Минимальный геном
![]() | Эта статья может потребовать редактирования копий для повторения и тона . ( Июнь 2024 г. ) |

Минимальный геном -это концепция, которая может быть определена как набор генов, достаточных для жизни, и распространяется в богатых питательными веществами и беззаботными условиями. Альтернативно, его также можно определить как набор генов, поддерживающих жизнь на культуре аксенических клеток в богатых средах, и считается, что то, что составляет минимальный геном, будет зависеть от условий окружающей среды, в которых населяет организм. [ 1 ]
Эта минимальная концепция генома предполагает, что геномы могут быть сведены к минимуму, учитывая, что они содержат много несущественных генов, имеющих ограниченное или ситуационное значение для организма. Следовательно, если бы была собрана коллекция всех основных генов , минимальный геном может быть создан искусственно в стабильной среде. Добавляя больше генов, возможно создание организма желаемых свойств. Концепция минимального генома возникла из -за наблюдений, что многие гены, по -видимому, не необходимы для выживания. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
Чтобы создать новый организм, ученый должен определить минимальный набор генов, необходимых для метаболизма и репликации . Это может быть достигнуто за счет экспериментального и вычислительного анализа биохимических путей, необходимых для проведения основного метаболизма и воспроизведения. [ 4 ] Хорошей моделью для минимального генома является Mycoplasma Genitalium из -за его очень маленького размера генома. Большинство генов, которые используются этим организмом, обычно считаются необходимыми для выживания; Основываясь на этой концепции, был предложен минимальный набор из 256 генов. [ 5 ]
С научной точки зрения, минимальные проекты генома позволяют идентифицировать наиболее важные гены и снижение генетической сложности, что делает инженерные штаммы более предсказуемыми. [ 6 ] В промышленности и сельском хозяйстве их можно использовать для того, чтобы спроектировать растения для противодействия гербицидам или суровой среде; бактерии для синтетически продуцируют химические вещества; или микробы для производства полезных биопродуктов. [ 6 ] В окружающей среде они могут быть источником чистой энергии или возобновляемых химикатов или помочь в секвестрации углерода в атмосфере. [ 6 ]
Содержимое
[ редактировать ]По одному раннему исследованию минимальный геном бактерии должен включать практически полный набор белков для репликации и трансляции, транскрипционного аппарата, включая четыре субъединицы РНК -полимеразы , включая сигма -фактор рудиментарные белки, достаточные для рекомбинации и репарации, несколько белков шаперона, Способность к анаэробному метаболизму посредством гликолиза и фосфорилирования на уровне субстрата , биосинтеза глютамил-тРНК к глутаминил-тРНК, липидной (но без жирной кислоты), восемь кофакторных ферментов, механизма экспорта белка и ограниченного транспортного транспортного транспортного сети, включая атпазы мембран. [ 7 ] Белки, участвующие в минимальном бактериальном геноме, имеют тенденцию быть существенно более связанными с белками, обнаруженными у археи и эукариот, по сравнению со средним геном в бактериальном геноме, в большей степени, что указывает на значительное количество универсально (или почти универсально) консервативных белков. Минимальные геномы, реконструированные на основе существующих генов, не исключают более простые системы в более примитивных клетках, таких как геном мирового РНК , который не имеет необходимости в механизме репликации ДНК, что в противном случае является частью минимального генома современных клеток. [ 7 ]
Гены, которые чаще всего переживают потерю генов, включают гены, участвующие в репликации ДНК, транскрипции и трансляции, хотя известно ряд исключений. Например, потерю часто можно увидеть в субъединицах голоевсии ДНК -полимеразы и некоторых репарации ДНК генов . Большинство рибосомных белков сохраняются (хотя иногда не хватает RPMC). В некоторых случаях некоторые тРНК -синтетазы теряются. Потеря гена также наблюдается в генах для компонентов в клеточной оболочке, биосинтезе биомолекул, таких как пуриновый, энергетический метаболизм и многое другое. [ 8 ]
Минимальный геном соответствует небольшим размерам генома, поскольку размер бактериального генома коррелирует с количеством кодирующих белок генов, как правило, один ген на килобазу. [ 1 ] Mycoplasma Genitalium с геномом 580 КБ и 482 кодирующими белком генов является ключевой моделью для минимальных геномов. [ 9 ]
В природе
[ редактировать ]Аутсорсинг генов
[ редактировать ]
Самый маленький известный геном свободноживущей бактерии составляет 1,3 МБ с ~ 1100 генами. [ 10 ] Тем не менее, значительно больше сниженных геномов обычно наблюдаются в природных симбиотических и паразитических организмах. Снижение генома, вызванное мутацией и генетическим дрейфом и бесполых популяциях с смещениями для делеции генов в небольших Тяжелая зависимость от молекулярных шаперонов для обеспечения функциональности белка. [ 1 ] Эти эффекты, которые совпадают с пролиферацией мобильных генетических элементов, псевдогенов, перестройств генома и хромосомной делеции, лучше всего изучаются и наблюдаются в последних эволюционированных симбионтах. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
The cause for this is that the symbiont or parasite can outsource a usual cellular function to another cell and so, in the absence of needing to carry out this function for itself, subsequently lose its own genes meant to perform this function. The most extreme examples of genome reduction have been found in maternally transmitted endosymbionts which have experienced lengthy coevolution with their hosts and, in the process, lost a substantial amount of their cellular autonomy. Beneficial symbionts have a greater capacity for genome reduction than do parasites, as host co-adaptation allows them to lose additional crucial genes.[14] Another important distinction between genome reduction in parasites and genome reduction in endosymbionts is that parasites lose both the gene and its associated function, whereas endosymbionts often retain the function of the lost gene since that function is taken over by the host.[15]
