Список правителей Прованса

Земля Прованса имеет историю, совершенно отделенную от истории любой из более крупных стран Европы. Его независимое существование имеет свое происхождение в пограничной природе герцогства в Меровингской Галлии . В этой позиции, под влиянием и затронутыми несколькими различными культурами на разных сторонах, провенсалы сохранили единство, которое было подкреплено, когда регион был сделан отдельным королевством во время падения Каролинга в конце девятого века. Когда Босо Прованса приобрела регион в 879 году, он был известен как нижний бордовый , пока он не был объединен с верхним бордовым в 933 году, чтобы сформировать королевство Арлес . ^{[ 1 ]} Графы Арля начали называть себя «графом Прованса»; Хотя во Vassals, они были де -факто автономными князьями. ^{[ 1 ]} После 1032 года округ был частью Священной Римской империи .

В одиннадцатом веке Прованс оспорился между традиционной линией и подсчетами Тулузы , который претендовал на звание «Маргрейв Прованс». В высоком средневековье титул подсчета Прованса принадлежал местным семьям французского происхождения, с 1112 по 1245 ^{[ 1 ]} в дом Барселоны ( кадетское отделение дома Арагона ^{[ 1 ]}), с 1245 по 1382 до дома Анжу , ^{[ 1 ]} и с 1382 по 1481 год до кадетского отделения дома Валуа . ^{[ 1 ]} Это было унаследовано королем Людовиком XI из Франции в 1481 году, ^{[ 1 ]} и окончательно включен во французский королевский домен его сыном Чарльзом VIII в 1487 году.

Меровингские герцоги

В период династии Меровиньяна в Галлии Прованс был провинцией, которой управлял Дюси (герцоги), военные лидеры и окружные командиры, которые служили защитниками границ королевства и управляли огромными территориями, в отличие от Комитов (границы), которые управляли городами и их окрестностями. Прованс, как правило, был частью разделения французского царства, известного как Королевство Бургундия , которое рассматривалось как его собственное королевство. Их название иногда появляется в качестве ректора провинций .

Это неполный список известных герцогов Прованса, назначенных в Меровинге.

Свобода (до 534), остроговый назначен
Namatius (Bef. 552), французский назначенник
Bodegisel (fl. C. 566)
Адовариус (561-569)
Волчанка (569–570)
Джовин (570–573)
Альбин (573–575)
Dinamius (от 575)
Gondulf (fl. C. 581)
Leudegisel (Fl. C. 585), Burgundian Provence
Николлас (от 587)
Бабо (фло.
Aegyla (fl. C. 602)
Все еще (634–641)
Уиллибад (641–643), Бургундский Прованс
Гектор (фло.
Nemfidius (Fl. C. 700)
Антенор (Fl. C. 697)
Metrannus (fl. C. 700)
Maurontus (ок. 720 - 739)
Abbo (Fl. C. 739)

Каролинговые герцоги

Прованс управлял плохо известная серия герцогов в период генерального каролингового единства до договора о Вердене (843).

Лейбулф (до ок. 829)
Гурин (ок. 829 - 845)
Fulcrad (845 - c. 860)

Короли Каролингов

После разделения Каролинговой империи по договору Вердуна (843), первым из братских правителей трех королевств, чтобы умереть, был Lothair I , который разделил свое Среднее королевство в соответствии с обычаями Фрэнк среди его трех сыновей. Из этого дивизиона появилось Королевство Прованс , данное младшему сыну Лотаира Чарльзу . Таким образом, наследие королевского правления было открыто в Провансе, которое, хотя оно часто было включено в одно из его более крупных соседних королевств, так же часто провозглашало своих суверенов.

Королевство Прованс также было известно как нижний бордовый (или цисджуранский бордовый). Его столицей была сначала Вин . Затем Арлес .

