Papilio Polyxenes
| Черный ласточек | |
|---|---|
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| Мужской | |
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| Женский | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Papilionidae |
| Genus: | Papilio |
| Species: | P. polyxenes
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| Binomial name | |
| Papilio polyxenes Fabricius, 1775
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| Subspecies | |
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Papilio , восточный ) черный ласточки Polyxenes ( [ 4 ] это бабочка , найденная на протяжении большей части Северной Америки. Чрезвычайно схожие виды, Papilio Joanae , встречается в области гор Озарк , но, по-видимому, он тесно связан с Papilio Machaon , а не с P. polyxenes . Этот вид назван в честь фигуры в греческой мифологии , Polyxena (PRON.: /Pəˈlɪksɨnə /; греческий: πολυξένη), которая была самой молодой дочерью короля Приама Троя. Его гусеница называется червем петрушки, потому что гусеница питается петрушкой . [ 4 ]
Поликсеры папилио демонстрируют полиандрию и систему спаривания лека , не показывающую мужской родительскую помощь и участки отображения. Поэтому женщины могут выбирать мужчин на основе этих сайтов, а мужчины - единственный ресурс, который женщины находят на этих сайтах. [ 5 ]
Таксономия
[ редактировать ]Papilio Polyxenes является частью племени папилионини семейства бабочек ласточки, Papilionidae . У всех членов этого племени есть хвосты на задних крылах и, следовательно, включают виды под названием Swallowtail. [6] P. polyxenes is part of the genus Papilio, which is the biggest group of the family Papilionidae. Subspecies polyxenes, once found in Cuba, is now considered likely extinct.[7] Members of this genus typically feed on plants of the family Lauraceae, Rutaceae and Umbelliferae.[6]
Distribution
[edit]Papilio polyxenes are found from southern Canada through to South America. In North America they are more common east of the Rocky Mountains.[8][9] They are usually found in open areas like fields, parks, marshes or deserts, and they prefer tropical or temperate habitats.[10]
Morphology
[edit]
Eggs and larvae
[edit]Eggs are pale yellow. Young larvae are mostly black and white with a saddle, and older larvae are green with black transverse bands containing yellow spots.[11]
Caterpillar and chrysalis
[edit]This caterpillar absorbs toxins from the host plants, and therefore tastes poor to bird predators.[12] The black swallowtail caterpillar has an orange "forked gland", called the osmeterium. When in danger, the osmeterium, which looks like a snake's tongue, everts and releases a foul smell to repel predators.[12]
The pupae may be green or brown, but not depending on surroundings or the background on which they have pupated. The color of the chrysalis is determined by a local genetic balance that ensures the majority of pupae will blend in.[13] A section of the green pupae will turn a much darker green at the very end of the pupae stage. This color change occurs a few hours to a full day before hatching.[13] Unusually, this butterfly's chrysalis is girdled with a loop, with its feet attached to the silk pad, which helps the butterfly to unfold its very large wings when crawling out.[14]
Sexual dimorphism
[edit]
The black swallowtail has a wingspan of 6.9–8.4 cm, and females are typically larger than males.[12] The upper wing surface is black with two rows of yellow spots – these spots are large and bright in males and smaller and lighter in females. Females have a prominent blue area between these two rows, while males have a much less prominent blue area. These differences give rise to effective Batesian mimicry of Battus philenor seen in females.[12]
Both sexes show a red spot with a black bullseye on the inner hind margin of the hindwings and an isolated yellow spot on the front edge of the wings. The ventral side of wings of males and females are essentially identical: forewings have two rows of pale yellow spots, and hindwings have rows of bright orange spots separated by areas of powdery blue. The ventral side also acts as an effective mimic for both males and females for protection against predators.[12]
Mimicry
[edit]Female markings are similar to those of B. philenor, allowing females to engage in dorsal mimicry to reduce risk of predation by birds that preferentially prey on the black swallowtail.[12] Females have evolved dorsal mimicry because they spend more time revealing their dorsal wing side during oviposition.[12] The ventral wing surface of the black swallowtail also mimics that of B. philenor, so both males and females are protected when their ventral wing surface is displayed.[12]