Endosymbionts
[edit]
For endosymbionts in some lineages, it is possible for the entire genome to be lost. For example, some mitosomes and hydrogenosomes (degenerate versions of the mitochondria known in some organisms) have experienced a total gene loss and have no remaining genes, whereas the human mitochondria still retains some of its genome. The extant genome in the human mitochondrial organelle is 16.6kb in length and contains 37 genes.[16] Between organisms, the mitochondrial genome can code for between 3 and 67 proteins, with suggestions that the last eukaryotic common ancestor encoded a minimum of 70 genes in its genome.[17] The smallest known mitochondrial genome is that of Plasmodium falciparum, with a genome size of 6kb containing three protein-coding genes and a few rRNA genes. (On the other hand, the largest known mitochondrial genome is 490kb.[18]) Genomes nearly as small can be found in related apicomplexans as well.[19] On the other hands, the mitochondrial genomes of land plants have expanded to over 200kb with the largest one (at over 11Mb) exceeding the size of the genome of bacteria and even the simplest eukaryotes.[20] Organelles known as plastids in plants (including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts), once free-living cyanobacteria, typically retain longer genomes on the order of 100-200kb with 80-250 genes.[21] In one analysis of 15 chloroplast genomes, the analyzed chloroplasts had between 60 and 200 genes. Across these chloroplasts, a total of 274 distinct protein-coding genes were identified, and only 44 of them were universally found in all sequenced chloroplast genomes.[22] Examples of organisms which have experienced genome reduction include species of Buchnera, Chlamydia, Treponema, Mycoplasma, and many others. Comparisons of multiple sequenced genomes of endosymbionts in multiple isolates of the same species and lineages have confirmed that even long-time symbionts are still experiencing ongoing gene loss and transfer to the nucleus.[15][8] Nuclear integrants of mitochondrial or plastid DNA have sometimes been termed "numts" and "nupts" respectively.[15]
Cellular parasites and insect symbionts
[edit]
A number of symbionts have now been discovered with genomes under 500 kb in length, the majority of them being bacterial symbionts of insects typically from the taxa Pseudomonadota and Bacteroidota.[8] The parasitic archaea Nanoarchaeum equitans has a genome 491 kb in length.[23] In 2002, it was found that some species of the genus Buchnera have a reduced genome of only 450 kb in size.[24] In 2021, the endosymbiont "Candidatus Azoamicus ciliaticola" was found to have a genome 290 kb in length.[25] The symbiont Zinderia insecticola was found to have a genome of 208 kb in 2010.[26] In 2006, another endosymbiont Carsonella ruddii was found with a reduced genome 160 kb in length encompassing 182 protein-coding genes.[27] Surprisingly, it was found that gene loss in Carsonella symbionts is an ongoing process.[28] Other intermediate stages in gene loss have been observed in other reduced genomes, including the transition of some genes into pseudogenes as a result of accumulating mutations that are not selected against since the host carries out the needed purpose of that gene.[8] The genome of Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola, a symbiont of cicadas, was found to be 144 kb.[29] In 2011, Tremblaya princeps was found to contain an intracellular endosymbiont with a genome of 139 kb, reduced to the point that even some translation genes had been lost.[30] In the smallest to date, a 2013 study found some bacterial symbionts of insects with even smaller genomes. Specifically, two leafhopper symbionts contained highly reduced genomes: while Sulcia muelleri had a genome of 190 kb, Nasuia deltocephalinicola had a genome of only 112 kb and contains 137 protein-coding genes. Combined, the genomes of these two symbionts can only synthesize ten amino acids, in addition to some of the machinery involved in DNA replication, transcription, and translation. The genes for ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation have been lost, however.[31]
Viruses and virus-like particles
[edit]
Viruses and virus-like particles have the smallest genomes in nature. For instance, bacteriophage MS2 consists of only 3569 nucleotides (single-stranded RNA) and encodes just four proteins which overlap to make efficient use of the genome space.[32] Similarly, among eukaryotic viruses, porcine circoviruses are among the smallest.[33] They encode only 2–3 open reading frames. Viroids are circular molecules RNA which do not have any protein-coding genes at all, although the RNA molecule itself acts as a ribozyme to help enable its replication. The genome of a viroid is between 200 and 400 nucleotides in length.[34]
History
[edit]NASA collaboration
[edit]This concept arose as a result of a collaborative effort between National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and two scientists: Harold Morowitz and Mark Tourtellotte. In the 1960s, NASA was searching for extraterrestrial life forms, assuming that if they existed they may be simple creatures. To attract people's attention, Morowitz published about mycoplasmas as being the smallest and simplest self-replicating creatures. NASA and the two scientists grouped together and came up with the idea to assemble a living cell from the components of mycoplasmas. Mycoplasmas were selected as the best candidate for cell reassembly, since they are composed of a minimum set of organelles, such as a plasma membrane, ribosomes and a circular double stranded DNA. Morowitz' major idea was to define the entire machinery of mycoplasmas cell in molecular level. He announced that an international effort would help him accomplish this main objective.
