanbul Die in Bombings at Synagogues". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  98. ^ Reeves, Phil (20 August 2002). "Mystery surrounds 'suicide' of Abu Nidal, once a ruthless killer and face of terror". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  99. ^ a b "Bombings at Istanbul Synagogues Kill 23". Fox News. 16 November 2003. Archived from the original on 5 June 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  100. ^ "Official: Aliya from Turkey to double – Jewish World – Jerusalem Post". jpost.com. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  101. ^ Ababa, Danny Adino (30 August 2010). "Immigrating out of fear – Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews". Ynetnews. ynetnews.com. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  102. ^ Chief Rabbinate of Turkey - Numbers: Total is estimated at around 23.000. The 25th community in size according to WJC data. Archived 5 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  103. ^ "Turkish Jews Living Under Threat of Extremism - Aliyah Magazine". Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  104. ^ Jews flee Turkey over anti-Semitism – Ynetnews. 24 October 2013
  105. ^ "Timeline of Turkish-Israeli Relations, 1949–2006" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
  106. ^ "Israel and Turkey plan energy pipeline - Israel - Jerusalem Post". Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  107. ^ "- Qantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World". qantara.de. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  108. ^ "Ülkümen-Sarfarti-Gesellschaft e.V." ulkumen-sarfati.de. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  109. ^ DEVOS, Olivier. "Amid rising European anti-Semitism, Portugal sees Jewish renaissance". www.timesofisrael.com.
  110. ^ Liphshiz, Cnaan (12 February 2016). "New citizenship law has Jews flocking to tiny Portugal city". www.timesofisrael.com.
  111. ^ "Portugal open to citizenship applications by descendants of Sephardic Jews". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 3 March 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
  112. ^ "Continental Philosophy - Book Reviews". Archived from the original on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  113. ^ "La Mujer Engañada: A romance in the Judeo-Spanish tradition" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2006. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  114. ^ a b "Jewish Intellectual Timeline". Archived from the original on 26 May 2007. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  115. ^ "Actors - Dario Moreno". Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2017.

Bibliography

[edit]

External sources

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of the Jews in Turkey.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey&oldid=1241154472"