Intrasexual selection
[edit]Male black swallowtails can sometimes mimic the female wing-back pattern, and therefore succeed in reduced predation as well.[15] However, males of the typical coloration are more successful in intrasexual competition for mating territories compared to the males who mimic the female wing pattern.[15] Females have no preference based on wing markings, and are equally likely to mate with a typical versus an alternative coloration.[15] Therefore, male-male intrasexual selection is of greater importance than female mate choice in maintaining the classic male wing-back coloration and pattern.[15]
Life cycle
[edit]
Females lay single eggs on host plants, usually on the new foliage and occasionally on flowers. The eggs stage lasts 4–9 days, the larval stage 10–30 days, and the pupal stage 18 days.[16] The duration of these stages may vary depending on temperature and the species of the host plants.[16]
Feeny et al., 1985 finds that survival of eggs and larvae of P. polyxenes varies depending on the location (near Ithaca, New York) where the eggs were laid. Eggs laid on wild carrot or parsnip plants were more likely to survive to the fifth instar than were eggs laid on poison hemlock. Eggs laid on plants at elevations of 300 to 435 metres (984 to 1,427 ft) above sea-level were more likely to survive than eggs laid at 120 meters above sea-level. There were also significant differences in survival rates between early and late broods in a year, and between years. In all cases, the primary cause of mortality was predation.[17]
Emergence
[edit]Winter is spent in the chrysalis stage, and adults will emerge in the spring to seek out host plants.[18] Adults will emerge in the mornings on a daily basis. First brood adults will fly from mid-May until late June, second brood adults will fly from early July until late August, and occasionally a partial third brood will occur that will emerge later in the season.[5]
Life expectancy
[edit]Members of the black swallowtail are long lived compared to other butterflies that inhabit temperate zones.[19] They encounter little predation and are quick and agile if they are disturbed. However, mortality from predators will occur during roosting and during unfavorable weather due to the associated increase in predation.[19] Adult butterflies are at the highest risk for predation when they are incapable of flight or are starved from poor weather.[19]
Food plants
[edit]Papilio polyxenes use a variety of herbs in the carrot family (Apiaceae), but will choose the food plants for their larvae based on visual and chemical variations.[20] Host plant odor is one of the cues involved in the selection of landing sites for oviposition.[21] The responses to these cues are innate, and feeding on a host plant as a larva does not increase the preference for that plant as an adult.[20]
Species of host plants include:[22]
- American angelica, Angelica atropurpurea[23]
- Hairy angelica, Angelica venenosa[23]
- Dill, Anethum graveolens [24]
- Cutleaf waterparsnip, Berula erecta[23]
- Spotted water hemlock, Cicuta maculata'[23]
- Canadian honewort, Cryptotaenia canadensis[23]
- Queen Anne's lace, Daucus carota[13]
- Wedgeleaf eryngo, Eryngium cuneifolium[23]
- Fennel, Foeniculum vulgare[23]
- Cow parsnip, Heracleum maximum[23]
- Lovage, Levisticum officinale[23]
- Cucumber magnolia, Magnolia acuminata[23]
- Sweetbay magnolia, Magnolia virginiana[23]
- Sweet cicely, Osmorhiza claytonii[23]
- Long-styled sweet cicely, Osmorhiza longistylis[23]
- Canby's dropwort, Oxypolis canbyi[25]
- Water cowbane, Oxypolis filiformis[23]
- Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa[23]
- Parsley, Petroselinum crispum[23]
- Mock bishopweed, Ptilimnium capillaceum[23]
- Rue, Ruta graveolens[23]
- Water parsnip, Sium suave[23]
- Roughfruit scaleseed, Spermolepis divaricata[23]
- Yellow pimpernel, Taenidia integerrima[23]
- Northern prickly ash, Zanthoxylum americanum[23]
- Golden alexanders, Zizia[23]
Behavior
[edit]Thermoregulation
[edit]Core body, or thoracic temperatures of around 24 degrees Celsius are necessary for flight.[26] Therefore, the black swallowtail will regulate thoracic temperatures by behaviorally changing their abdomen position, wing position, orientation to the sun, perching duration, and perching height.[26] In lower temperatures, butterflies will raise their abdomens above flattened wings, and will perch relatively close to the ground.[26] In higher temperatures, butterflies will lower their abdomens in the shade of their wings.[26] Higher temperatures are also associated with shorter perch durations, greater flight durations and higher perch heights.[26]