Charles of Provence (855–863)
On his death, Provence was divided between his surviving brothers, Lothair II and the Emperor Louis II. The bulk went to Louis.
Louis II (863–875), also Holy Roman Emperor from 855
On his death, as with his Kingdom of Italy, Louis's Provence went to his uncle Charles the Bald .
Charles the Bald (875–877), also Holy Roman Emperor from 875
Louis the Stammerer (877–879)
With the death of Louis the Stammerer, Provence refused to elect his two sons and instead elected one of their own as king. Boso married Ermengard, daughter of Louis II, to strengthen his and his son's claim.
Boso (879–887)
Louis the Blind (887–928), also Holy Roman Emperor from 901 to 905
Louis's kingdom did not pass to his heirs, but instead to his brother-in-law, the husband of his sister, Hugh, who had acted as his regent since 905. Hugh never used the royal title in Provence.
Hugh (911–933)
In 933, Provence ceased to be a separate kingdom as Hugh exchanged it with Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy for the Iron Crown of Lombardy, that is, rule of Italy.

Counts and margraves, within the Empire

In the aftermath of the death of Louis the Blind, Provence began to be ruled by local counts placed under the authority of a margrave. Firstly, Hugh of Arles served as duke and regent during Louis' long blindness. Secondly, Hugh gave the march of Vienne and duchy of Provence to Rudolf II of Burgundy in a treaty of 933. Rudolf was never recognised by the nobles of the country and appointed Hugh, Duke of Burgundy, as its first margrave.

At the time, the premier counts in the region were the counts of Arles and those of Avignon. Those who would first bear the title comes Provinciae or "count of Provence" descended from one Rotbold of Arles. William I and Rotbold I did not divide their father's domains and this indivisibility was maintained by their respective descendants. It is thus impossible to ascertain who succeeded whom in the county as various reigns overlap.

By his marriage to Emma of Provence, daughter of Rotbold II, William III, Count of Toulouse inherited lands and castles in Provence. Emma inherited the title Margrave of Provence upon her elder brother's death in 1037. Her son Pons by William III did not survive her, but her grandson did and claimed her title in opposition to the younger line of counts of Provence.

Bosonid dynasty

Name	Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
William I the Liberator	c.950 Son of Boson II of Arles and Constance of Vienne	961–975	Arsenda of Comminges no children Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou c.984 four children	After 29 August 993	First counts of Provence and brothers, ruled together until 975, when William took the margravial title. and Rotbold took the same title in 993, after William abdication.
William I the Liberator	c.950 Son of Boson II of Arles and Constance of Vienne	975–993		After 29 August 993
Rotbold I	Son of Boson II of Arles and Constance of Vienne	961–993	Emilde two children	1008
Rotbold I	Son of Boson II of Arles and Constance of Vienne	993–1008	Emilde two children	1008
Regency of Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou:993–999
William II the Pious	c.980 Son of William I and Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou	999–1019	Gerberga of Burgundy c.984 four children	4 March 1019	Fell under control of his uncle Rotbold until his death in 1008.
Rotbold II	c.980 Son of Rotbold I and Emilde	1008–1014	Ermengarde of Burgundy before 1002 three children	1014
William III	Son of Rotbold II and Ermengarde of Burgundy	1014–1037	Lucie before 1002 three children	1037
William IV	c.980 Son of William II and Gerberga of Burgundy	1019–1030	Unmarried	1030
Fulk Bertrand	c.1000 Son of William II and Gerberga of Burgundy	1030–1051	Hildegard two children	27 April 1051	Brothers, ruled jointly after their elder brother's death.
Geoffrey I	c.1000 Son of William II and Gerberga of Burgundy	1030–1062	Etienette four children	February 1062	Brothers, ruled jointly after their elder brother's death.
After William III's death with no descendants, the line of counts became the sovereign line in Provence, but not uncontested. In fact, through Emma, who inherited her brother William III's margravial title, her descendants, the counts of Toulouse, claimed Provence for themselves as margraves, in spite of never having ruled there. 1062–1094 William IV of Toulouse 1094–1105 Raymond IV of Toulouse 1105–1112 Bertrand of Toulouse 1119–1125 Alfonso Jordan of Toulouse
William Bertrand I	c.1040 Son of Fulk Bertrand and Hildegard	1062–1094	Theresa of Aragon no children Adelaide of Cavenez one child	28 July 1094	Co-ruled as brothers and cousins.
Geoffrey II	c.1040 Son of Fulk Bertrand and Hildegard	1062–1067	Ermengard no children	28 July 1094
William Bertrand II	c.1050 Son of Geoffrey I and Etienette	1063–1093	Matilda one child	28 July 1094
Gerberga	1045/65 Daughter of Geoffrey I and Etienette	1094–1112	Gilbert I of Gévaudan 1073 two children	28 July 1094	Considered a wise ruler.^[2] She abdicated in 1112 to her eldest daughter, soon after her marriage to the count of Barcelona.

