Archaeological science

Archaeological science consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to methodologies of archaeology. Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish ‘scientific archaeology’ (as an epistemology) from ‘archaeological science’ (the application of specific techniques to archaeological materials).^[1] Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that ‘archaeological science’ has promoted the development of high-level theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality.^[2]

In the United Kingdom, the Natural and Environmental Research Council provides funding for archaeometry separate from the funding provided for archaeology.^[3]

Types of archaeological science[edit]

Archaeological science can be divided into the following areas:^[4]

physical and chemical dating methods which provide archaeologists with absolute and relative chronologies
artifact studies
environmental approaches which provide information on past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; as well as the diet, nutrition, health, and pathology of people
mathematical methods for data treatment (including computer-based methods)
remote-sensing and geophysical-survey techniques for buried features
conservation sciences, involving the study of decay processes and the development of new methods of conservation

Techniques such as lithic analysis, archaeometallurgy, paleoethnobotany, palynology and zooarchaeology also form sub-disciplines of archaeological science.

Dating techniques[edit]

Archaeological science has particular value when it can provide absolute dates for archaeological strata and artifacts. Some of the most important dating techniques include:

radiocarbon dating — especially for dating organic materials
dendrochronology — for dating trees; also very important for calibrating radiocarbon dates
thermoluminescence dating — for dating inorganic material (including ceramics)
optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) — for absolutely dating and relatively profiling buried land-surfaces in vertical and horizontal stratigraphic sections, most often by measuring photons discharged from grains of quartz within sedimentary bodies (although this technique can also measure potassium feldspars, complications caused by internally induced dose-rates often favor the use of quartz-based analyzes in archaeological applications)
electron spin resonance, as used (for example) in dating teeth
potassium-argon dating — for dating (for example) fossilized hominid remains by association with volcanic sediments (the fossils themselves are not directly dated)

Artifact studies[edit]

Another important subdiscipline of archaeometry is the study of artifacts. Archaeometrists have used a variety of methods to analyze artifacts, either to determine more about their composition, or to determine their provenance. These techniques include:

X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
neutron activation analysis (NAA)
scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)

Lead, strontium and oxygen isotope analysis can also test human remains to estimate the diets and even the birthplaces of a study's subjects.

Provenance analysis has the potential to determine the original source of the materials used, for example, to make a particular artifact. This can show how far the artifact has traveled and can indicate the existence of systems of exchange.^[5]

Influence of archaeometry[edit]

Archaeometry has greatly influenced modern archaeology. Archaeologists can obtain significant additional data and information using these techniques, and archaeometry has the potential to revise the understanding of the past. For example, the "second radiocarbon revolution" significantly re-dated European prehistory in the 1960s, compared to the "first radiocarbon revolution" from 1949.

Locating archaeological sites[edit]

Archaeometry is an important tool in finding potential dig sites. The use of remote sensing has enabled archaeologists to identify many more archaeological sites than they could have otherwise. The use of aerial photography (including satellite imagery and Lidar) remains the most widespread remote-sensing technique. Ground-based geophysical surveys often help to identify and map archaeological features within identified sites.^[6]

References[edit]

^ Marcos Martinón-Torres and David Killick. Archaeological Theories and Archaeological Sciences in "The Oxford Handbook of Archaeological Theory". Oxford University Press.
^ Smith, Michael E. (4 April 2017). "Social science and archaeological enquiry". Antiquity. 91 (356): 520–528. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.19. S2CID 151767590.
^ Killick, D; Young, SMM (1997). Archaeology and Archaeometry: From Casual Dating to a Meaningful Relationship?. Antiquity.
^ Tite, M.S. (1991) Archaeological Science - past achievements and future prospects. Archaeometry 31 139-151.
^ Lambert, JB (1997). Traces of the Past: Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemistry. Addison-Wesley.
^ Aitken, MJ (1961). Physics and Archaeology. Interscience Publishers.

[1] Marcos Martinón-Torres and David Killick. Archaeological Theories and Archaeological Sciences in "The Oxford Handbook of Archaeological Theory". Oxford University Press.

[2] Smith, Michael E. (4 April 2017). "Social science and archaeological enquiry". Antiquity. 91 (356): 520–528. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.19. S2CID 151767590.

[3] Killick, D; Young, SMM (1997). Archaeology and Archaeometry: From Casual Dating to a Meaningful Relationship?. Antiquity.

[4] Tite, M.S. (1991) Archaeological Science - past achievements and future prospects. Archaeometry 31 139-151.

[5] Lambert, JB (1997). Traces of the Past: Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemistry. Addison-Wesley.

[6] Aitken, MJ (1961). Physics and Archaeology. Interscience Publishers.

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Roles and expertise	Archivist Art dealer Art handler Auctioneer Collection manager Conservator-restorer Conservation scientist Conservation technician Curator Exhibition designer Mount maker Objects conservator Paintings conservator Photograph conservator Preservationist Registrar (cultural property) Textile conservator
Methods and techniques	Aging (artwork) Anastylosis Arrested decay Cradling (paintings) Cultural property radiography Detachment of wall paintings Desmet method Display case Digital repository audit method based on risk assessment Historic paint analysis Inpainting Kintsugi Leafcasting Lining of paintings Mass deacidification Overpainting Paleo-inspiration Paper splitting Reconstruction (architecture) Rissverklebung Textile stabilization Transfer of panel paintings UVC-based preservation VisualAudio
Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property by item type	Archaeological sites Frescos Heritage railways Historic gardens Outdoor artworks Outdoor bronze objects Outdoor murals
Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property by item type	Aircraft Ancient Greek pottery Bone, horn, and antler objects Books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera Ceramic objects Clocks Copper-based objects Feathers Film Flags and banners Fur objects Glass objects Herbaria Human remains Illuminated manuscripts Insect specimens Iron and steel objects Ivory objects Judaica Lacquerware Leather objects Lighthouses Metals Musical instruments Neon objects New media art Paintings Painting frames Panel paintings Papyrus Parchment Performance art Photographs Photographic plates Plastic objects Rail vehicles Road vehicles Shipwreck artifacts Silver objects South Asian household shrines Stained glass Taxidermy Textiles Tibetan thangkas Time-based media art Totem poles Vinyl discs Woodblock prints Wooden artifacts Wooden furniture
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Notable projects	Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum Conservation-restoration of Ecce Homo by Elías García Martínez Conservation-restoration of The Gross Clinic by Thomas Eakins Conservation-restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper Pompeian frescoes Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin Conservation-restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty Conservation-restoration of the H.L. Hunley Conservation response to flood of Arno, Florence Modern and Contemporary Art Research Initiative Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies