Внешняя мембрана пузырька
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Внешние мембранные везикулы ( OMV ) представляют собой пузырьки, высвобождаемые из внешних мембран грамотрицательных бактерий . В то время как грамположительные бактерии также высвобождают пузырьки, эти пузырьки подпадают под более широкую категорию везикул бактериальной мембраны (MVS). OMV были первыми MV, которые были обнаружены, и отличаются от внешней внутренней мембраны везикул (OIMV), которые представляют собой грамотрицательные бактериальные везикулы, содержащие части как внешней, так и внутренней бактериальной мембраны. [ 1 ] Внешние мембраны везикулы были сначала обнаружены и охарактеризованы с использованием микроскопии трансмиссии-электронного [ 2 ] Индийский ученый профессор Смрити Нараян Чаттерджи и Дж . Дас в 1966-67 годах. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] OMV приписывают функциональность, чтобы обеспечить возможность общения между собой, с другими микроорганизмами в окружающей среде и с хозяином. Эти везикулы участвуют в биохимических биохимических веществах бактериальных клеток , которые могут включать ДНК , РНК , белки , эндотоксины и молекулы союзной вирулентности . Это общение происходит в микробных культурах в океанах, [5] inside animals, plants and even inside the human body.[6]
Gram-negative bacteria deploy their periplasm to secrete OMVs for trafficking bacterial biochemicals to target cells in their environment. OMVs also can carry endotoxic lipopolysaccharide that may contribute to disease processes in their host.[7][8] This mechanism imparts a variety of benefits like, long-distance delivery of bacterial secretory cargo with minimized hydrolytic degradation and extra-cellular dilution, also supplemented with other supportive molecules (e.g., virulence factors) to accomplish a specific job and yet, keeping a safe-distance from the defense arsenal of the targeted cells. Biochemical signals trafficked by OMVs may vary largely during 'war and peace' situations. In 'complacent' bacterial colonies, OMVs may be used to carry DNA to 'related' microbes for genetic transformations, and also translocate cell signaling molecules for quorum sensing and biofilm formation. During 'challenge' from other cell types around, OMVs may be preferred to carry degradation and subversion enzymes. Likewise, OMVs may contain more of invasion proteins at the host–pathogen interface (Fig. 1). It is expected that environmental factors around the secretory microbes are responsible for inducing these bacteria to synthesize and secrete specifically-enriched OMVs, physiologically suiting the immediate task. Thus, bacterial OMVs, being strong immunomodulators,[9] can be manipulated for their immunogenic contents and utilized as potent pathogen-free vaccines[10] for immunizing humans and animals against threatening infections. VA-MENGOC-BC and Bexsero against meningitis are currently the only OMV vaccines approved in the US, though an OMV vaccine for gonorrhea is seeking approval.[11][12]
Biogenesis and movement
[edit]Gram-negative bacteria have a double set of lipid bilayers. An inner bilayer, the inner cell membrane, encloses the cytoplasm or cytosol. Surrounding this inner cell membrane there is a second bilayer called the bacterial outer membrane. The compartment or space between these two membranes is called the periplasm or periplasmic space. In addition, there is a firm cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan layer, which surrounds the cell membrane and occupies the periplasmic space. The peptidoglycan layer provides some rigidity for maintaining the bacterial cell shape, besides also protecting the microbe against challenging environments.
The first step in biogenesis of gram-negative bacterial OMVs,[13] is bulging of outer membrane above the peptidoglycan layer. Accumulation of phospholipids in the outside of the outer membrane is thought to be the basis of this outwards bulging of the outer membrane.[14] This accumulation of phospholipids can be regulated by the VacJ/Yrb ABC transport system that transfers phospholipids from the outside of OM to the inner side.[14] Additionally, environmental conditions as sulfur depletion can trigger a state of phospholipid overproduction that causes increased OMV release.[15]
The actual release of the vesicle from the outer membrane remains unclear. It is likely that vesicle structures can be released spontaneously. Alternatively, it has been suggested that few proteins 'rivet' the outer and cell membranes together, so that the periplasmic bulge protrudes like a 'ballooned' pocket of inflated periplasm out from the surface of the outer membrane. Lateral diffusion of 'rivet complexes' may help in pinching off large bulges of periplasm as OMVs.[16]
Bacterial membrane vesicles' dispersion along the cell surface was measured in live Escherichia coli, commensal bacteria common in the human gut. Antibiotic treatment altered vesicle dynamics, vesicle-to-membrane affinity, and surface properties of the cell membranes, generally enhancing vesicle transport along the surfaces of bacterial membranes and suggesting that their motion properties could be a signature of antibiotic stress.[17] Despite this first high-resolution, quantitative tracking of bacterial OMVs, detailed experimental work is still awaited to understand the biomechanics of OMV biogenesis and transport. OMVs are also under focus of current research in exocytosis in prokaryotes via outer membrane vesicle trafficking for intra-species, inter-species and inter-kingdom cell signaling, which is slated to change our mindset on virulence of microbes, host–pathogen interactions and inter-relationships among variety of species in earth's ecosystem.
See also
[edit]- Exocytosis
- Host–pathogen interactions
- Host–pathogen interface
- List of bacterial disulfide oxidoreductases
- Virulence
References
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- ^ Lieberman, Linda (21 December 2022). "Outer membrane vesicles: A bacterial-derived vaccination system". Frontiers in Microbiology. 13. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.1029146. PMC 9811673. PMID 36620013.
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