- The main plan consisted of:
- Physical and functional mapping with complete sequencing of the mycoplasma
- Determine the open reading frames (ORFs)
- Determining the encoded amino acids
- Understanding the functions of genes
- Final step: reassemble mycoplasma's cellular machinery
Attempts
[edit]
By the 1980s, Richard Herrmann's laboratory had fully sequenced and genetically characterized the 800kb genome of M. pneumoniae. Despite the small size of the genome, the process took three years. In 1995, another laboratory from Maryland the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) collaborated with the teams of Johns Hopkins and the University of North Carolina. This group chose to sequence the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium, consisting of only 580 kb genome. This was completed in 6 months.
Sequencing M. genitalium revealed conserved genes crucial for defining essential life functions in a minimal self-replicating cell, making it a key candidate for the minimal genome project.
Finding a minimal set of essential genes is usually done by selective inactivation or deletions of genes and then testing the effect of each under a given set of conditions. The J. Craig Venter institute conducted these types of experiment on M. genitalium and found 382 essential genes.
The J.Craig Venter institute later started a project to create a synthetic organism named Mycoplasma laboratorium, using the minimal set genes identified from M. genitalium.[9]
Studies of orthologs
[edit]Reconstruction of a minimal genome is possible by using the knowledge of existing genomes via which the sets of genes, essential for living can also be determined. Once the set of essential genetic elements are known, one can proceed to define the key pathways and core-players by modeling simulations and wet lab genome engineering.[3]
As of 1999, the two organisms upon which the ‘minimal gene set for cellular life' have been applied are: Haemophilus influenzae, and M. genitalium. A list of orthologous proteins were compiled in hope that it would contain protein necessary for cell survival, as orthologous analysis determines how two organisms evolved and shed away any non-essential genes. Since H. influenza and M. genitalium are Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria and due to their vast evolution it was expected that these organisms would be enriched genes that were of universal importance. However, 244 detected orthologs discovered contained no parasitism-specific proteins. The conclusion of this analysis was that similar biochemical functions might be performed by non-orthologous proteins. Even when biochemical pathways of these two organisms were mapped, several pathways were present but many were incomplete. Proteins determined to be common between the two organisms were non-orthologous to each other.[3]
Much of the research mainly focuses on the ancestral genome and less on the minimal genome. Studies of these existing genomes have helped determine that orthologous gene found in these two species are not necessarily essential for survival, in fact non-orthologous genes were found to be more important. Also, it was determined that in order for proteins to share same functions they do not need to have same sequence or common three dimensional folds. Distinguishing between orthologs and paralogs and detecting displacements of orthologs have been quiet beneficial in reconstructing evolution and determining the minimal gene set required for a cellular life. Instead, of conducting a strict orthology study, comparing groups of orthologs and occurrence in most clades instead of every species helped encounter genes lost or displaced. Only genomes that have been completely sequenced have enabled in studying orthologs among the group of organisms. Without a fully sequenced genome it would not be possible to determine the essential minimal gene set required for survival.[3]
JCVI projects
[edit]J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI) conducted a study to find all the essential genes of M. genitalium through global transposon mutagenesis. As a result, they found that 382 out of 482 protein coding genes were essential. Genes encoding proteins of unknown function constitute 28% of the essential protein coding genes set. Before conducting this study the JCVI had performed another study on the non-essential genes, genes not required for growth, of M.genitalium, where they reported the use of transposon mutagenesis. Despite figuring out the non-essential genes, it is not confirmed that the products that these genes make have any important biological functions. It was only through gene essentiality studies of bacteria that JCVI has been able to compose a hypothetical minimal gene sets.