Territorial defense
[edit]Male butterflies secure territories to use in mate location and courtship.[5] These territories contain no significant concentration of nectar sources, larval host plants or night settling sites. Once secured, a male will maintain exclusive use of a territory 95% of the time.[5] Males will aggressively chase other males who approach their territory, and then return to their territory.[5] Success in defending a territory depends on the number of competitors and his previous success, but the size of the male is not a contributing factor.[5] Males that emerge early in the brood are more likely to defend a female-preferred territory.[5] These males will have early access to available territories, and will choose the ones that are most preferred by females.[5] What makes a territory desirable by females remains unknown, and is only measured by the number of aggressive encounters between males and the overall mating frequency at these sites.[5]
Male territories are generally of high relative elevation and topographic distinctness.[27] This feature serves as an advantage to the lek mating system described later, as males will be concentrated in predictable locations and will be easy to encounter by females.[5]
Aggression
[edit]In previous studies, nearly 80% of successful courtship flights were confined to a male's territory. Because a preferred territory site is crucial in mating success, males are extremely aggressive in maintaining their territory.[5] Black swallowtails have a 4:1 male biased sex ratio, and a low female mating frequency which leads to intense male-male competition.[5]
Mating systems
[edit]Protandry
[edit]The black swallowtail is protandrous, meaning males emerge before females.[28] This emergence pattern is advantageous, because males that emerge earlier have a greater success in competing for superior territories, indicated by female preference.[28] These superior territories will most likely still be available for early emerging males, and securing one of these territories is highly predictive of mating success.[28] Furthermore, female fertility is directly correlated with their weight at emergence. This favors larger females, and explains why they emerge later to prolong the larval feeding period.[28] Male success is not dependent on size, so selection favors early emergence to get the best territories preferred by females, though this will most likely result in smaller males.[28] However, there is a drawback to this emergence system. For biological reasons, overall male mating frequency decreases as the mating season goes on. Therefore, early emerging males with early access to preferred territories will not be able to mate as often later in the mating season when female emergence is at its peak.[28]
Lek mating
[edit]This type of territorial organization leads the black swallowtail to engage in a lek mating system.[29] These butterflies satisfy the four criteria for lekking behavior, as defined by J.W. Bradbury: (1) there is no male parental care, (2) males aggregate at specific sites for display, (3) the only resource females find at the lek are the males themselves and (4) females can select their mates.[29]
The territory that has the most male-male encounters can be seen as being the most desirable to both males and females, and is also the territory that has the highest female visitation rate.[5] Hilltop leks give the advantage to females because they make it easy to locate mates, and competition for superiority creates an array of males who have already demonstrated their quality as a mate.[5]
Copulation
[edit]Males can only mate twice a day, but females will mate more than once to replace a sperm supply that has deteriorated with time.[5] P. polyxenes has a long mating period due to females tendency to mating multiple times and having a broad emergence period.[5] This allows males to mate several times during their lifetime, despite only being able to copulate twice on the same day.[5] The black swallowtail engages in brief courtship flights, and copulations will last around 45 minutes.[30]
Similar species
[edit]- Old World swallowtail (Papilio machaon)
- Indra swallowtail (Papilio indra)
- Short-tailed swallowtail (Papilio brevicauda)
- Anise swallowtail (Papilio zelicaon)
Gallery
[edit]-
Laying eggs on parsley -
Eggs on parsley -