House of Gévaudan

	Name	Born	Reign	Consort	Death	Notes
	Douce I	c.1090 Daughter of Gilbert I of Gévaudan [fr] and Gerberga	1112–1127	Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona 3 February 1112 Arles five children	1127	Ruled together with her husband, the Catalan Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona.

Houses of Barcelona (comital) and Toulouse (margravial)

With a lack of interest in the Reconquista on their southern frontier, the Catalans turned towards their origins, the Mediterranean littoral and northwards. They coveted the region between the Cévennes and the Rhône, then under the control of Toulouse. In 1112, the count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer III, married the heiress of Provence, Douce, who was the daughter of the Countess Gerberga of Provence, Gévaudan, Carladais, and part of Rodez. The marriage was probably taken at the urging of the church, which was then in conflict with the House of Toulouse. In 1076, Count Raymond IV was excommunicated, but he still lent his support to Aicard, the deposed archbishop of Arles (since 1080). With the count away on the First Crusade, the church took the opportunity to seize the balance of power in the region. This marriage effectively put Provence under Catalan control.

To accommodate the longstanding claims of the count of Toulouse, in 1125, Raymond's heir, Alfonso Jordan, signed a treaty whereby his family's traditional claim to the title of "Margrave of Provence" was recognised and the march of Provence was defined as the region north of the lower Durance and on the right of the Rhône, including the castles of Beaucaire, Vallabrègues, and Argence. The region between the Durance, the Rhône, the Alps, and the sea was that of the county and belonged to the house of Barcelona. Avignon, Pont de Sorgues, Caumont and Le Thor remained undivided.

Internally, Provence was racked by uncertainties over rights of succession. Douce and Ramon Berenguer signed all charters jointly until her death in 1127, after which he alone appears as count in all charters until his death in 1131. At that time, Douce's younger sister, Stephanie was married to Raymond of Baux, who promptly laid claim to the inheritance of her mother, even though Provence had peacefully passed into the hands of her nephew, Berenguer Ramon I.