1999 and 2005 publications
[edit]In JCVI's 1999 study among the two organisms, M. genitalium and Mycoplasma pneumoniae they mapped around 2,200 transposon insertion sites and identified 130 putative non-essentials genes in M. genitalium protein coding genes or M. pneumoniae orthologs of M. genitalium genes. In their experiment they grew a set of Tn4001 transformed cells for many weeks and isolated the genomic DNA from these mixture of mutants. Amplicons were sequenced to detect the transposon insertion sites in mycoplasma genomes. Genes that contained the transposon insertions were hypothetical proteins or proteins considered non-essential.
Meanwhile, during this process some of the disruptive genes once considered non-essential, after more analyses turned out essential. The reason for this error could have been due to genes being tolerant to the transposon insertions and thus not being disrupted; cells may have contained two copies of the same gene; or gene product was supplied by more than one cell in those mixed pools of mutants. Insertion of transposon in a gene meant it was disturbed, hence non-essential, but because they did not confirm the absence of gene products they mistook all disruptive genes as non-essential genes.
The same study of 1999 was later expanded and the updated results were then published in 2005.
Some of the disruptive genes thought to be essential were isoleucyl and tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases (MG345 and MG455), DNA replication gene dnaA (MG469), and DNA polymerase III subunit a (MG261). The way they improved this study was by isolating and characterizing M. genitalium Tn4001 insertions in each colony one by one. The individual analyses of each colony showed more results and estimates of essential genes necessary for life. The key improvement they made in this study was isolating and characterizing individual transposon mutants. Previously, they isolated many colonies containing a mixture of mutants. The filter cloning approach helped in separating the mixtures of mutants.
Now, they claim completely different sets of non-essential genes. The 130 non-essential genes claimed at first have now reduced to 67. Of the remaining 63 genes 26 genes were only disrupted in M. pneumoniae which means that some M. genitalium orthologs of non-essential M. pneumoniae genes were actually essential.
They have now fully identified almost all of the non-essential genes in M. genitalium, the number of gene disruptions based on colonies analyzed reached a plateau as function and they claim a total of 100 non-essential genes out of the 482 protein coding genes in M. genitalium.
Mycoplasma laboratorium
[edit]The ultimate result of this project has now come down to constructing a synthetic organism, Mycoplasma laboratorium based on the 387 protein coding region and 43 structural RNA genes found in M. genitalium.[35] This project is currently still going on.[needs update]
First self replicating synthetic cell
[edit]Researchers at the JCVI in 2010 successfully created a synthetic bacterial cell that was capable of replicating itself. The team synthesized a 1.08 million base pair chromosome of a modified Mycoplasma mycoides. The synthetic cell is called: Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0. The DNA was designed in a computer, synthesized, and transplanted into a cell from which the original genome had been removed. The original molecules and on-going reaction networks of the recipient cell then used the artificial DNA to generate daughter cells. These daughter cells are of synthetic origin and capable of further replication, solely controlled by the synthetic genome.[36]
The first half of the project took 15 years to complete. The team designed an accurate, digitized genome of M. mycoides. A total of 1,078 cassettes were built, each 1,080 base pairs long. These cassettes were designed in a way that the end of each DNA cassette overlapped by 80 base pairs. The whole assembled genome was transplanted in yeast cells and grown as yeast artificial chromosome.[36]
Future direction and uses
[edit]Based on JCVI's progress in the field of synthetic biology, it is possible that in near future scientists will be able to propagate M. genitalium's genome in the form of naked DNA, into recipient mycoplasmas cells and replace their original genome with a synthetic genome. Since, mycoplasmas have no cell wall, the transfer of a naked DNA into their cell is possible. The only requirement now is the technique to include the synthetic genome of M. genitalium into mycoplasma cells. To some extent this has become possible, the first replicating synthetic cell has already been developed by the JCVI and they are now on to creating their first synthetic life, consisting of minimal number of essential genes. This new breakthrough in synthetic biology will certainly bring in a new approach to understand biology; and this redesigning and prototyping genomes will later become beneficial to biotechnology companies, enabling them to produce synthetic microbes that produce new, cheaper and better bio-products.[9]
Minimal genome projects
[edit]A number of projects have attempted to identify the essential genes of a species. This number should approximate the "minimal genome". For instance, the genome of E. coli has been reduced by about 30%, demonstrating that this species can live with much fewer genes than the wild-type genome contains.[37]
The following table contains a list of such minimal genome projects (including the various techniques used).[38]
Year | Organism | Method |
---|---|---|
1996 | H. influenzae, E. coli | In silico comparison of genomes[39] |
1998 | H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae | Tn mutagenesis and DNA fingerprinting[40] |
1999 | M. genitalium | Saturating Tn mutagenesis[41] |
2000 | V. cholerae | Tn mutagenesis and arabinose promoter[42] |
2001 | S. aureus | Antisense RNA[43] |
2001 | M. bovis | Tn mutagenesis and microarray[5] |
2002 | H. influenzae | Tn mutagenesis and DNA fingerprinting[44] |
2002 | Buchnera spp | Sequence comparison[45] |
2002 | S. cerevisiae | Systematic gene deletion[46] |
2002 | S. aureus | Antisense RNA[47] |
2002 | E. coli | Red recombinase excision[48] |
2002 | E. coli | Cre/loxP excision[49] |
Number of essential genes
[edit]The number of essential genes is different for each organism. In fact, each organism has a different number of essential genes, depending on which strain (or individual) is tested. In addition, the number depends on the conditions under which an organism is tested. In several bacteria (or other microbes such as yeast) all or most genes have been deleted individually to determine which genes are "essential" for survival. Such tests are usually carried out on rich media which contain all nutrients. However, if all nutrients are provided, genes required for the synthesis of nutrients are not "essential". When cells are grown on minimal media, many more genes are essential as they may be needed to synthesize such nutrients (e.g. vitamins). The numbers provided in the following table typically have been collected using rich media (but consult original references for details).