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These second- or third-instar larvae in northeast Georgia still have spikes. -
Late-instar caterpillar (without spikes) soon ready to pupate -
Osmeterium visible after slight provocation -
Caterpillar color variations -
Greenish-brown chrysalis -
Ventral view with chrysalis -
Black Swallowtail in North Houston, TX
References
[edit]- ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0 - Papilio polyxenes, Black Swallowtail". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ Puttick, A.; Walker, A.; Hall, P. (2021). "Papilio polyxenes". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T110613568A110613582. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T110613568A110613582.en. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
- ^ Orellana-B., Andrés M. "Description Of A New Tropical Subspecies Of The Black Swallowtail Butterfly, Papilio Polyxenes (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) From Venezuela". Boletín Científico Centro de Museos Museo de Historia Natural. 13 (1): 92–101.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Castner, J.L. "Electronic Data Information Source". Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. University of Florida. Archived from the original on April 26, 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Lederhouse, Robert C. (1982). "Territorial Defense and Lek Behavior of the Black Swallowtail Butterfly, Papilio polyxenes". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 10 (2): 109–118. doi:10.1007/bf00300170. S2CID 27843985.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Genus Papilio." http://en.butterflycorner.net/Genus-PAPILIO.366.0.html#c4148
- ^ Mancina, Carlos A.; Águila, Rayner Núñez; Raola, Betina Neyra (2020). MARIPOSAS DE CUBA GUÍA de CAMPO. Agencia de Medio Ambiente. ISBN 978-959-300-148-9.
- ^ Ehrlich, P. (1961). How to Know Butterflies. Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown Company Publishers.
- ^ Neck, R. (1996). Butterflies of Texas. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Company.
- ^ Drees B.M. & Jackman, J.A. (1998). A Field Guide to Common Texas Insects. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing.
- ^ Timmerman, S; Berenbaum, MR (1999). "Uric acid deposition in larva integument of black swallowtails and speculation on its possible functions". Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 53: 104–107.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Lederhouse, Robert C.; Silvio, G. Codella Jr (1989). "Intersexual Comparison of Mimetic Protection in the Black Swallowtail Butterfly, Papilio polyxenes: Experiments with Captive Blue Jay Predators". Evolution. 43 (2): 410–420. doi:10.2307/2409216. JSTOR 2409216. PMID 28568560.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Черный ласточка , бабочки Канады
- ^ «Садоводство в пятницу, жить в садах Реймана» . Айова общественное радио, разговоры о Айове . Проведенный 27 марта 2015 года . Получено 27 марта 2015 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый Ледерхаус, Роберт С.; J. Mark Scriber (1996). «Внутрисексуальный отбор ограничивает эволюцию дорсального цветового рисунка мужских черных бабочек ласточка, поликен папилио ». Эволюция 50 (2): 717–722. doi : 10.2307/2410844 . JSTOR 2410844 . PMID 28568915 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Минно М.К., Батлер Дж.Ф., Холл Д.В. (2005). Флорида бабочка гусеницы и их хозяева. Университетская пресса Флориды. Гейнсвилл, Флорида. 341 стр.
- ^ Фени, Пол; Блау, Уильям С.; Карива, Питер М. (1985). «Рост личинок и выживание в черной бабочке ласточки в центральной части Нью -Йорка». Экологические монографии . 55 (2): 167–187. Bibcode : 1985ecom ... 55..167f . doi : 10.2307/1942556 . ISSN 0012-9615 . JSTOR 1942556 .
- ^ "Черный ласточек" . Техас A & M Agrilife Extension. Архивировано из оригинала 20 июня 2013 года . Получено 23 октября 2013 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в Ледерхаус, Роберт С. (1983). «Структура населения, резидентура и смертность, связанная с погодой в черной бабочке ласточки, Papilio Polyxenes ». Oecologia (Берлин) . 59 (2–3): 307–311. Bibcode : 1983oecol..59..307l . doi : 10.1007/bf00378854 . PMID 28310250 . S2CID 30565603 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Хайнц, Шерил А.; Пол Фейни (2005). «Влияние контактной химии и опыта растений -хозяина в яйцеводной бабочке с бабочкой восточной черной ласточки». Поведение животных . 69 : 107–115. doi : 10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.028 . S2CID 53166502 .