Ruler	Born	Reign	Death	Ruling part	Consort	Notes
Ramon Berenguer I the Great El Gran	11 November 1082 Rodez Son of Ramon Berenguer II and Mafalda of Apulia-Calabria	1112 –19 July 1131	19 July 1131 Barcelona aged 48	County of Provence	María Rodríguez de Vivarbr/>1103 two children Almodis de Mortain 1106 no children Douce I, Countess of Provence 3 February 1112 Arles seven children	His last marriage with the heiress of Provence brought it under Barcelona domain. His reign saw a proliferation of Provençal culture in Catalonia.
Alfonso Jordan	1103 Tripoli Son of Count Raymond IV of Toulouse and Elvira of Castile	1125 - 16 August 1148	16 August 1148 Caesarea aged 44–45	Margraviate of Provence	Faydite d'Uzès c.1125 four children	Also Count of Toulouse. Obtained half of Provence by the division agreement of 1125.
William III	c.1080 Son of Ermengol IV, Count of Urgell and Adelaide, Countess of Forcalquier	1129 –7 October 1129	7 October 1129 Avignon aged 48–49	County of Forcalquier	Gersende of Albon c.1080 two children	Came from the Urgell branch of the House of Barcelona. Inherited the neighbouring County of Forcalquier.
Guigues	c.1090? First son of William III of Forcalquier and Gersende of Albon	7 October 1129 –1149	1149 aged 58–59	County of Forcalquier	Unknown one child	His child probably predeceased him, as he was succeeded by his brother.
Regency of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (1144–1157)						In August 1161, he travelled to Turin with his uncle to obtain confirmation of his countship in Provence from the Emperor Frederick I, for Provence was legally a fief of the Holy Roman Empire.
Ramon Berenguer II	c.1135 Son of Berenguer Ramon I and Beatrice of Melgueil	March 1144 – March 1166	March 1166 Nice aged 30–31	County of Provence	Richeza of Poland 17 November 1161 one child
Raymond I	1134 Tripoli Son of Alfonso Jordan and Faydite d'Uzès	16 August 1148 - December 1194	December 1194 Nîmes aged 59–60	Margraviate of Provence	Constance of France c.1154 (annulled 1166) five children	Also Count of Toulouse as Raymond V.
Bertrand I	1104 Second son of William III of Forcalquier and Gersende of Albon	1149 –1151	1151 aged 46–47	County of Forcalquier	Josserande de la Flotte 1130 three children
Bertrand II	c.1130? First son of Bertrand I and Josserande de la Flotte	1151 –13 May 1207	13 May 1207 aged 76–77	County of Forcalquier	Cecilia of Béziers two children	Left no male heirs, and was succeeded by his brother.
Regency of Richeza of Poland (1166-1167)						She ruled a few months, as her half brother-in-law, Alfonso II of Aragon, claimed Provence for himself on the basis of the imperial enfeoffment of 1162.
Douce II	c.1162 Daughter of Ramon Berenguer II and Richeza of Poland	March 1166 – 1167	1172 Nice aged 9–10	County of Provence	Unmarried
Alphonse I the Troubadour El Trobador	1-25 March 1157 Huesca Son of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla	1167 – 1173	25 April 1196 Perpignan aged 44	County of Provence	marriage agreement with Mafalda of Portugal 1159-1162, not fulfilled Sancha of Castile 18 January 1174 Zaragoza seven children	Formal union of the Kingdom of Aragon and Barcelona. Alfonso also reunited various feudal dependencies. In August 1161, he travelled to Turin with his uncle obtain the confirmation of his countship in Provence from the Emperor Frederick I, for Provence was legally a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1173, he gave the county to his younger brother Ramon Berenguer. However, he kept the title until his death in 1196.
Peter Ramon Berenguer III	c.1158 Son of Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona and Petronilla of Aragon	1173–5 April 1181	5 April 1181 Montpellier aged 22–23	County of Provence	Unmarried	Abdicated of Cerdanya to his brother Sancho. In 1173, assuming the county of Provence, changed his name to Ramon Berenguer. In 1176, he joined Sancho in conquering Nice from Genoa. He was assassinated.
Sancho	c.1161 Son of Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona and Petronilla of Aragon	5 April 1181 – 1185	1223 Montpellier aged 61–62	County of Provence	Ermesinde of Rocabertí 1184 one child Sancha Núñez de Lara 1185 one child	Received from his brother the counties of Cerdanya and Roussillon, and in 1181, received also the County of Roussillon, in the sequence of the same brother's death. In 1184, Sancho signed a treaty of alliance with the count of Forcalquier, the count of Toulouse and the Republic of Genoa agreeing to oppose the king of Aragon's efforts to dominate Genoa and to take the city of Marseille from him. Abdicated from Provence in 1185, but ruled in Cerdanya-Roussillon until his death.
Alphonse II	1180 Barcelona Son of Alfonso I and Sancha of Castile	1185 –2 February 1209	2 February 1209 Palermo aged 28–29	County of Provence	Garsenda, Countess of Forcalquier July 1193 Aix-en-Provence one child	His reign was marked by his conflicts with the count of Forcalquier, to whose granddaughter he was married.
Raymond II	27 October 1156 Saint-Gilles, Gard Son of Raymond I and Constance of France	December 1194 - 1 August 1222	1 August 1222 Toulouse aged 65	Margraviate of Provence	Ermessende of Pelet 1172 no children Beatrice of Béziers after 1176 (annulled 1189) one child Joan of England October 1196 Rouen two children A daughter of Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus c.1200 (annulled 1202) no children Eleanor of Aragon January 1204 Perpignan no children	Also Count of Toulouse as Raymond VI. Allied with the Cathars, like many of the neighbouring Languedoc states, his domains in Toulouse were challenged by the Albigensian Crusade between 1215 and 1218.
William IV	c.1130 Second son of Bertrand I and Josserande de la Flotte	13 May 1207 –7 October 1209	7 October 1209 aged 78–79	County of Forcalquier	Adelaide of Béziers one child	Left a daughter, Garsenda, who predeceased him; he was succeeded by his granddaughter, also named Garsenda.
Garsenda	c.1180 Daughter of Rainou of Sabran and Garsenda of Forcalquier	7 October 1209 –1222	1242 aged 60–61	County of Forcalquier (House of Sabran)	Alfonso II, Count of Provence July 1193 Aix-en-Provence one child	In 1222, she abdicated for her son, and Forcalquier was absorbed by Provence.
Forcalquier annexed to Provence
Regency of Garsenda, Countess of Forcalquier (1209–1220)						Supporter of the Provençal lyric and culture and the Albigensian Crusade. He also helped his father-in-law in his conflict with Turin and Guigues VI of Viennois. His surviving four daughters all married kings, causing a dispute about his succession.
Ramon Berenguer IV	1198 Son of Alfonso II and Garsenda, Countess of Forcalquier	February 1209 –19 August 1245	19 August 1245 Aix-en-Provence aged 46–47	County of Provence	Beatrice of Savoy 5 June 1219 Aix-en-Provence six children
Raymond VII	July 1197 Beaucaire, Gard Son of Raymond II and Joan of England	1 August 1222 - 27 September 1249	27 September 1249 Toulouse aged 52	Margraviate of Provence	Sancha of Aragon March 1211 (annulled 1241) one child Margaret of Lusignan 1243 (annulled 1245) no children	Also Count of Toulouse as Raymond VII. Took Carcassonne with Count Roger-Bernard III of Foix, in the Albigensian Crusade.
Beatrice	1229 Daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV and Beatrice of Savoy	19 August 1245 –23 September 1267	23 September 1267 Nocera Inferiore aged 37–38	County of Provence	Charles I, King of Sicily 31 January 1246 Aix-en-Provence seven children	Her inheritance caused tense relations with her sisters; Her husband installed his French court in Provence and, after her death, inherited the county.
Joanna	c.1220 Toulouse Daughter of Raymond VII and Sancha of Aragon	27 September 1249 - 25 August 1271	25 August 1271 Siena aged 50–51	Margraviate of Provence	Alphonse of France c.1237 Toulouse no children	The war between Louis VIII of France and Languedoc region ended with the Treaty of Meaux (1229), determining the wedding of Joan, the heiress of Toulouse, with Alphonse, prince of France. The lack of descendance of the couple determined the annexation of the County of Toulouse, the Duchy of Narbonne, and the Margraviate of Provence to the Crown of France after their deaths.