Organism | Essential Genes |
---|---|
Escherichia coli | 1617 |
Bacillus subtiis | 271 |
Haemophilus influenzae | 642 |
Streptococcus pneumoniae | 244 |
Mycoplasma genitalium | 381 |
Vibrio cholerae | 779 |
Staphylococcus aureus | 653 |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae | 1110 |
The number of essential genes were collected from the Database of Essential Genes (DEG),[50] except for B. subtilis, where the data comes from Genome News Network[51][52] The organisms listed in this table have been systematically tested for essential genes. For more information about minimal genome Please refer also to section 'Other Genera' at 'Mycoplasma laboratorium'.
References
[edit]- ^ Jump up to: a b c McCutcheon, John P.; Moran, Nancy A. (2012). "Extreme genome reduction in symbiotic bacteria". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 10 (1): 13–26. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2670. ISSN 1740-1534. PMID 22064560. S2CID 7175976.
- ^ Maniloff, Jack (1996). "The Minimal Cell Genome: 'On Being the Right Size'". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (19): 10004–6. Bibcode:1996PNAS...9310004M. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.19.10004. JSTOR 40326. PMC 38325. PMID 8816738.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Mushegian, Arcady (1999). "The minimal genome concept". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 9 (6): 709–14. doi:10.1016/S0959-437X(99)00023-4. PMID 10607608.
- ^ Ogata, H.; Goto, S.; Sato, K.; Fujibuchi, W.; Bono, H.; Kanehisa, M. (1999). "KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes". Nucleic Acids Research. 27 (1): 29–34. doi:10.1093/nar/27.1.29. PMC 148090. PMID 9847135.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Hutchison Iii, C. A.; Peterson, SN; Gill, SR; Cline, RT; White, O; Fraser, CM; Smith, HO; Venter, JC (1999). "Global Transposon Mutagenesis and a Minimal Mycoplasma Genome". Science. 286 (5447): 2165–9. doi:10.1126/science.286.5447.2165. PMID 10591650.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Cho, M. K.; Magnus, D; Caplan, AL; McGee, D (1999). "Ethical Considerations in Synthesizing a Minimal Genome". Science. 286 (5447): 2087, 2089–90. doi:10.1126/science.286.5447.2087. PMID 10617419. S2CID 83279090.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Mushegian, A. R.; Koonin, E. V. (1996-09-17). "A minimal gene set for cellular life derived by comparison of complete bacterial genomes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (19): 10268–10273. Bibcode:1996PNAS...9310268M. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.19.10268. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 38373. PMID 8816789.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Moran, Nancy A.; Bennett, Gordon M. (2014-09-08). "The Tiniest Tiny Genomes". Annual Review of Microbiology. 68 (1): 195–215. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-091213-112901. ISSN 0066-4227. PMID 24995872.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Razin, S; Hayflick, L (2010). "Highlights of mycoplasma research--an historical perspective". Biologicals. 38 (2): 183–90. doi:10.1016/j.biologicals.2009.11.008. PMID 20149687.
- ^ Giovannoni, Stephen J.; Tripp, H. James; Givan, Scott; Podar, Mircea; Vergin, Kevin L.; Baptista, Damon; Bibbs, Lisa; Eads, Jonathan; Richardson, Toby H.; Noordewier, Michiel; Rappé, Michael S. (2005-08-19). "Genome Streamlining in a Cosmopolitan Oceanic Bacterium". Science. 309 (5738): 1242–1245. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1242G. doi:10.1126/science.1114057. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16109880. S2CID 16221415.