- ^ Баур, Роберт; Пол Фейни; Эрих Стадлер (1993). «Стимуляторы яйцекладки для черной бабочки с ласточками: идентификация электрофизиологически активных соединений в летучих веществах моркови». Журнал химической экологии . 19 (5): 919–937. Bibcode : 1993jceco..19..919b . doi : 10.1007/bf00992528 . PMID 24249074 . S2CID 7837512 .
- ^ Холл, Дональд В. (2011). Избранные существа - Восточный черный ласточек. Отдел энтомологии и нематологии, Университет Флориды. [1]
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час я Дж k л м не а п Q. ведущий с Т в v В Робинсон, Гаден С.; Ackery, Phillip R.; Китчинг, Ян; Беккалони, Джордж У.; Эрнандес, Луис М. (2023). «Хозяева - база данных Hostlants and Caterpillars в Музее естественной истории» . www.nhm.ac.uk. doi : 10.5519/havt50xw .
- ^ Дональд В. Холл (сентябрь 2014 г.). «Восточный черный ласточек» . Отдел энтомологии и нематологии, Университет Флориды . Получено 27 мая 2015 года .
- ^ Canby's Dropwort ( oxypolis canbyi « Пятилетний обзор )» (PDF) . Американская рыба и дикая природа . Сентябрь 2010. С. 10–11 . Получено 28 февраля 2015 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый и Роулинс, Джон Эдвард (1980). «Терморегуляция черной бабочкой ласточки, папилио поликен (lepidoptera: papilionidae)». Экология . 61 (2): 345–357. Bibcode : 1980ecol ... 61..345r . doi : 10.2307/1935193 . JSTOR 1935193 .
- ^ Рутовски, Рональд Л. (1984). «Сексуальный отбор и эволюция поведения спаривания бабочки» . Журнал исследований по чешучке . 23 (2): 124–142. doi : 10.5962/p.266754 . S2CID 109921652 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый и фон Ледерхаус, Роберт С.; MD FINKE; JM Scriber (1982). «Вклад роста личинок и продолжительности куколки в протандри в черной бабочке ласточкового хвоста, поликен папилио ». Oecologia (Берлин) . 53 (3): 296–300. Bibcode : 1982oecol..53..296l . doi : 10.1007/bf00389003 . PMID 28311730 . S2CID 23206223 .
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- ^ Ледерхаус, Роберт С. (1981). «Влияние частоты спаривания на плодородие яиц в черном ласточковом хвосте». Журнал Общества Лепидоптеристов . 35 : 266–277.
- ласточки Восточная черная бабочка
- "Papilio Polyxenes" . Интегрированная таксономическая информационная система . Получено 6 февраля 2006 года .
- Баррис, Джуди; Ричардс, Уэйн (2006). Жизненный цикл бабочек . Storey Publishing. С. 20 –21. ISBN 978-1-58017-617-0 .
- Дарби, Джин (1958). Что такое бабочка? Полем Чикаго: бенефициальная пресса . п. 36
- Ferris, CD. и Emmel, JF (1982). Обсуждение Pilulo Coloro Wg Wgight (= Papilo Rudkini F. и R. Chermock) и Palio Polyxenes Fabricius. Бюллетень музея Аллина 76: 13 стр.
Эта статья частично адаптирована с этой страницы в USGS Центре исследований дикой природы Северной прерии .
Внешние ссылки
[ редактировать ]
Данные, связанные с поликенами папилио в викиспециписах
- "Черный ласточек ( Papilio Polyxenes ) (Fabrain, 1775)" , Бабочки Канады
- Восточный черный лавштейл на UF / IFAS представлял существа.