Capetian Angevin dynasty

1246–1285 Charles I, Count of Anjou, Maine, Provence and Forcalquier (1246), King of Naples, Sicily (1266) and Jerusalem (1277).
1285–1309 Charles II of Naples the Lame, King of Naples and (nominal) Jerusalem and Sicily, son of Charles I
1309–1343 Robert of Naples the Wise, Duke of Calabria (1296–1309), King of Naples and (nominal) Jerusalem and Sicily (1309), son of Charles II
1343–1382 Joan I of Naples, Queen of Naples and (nominal) Jerusalem and Sicily (1343–1381)
1349–1362 Louis I of Naples, King of Naples and (nominal) Jerusalem and Sicily, as husband of Joan I of Naples

Queen Joan died heirless, leaving the county to Louis I of Anjou, son of King John II of France the Good, of the House of Valois, and great-great-grandson of Charles II of Naples.

Valois-Anjou dynasty

1382–1384 Louis I of Anjou, Count and then Duke of Anjou (1351), Duke of Calabria and Count of Maine (1356), Duke of Touraine (1370), nominal King of Sicily (1382)
1384–1417 Louis II of Anjou, Duke of Anjou, Calabria and Touraine, Count of Maine, nominal King of Sicily (1384), Count of Guise (1404), son of Louis I
1417–1434 Louis III of Anjou, Duke of Anjou and Touraine, nominal King of Sicily (1417), Duke of Calabria (1424), son of Louis II
1434–1480 René I of Naples the Good, Count of Guise (1417–1422), Duke of Lorraine and Bar (1431), King of Naples and (nominal) Sicily and Jerusalem (1434–1442), Duke of Anjou and Touraine (1434), King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona (in dispute, 1466–1472), son of Louis II
1480–1481 Charles III (V of Maine), also known as Charles of Maine, Count of Maine and Guise (1472), nephew of René I

Upon his death, the heirless Charles du Maine bequeathed the counties of Provence-Forcalquier to King Louis XI of France. From that point forward, the title of Count of Provence simply became one of the many hereditary titles of the French monarchs. The only time the title was used independently afterwards was by the future Louis XVIII of France, who was known as the Comte de Provence until the death of his nephew Louis XVII in 1795, after which he claimed the throne of France.