- ^ Toh, Hidehiro; Weiss, Brian L.; Perkin, Sarah A.H.; Yamashita, Atsushi; Oshima, Kenshiro; Hattori, Masahira; Aksoy, Serap (2006). "Massive genome erosion and functional adaptations provide insights into the symbiotic lifestyle of Sodalis glossinidius in the tsetse host". Genome Research. 16 (2): 149–156. doi:10.1101/gr.4106106. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 1361709. PMID 16365377.
- ^ Ochman, Howard; Davalos, Liliana M. (2006-03-24). "The Nature and Dynamics of Bacterial Genomes". Science. 311 (5768): 1730–1733. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1730O. doi:10.1126/science.1119966. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16556833. S2CID 26707775.
- ^ Burke, Gaelen R.; Moran, Nancy A. (2011-01-01). "Massive Genomic Decay in Serratia symbiotica, a Recently Evolved Symbiont of Aphids". Genome Biology and Evolution. 3: 195–208. doi:10.1093/gbe/evr002. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 3056288. PMID 21266540.
- ^ McCutcheon, John P.; Moran, Nancy A. (2011-11-08). "Extreme genome reduction in symbiotic bacteria". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 10 (1): 13–26. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2670. ISSN 1740-1534. PMID 22064560. S2CID 7175976.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Timmis, Jeremy N.; Ayliffe, Michael A.; Huang, Chun Y.; Martin, William (2004). "Endosymbiotic gene transfer: organelle genomes forge eukaryotic chromosomes". Nature Reviews Genetics. 5 (2): 123–135. doi:10.1038/nrg1271. ISSN 1471-0064. PMID 14735123. S2CID 2385111.
- ^ Alston, Charlotte L; Rocha, Mariana C; Lax, Nichola Z; Turnbull, Doug M; Taylor, Robert W (2016-09-23). "The genetics and pathology of mitochondrial disease: Mitochondrial genetic disease". The Journal of Pathology. 241 (2): 236–250. doi:10.1002/path.4809. PMC 5215404. PMID 27659608.
- ^ Gray, Michael W. (2015-08-18). "Mosaic nature of the mitochondrial proteome: Implications for the origin and evolution of mitochondria". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (33): 10133–10138. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11210133G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1421379112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4547279. PMID 25848019.
- ^ Notsu, Y.; Masood, S.; Nishikawa, T.; Kubo, N.; Akiduki, G.; Nakazono, M.; Hirai, A.; Kadowaki, K. (2002). "The complete sequence of the rice (Oryza sativa L.) mitochondrial genome: frequent DNA sequence acquisition and loss during the evolution of flowering plants". Molecular Genetics and Genomics. 268 (4): 434–445. doi:10.1007/s00438-002-0767-1. ISSN 1617-4615. PMID 12471441. S2CID 23810143.
- ^ Gray, M. W. (2012-09-01). "Mitochondrial Evolution". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 4 (9): a011403. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011403. ISSN 1943-0264. PMC 3428767. PMID 22952398.
- ^ Sloan, Daniel B.; Alverson, Andrew J.; Chuckalovcak, John P.; Wu, Martin; McCauley, David E.; Palmer, Jeffrey D.; Taylor, Douglas R. (2012-01-17). "Rapid Evolution of Enormous, Multichromosomal Genomes in Flowering Plant Mitochondria with Exceptionally High Mutation Rates". PLOS Biology. 10 (1): e1001241. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001241. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 3260318. PMID 22272183.
- ^ Ponce-Toledo, Rafael I.; López-García, Purificación; Moreira, David (2019). "Horizontal and endosymbiotic gene transfer in early plastid evolution". New Phytologist. 224 (2): 618–624. doi:10.1111/nph.15965. ISSN 1469-8137. PMC 6759420. PMID 31135958.
- ^ Martin, W.; Rujan, T.; Richly, E.; Hansen, A.; Cornelsen, S.; Lins, T.; Leister, D.; Stoebe, B.; Hasegawa, M.; Penny, D. (2002-09-17). "Evolutionary analysis of Arabidopsis, cyanobacterial, and chloroplast genomes reveals plastid phylogeny and thousands of cyanobacterial genes in the nucleus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (19): 12246–12251. doi:10.1073/pnas.182432999. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 129430. PMID 12218172.
- ^ Waters, Elizabeth; Hohn, Michael J.; Ahel, Ivan; Graham, David E.; Adams, Mark D.; Barnstead, Mary; Beeson, Karen Y.; Bibbs, Lisa; Bolanos, Randall; Keller, Martin; Kretz, Keith (2003-10-28). "The genome of Nanoarchaeum equitans: Insights into early archaeal evolution and derived parasitism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (22): 12984–12988. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10012984W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1735403100. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 240731. PMID 14566062.
- ^ Gil, Rosario; Sabater-Muñoz, Beatriz; Latorre, Amparo; Silva, Francisco J.; Moya, Andrés (2002-04-02). "Extreme genome reduction in Buchnera spp.: Toward the minimal genome needed for symbiotic life". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (7): 4454–4458. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.4454G. doi:10.1073/pnas.062067299. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 123669. PMID 11904373.
- ^ Graf, Jon S.; Schorn, Sina; Kitzinger, Katharina; Ahmerkamp, Soeren; Woehle, Christian; Huettel, Bruno; Schubert, Carsten J.; Kuypers, Marcel M. M.; Milucka, Jana (2021-03-03). "Anaerobic endosymbiont generates energy for ciliate host by denitrification". Nature. 591 (7850): 445–450. Bibcode:2021Natur.591..445G. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03297-6. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7969357. PMID 33658719.
- ^ McCutcheon, John P.; Moran, Nancy A. (2010-01-01). "Functional Convergence in Reduced Genomes of Bacterial Symbionts Spanning 200 My of Evolution". Genome Biology and Evolution. 2: 708–718. doi:10.1093/gbe/evq055. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 2953269. PMID 20829280.
- ^ Nakabachi, Atsushi; Yamashita, Atsushi; Toh, Hidehiro; Ishikawa, Hajime; Dunbar, Helen E.; Moran, Nancy A.; Hattori, Masahira (2006-10-13). "The 160-Kilobase Genome of the Bacterial Endosymbiont Carsonella". Science. 314 (5797): 267. doi:10.1126/science.1134196. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17038615. S2CID 44570539.
- ^ Sloan, Daniel B.; Moran, Nancy A. (2012-08-10). "Genome Reduction and Co-evolution between the Primary and Secondary Bacterial Symbionts of Psyllids". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 29 (12): 3781–3792. doi:10.1093/molbev/mss180. ISSN 1537-1719. PMC 3494270. PMID 22821013.
- ^ McCutcheon, John P.; McDonald, Bradon R.; Moran, Nancy A. (2009-07-17). "Origin of an Alternative Genetic Code in the Extremely Small and GC–Rich Genome of a Bacterial Symbiont". PLOS Genetics. 5 (7): e1000565. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000565. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 2704378. PMID 19609354.
- ^ McCutcheon, John P., and Carol D. Von Dohlen. "An interdependent metabolic patchwork in the nested symbiosis of mealybugs." Current biology 21, no. 16 (2011): 1366-1372.
- ^ Bennett, Gordon M.; Moran, Nancy A. (2013-08-25). "Small, Smaller, Smallest: The Origins and Evolution of Ancient Dual Symbioses in a Phloem-Feeding Insect". Genome Biology and Evolution. 5 (9): 1675–1688. doi:10.1093/gbe/evt118. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 3787670. PMID 23918810.
- ^ Fiers, W.; Contreras, R.; Duerinck, F.; Haegeman, G.; Iserentant, D.; Merregaert, J.; Min Jou, W.; Molemans, F.; Raeymaekers, A.; Van Den Berghe, A.; Volckaert, G.; Ysebaert, M. (1976). "Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene". Nature. 260 (5551): 500–507. Bibcode:1976Natur.260..500F. doi:10.1038/260500a0. PMID 1264203. S2CID 4289674.
- ^ Ellis, J (2014). "Porcine circovirus: A historical perspective". Veterinary Pathology. 51 (2): 315–27. doi:10.1177/0300985814521245. PMID 24569612. S2CID 1406680.
- ^ Chaitanya, K. V.. “Structure and Organization of Virus Genomes.” Genome and Genomics: From Archaea to Eukaryotes 1–30. 18 Nov. 2019, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-0702-1_1
- ^ Glass, John I.; Assad-Garcia, Nacyra; Alperovich, Nina; Yooseph, Shibu; Lewis, Matthew R.; Maruf, Mahir; Hutchison, Clyde A.; Smith, Hamilton O.; Venter, J. Craig (2006). "Essential genes of a minimal bacterium". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (2): 425–30. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103..425G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510013103. JSTOR 30048318. PMC 1324956. PMID 16407165.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Kowalski, Heather. "First Self-Replicating Synthetic Bacterial Cell". Press Release. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
- ^ Kato, Jun-ichi; Hashimoto, Masayuki (2008). "Construction of Long Chromosomal Deletion Mutants of Escherichia coli and Minimization of the Genome". Microbial Gene Essentiality: Protocols and Bioinformatics. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 416. pp. 279–293. doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-321-9_18. ISBN 978-1-58829-378-7. ISSN 1064-3745. PMID 18392974.
- ^ Smalley, Darren J; Whiteley, Marvin; Conway, Tyrrell (2003). "In search of the minimal Escherichia coli genome". Trends in Microbiology. 11 (1): 6–8. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(02)00008-2. PMID 12526847.