Governors and grand seneschals, within France

Губернаторы

1481–1483 Palamède de Forbin
1491-14993 Франсуа де Стодима3 Франсуа де Люксембург

Большой сенешал

1480–1481 Пьер де ла -Джайл (см. Château de Ranton )
1482–1483 Raymond de Glandevès-Faucon
1483 Palamède de Forbin
1485–1493 Aymar de Poitiers, Count of Valentinois

Губернаторы - Большой Сенесхалс

1493–1503 Филипп Хахберг-Сауузенберг , Маргрейв де Хохберг
1504–1513 Луи Д'Орлеанс, граф Лонгвилля
1514 Жан де Пуайерс , лорд Сен-Вальера
1515–1525 Рене Савойя , граф Тенде
1525–1566 Claude Savoie , Count of Ters
1566–1572 господ

Большой сенешал

1572–1582 Жан V Pontevès из
1582–1610 of Gaspard ]Pontevès
1610–1655 Жан Pontevès
1655–1662 Франсуа де Симиан [ FR ] - Гордс

Губернаторы

1572–1573 Gaspard de Saulx-Tavannes
1573–1578 Альберт Гонди, граф Ретц
1578–1579
1579–1586 Генри д'ангулим , названный, Анри, ублюдок де Валайс
1586–1590 Жан-Луи де Ногарет, герцог Эпернон
1590-1592 Бернард де Ногарет , лорд Валет. ^{[ 3 ]}
1592-1594 Жан-Луис де Ногарет, герцог Эпернон
1592–1594 Gaspard de Pontevès, Comte de Carcès ( встречное назначение католической лиги в офис). ^{[ 4 ]}
1594–1631 Чарльз Лоррейн, герцог Гизе
1631–1637 Николас де Л'Опитал, Маркиз де Виттри
1637–1653 Луи-Эммануэль де Валуа, граф Алайса
1653–16699 Louis de Bourbon-Vendôme, герцог Mercœur
1669–1712 Луи-Джозеф де Бурбон, герцог Вендома
1712–1734
1734–1770 гг. Honoré-Armand, герцог Вильяр
1770–1780 Camille-Louis de Lorraine
1780–1790 Чарльз-Just de Beavau

В 1790 году французская революция окончательно закончила губернаторство.

Смотрите также

Список супругов Прованса

Источники

Хардинг, Роберт (1978). Анатомия властной элиты: губернаторы провинции в ранней современной Франции . Издательство Йельского университета.
Жуанна, Арлетт (1998). История и словарь религиозных войн . Букины.

Ссылки

^ Jump up to: ^а ^{беременный} ^в ^{дюймовый} ^и ^фон ^глин «Прованс §1. История». Энциклопедия Encarta Winkler Prins (на голландском языке). Microsoft Corporation/The Spectrum. 2002.
^ Клемент, Франсуа. Искусство проверки дат исторических фактов, чартеров, хроники и других бывших монументов с момента рождения нашего Господа , с. 436 (Джомберт, 1784).
^ Хардинг 1978 , с. 227
^ Jouanna 1998 , p. 378.

Внешние ссылки

[Enc_Provence-1] Jump up to: ^а ^{беременный} ^в ^{дюймовый} ^и ^фон ^глин «Прованс §1. История». Энциклопедия Encarta Winkler Prins (на голландском языке). Microsoft Corporation/The Spectrum. 2002.

[2] Клемент, Франсуа. Искусство проверки дат исторических фактов, чартеров, хроники и других бывших монументов с момента рождения нашего Господа , с. 436 (Джомберт, 1784).

[FOOTNOTEHarding1978227-3] Хардинг 1978 , с. 227

[FOOTNOTEJouanna1998378-4] Jouanna 1998 , p. 378.

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