- ^ Lipton, Mary S.; Paa-Toli, Ljiljana; Anderson, Gordon A.; Anderson, David J.; Auberry, Deanna L.; Battista, John R.; Daly, Michael J.; Fredrickson, Jim; et al. (2002). "Global analysis of the Deinococcus radiodurans proteome by using accurate mass tags". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (17): 11049–54. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9911049L. doi:10.1073/pnas.172170199. JSTOR 3059520. PMC 129300. PMID 12177431.
- ^ Sassetti, Christopher M.; Boyd, Dana H.; Rubin, Eric J. (2001). "Comprehensive identification of conditionally essential genes in mycobacteria". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (22): 12712–7. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9812712S. doi:10.1073/pnas.231275498. JSTOR 3056971. PMC 60119. PMID 11606763.
- ^ Giaever, Guri; Chu, Angela M.; Ni, Li; Connelly, Carla; Riles, Linda; Véronneau, Steeve; Dow, Sally; Lucau-Danila, Ankuta; et al. (2002). "Functional profiling of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome". Nature. 418 (6896): 387–91. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..387G. doi:10.1038/nature00935. PMID 12140549. S2CID 4400400.
- ^ Akerley, Brian J.; Rubin, Eric J.; Novick, Veronica L.; Amaya, Kensey; Judson, Nicholas; Mekalanos, John J. (2002). "A genome-scale analysis for identification of genes required for growth or survival of Haemophilus influenzae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (2): 966–71. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99..966A. doi:10.1073/pnas.012602299. JSTOR 3057674. PMC 117414. PMID 11805338.
- ^ Forsyth, R. Allyn; Haselbeck, Robert J.; Ohlsen, Kari L.; Yamamoto, Robert T.; Xu, Howard; Trawick, John D.; Wall, Daniel; Wang, Liangsu; et al. (2002). "A genome-wide strategy for the identification of essential genes in Staphylococcus aureus". Molecular Microbiology. 43 (6): 1387–400. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2002.02832.x. PMID 11952893.
- ^ Akerley, Brian J.; Rubin, Eric J.; Camilli, Andrew; Lampe, David J.; Robertson, Hugh M.; Mekalanos, John J. (1998). "Systematic Identification of Essential Genes by in vitro mariner Mutagenesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (15): 8927–32. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.8927A. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.8927. JSTOR 45862. PMC 21179. PMID 9671781.
- ^ Gil, Rosario; Sabater-Muñoz, Beatriz; Latorre, Amparo; Silva, Francisco J.; Moya, Andrés (2002). "Extreme genome reduction in Buchnera spp.: Toward the minimal genome needed for symbiotic life". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (7): 4454–8. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.4454G. doi:10.1073/pnas.062067299. JSTOR 3058325. PMC 123669. PMID 11904373.
- ^ Bochner, Br; Гадзински, P; Panomitros, E (2001). «Фенотип микрочипов для высокопроизводительного фенотипического тестирования и анализа функции генов» . Исследование генома . 11 (7): 1246–55. doi : 10.1101/gr.186501 . PMC 311101 . PMID 11435407 .
- ^ Джадсон, Николас; Мекаланос, Джон Дж. (2000). «Tnaraout, на основе транспозона подход для идентификации и характеристики необходимых бактериальных генов». Nature Biotechnology . 18 (7): 740–5. doi : 10.1038/77305 . PMID 10888841 . S2CID 10267852 .
- ^ Холден, С. (2002). «Альянс запущен в модель E. coli». Наука . 297 (5586): 1459–60. doi : 10.1126/science.297.5586.1459a . PMID 12202792 . S2CID 82478432 .
- ^ Ю, Байнг Джо; Ким, Сан Чанг (2008). «Минимизация генома Escherichia coli с использованием системы удаления CRE/LOXP, нацеленной на TN5». В Osterman, Andrei L.; Гердес, Светлана Ю. (ред.). Микробное ген Существенность: протоколы и биоинформатика . Методы в молекулярной биологии. Тол. 416. С. 261–77. doi : 10.1007/978-1-59745-321-9_17 . ISBN 978-1-58829-378-7 Полем PMID 18392973 .
- ^ Чжан, Р.; Лин, Ю. (2009). «DEG 5.0, база данных важных генов как у прокариот, так и в эукариотах» . Исследование нуклеиновых кислот . 37 (проблема базы данных): D455–8. doi : 10.1093/nar/gkn858 . PMC 2686491 . PMID 18974178 .
- ^ E. Winstead: еще один минимальный геном: микроб нуждается только в 271 генах , в GNN (18 апреля 2003 г.)
- ^ K. Kobayashi et al.: Основные гены Bacillus subtilis. , в: Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100, 4678-4683 (15 апреля 2003 г.)