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История евреев в Амстердаме

(Перенаправлено из еврейской общины Амстердама )

Основная статья: История евреев в Нидерландах
Интеррет синагоги портги , смоделированного из храма Соломона в Иерусалиме, Амстердам 1695, Ромин The High

История евреев в Амстердаме сосредоточена на историческом центре голландской еврейской общины , входящей как португальских евреев, первоначально из Испании и Португалии и ашкенази , родом из Центральной Европы. Две отдельные группы постоянно присутствовали с семнадцатого века. [ 1 ] Амстердам был назван Иерусалимом Запада и «голландским Иерусалимом». [ 2 ] Холокост в Нидерландах опустошил еврейскую общину, когда нацисты убили около 75% из примерно 80 000 евреев в момент времени в Амстердаме, но общине удалось восстановить яркую и живую еврейскую жизнь для ее примерно 15 000 нынешних членов. [ Цитация необходима ]

Новообращенные и португальские евреи

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См. Также: Сефардские евреи в Нидерландах
Drawing of the interior of the Talmud Tora at Houtgracht (1639), demolished in 1931
Esnoga in 1675

В конце шестнадцатого века и начала семнадцатого, португальские евреи начали поселиться в Амстердаме. Они самоопределялись не как сефардные евреи или сефардим, [ 3 ] а скорее «евреи еврейской нации». [ 4 ] Conversos, Jews forcibly or otherwise converted to Christianity, arrived from Spain and Portugal. Some were sincere Christian converts who now wished to embrace the religion of their ancestors while other were crypto-Jews, Jews outwardly Christian but who continued practicing Judaism privately. With the creation of the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to monitor Jewish converts to Christianity and the 1492 Alhambra Decree, mandating conversion to Christianity or expulsion for Spanish Jews, many migrated to the Kingdom of Portugal. In 1497, the Portuguese monarch forced the conversion of Jews to Christianity, but also prohibited their leaving the kingdom. However, the Inquisition there was not established until 1536. After 1536, Portuguese New Christians, used to de facto permission to practice Judaism privately so long as they were outwardly Christian, now came under scrutiny. Restrictions on their leaving Portugal were eased and some sought economic opportunities in Antwerp and in Amsterdam in the northern Испанские Нидерланды , которые восстали против правила Габсбурга. Недавно независимые голландские провинции предоставили идеальную возможность для этих португальских новых христиан, многие из которых практиковали иудаизм в частном порядке, зарекомендовать себя как сообщество во все более процветающей экономике и более открыто практиковать иудаизм.

Collectively, they brought economic growth and influence to the city as they established an international trading hub in Amsterdam during the 17th century, the so-called Dutch Golden Age. Perhaps the most notable example of Sephardic Jews in Amsterdam are the Curiel family, namely Jeromino Nunes da Costa (alias Moses Curiel),[5] son of Jacob Curiel.[6] Curiel was the single largest financial contributor to the building of the Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam.[7]

In 1593, Marrano Jews arrived in Amsterdam after having been refused admission to Middelburg and Haarlem. These Converso were important merchants, and men of great ability. Their expertise contributed materially to the prosperity of the Netherlands. They became strenuous supporters of the contender House of Orange and were in return protected by the Stadholder. At this time, commerce in Holland was increasing; a period of development had arrived, particularly for Amsterdam, to which Jews had carried their goods and from which they maintained their relations with foreign lands. Quite new for the Netherlands, they also held connections with the Levant, Morocco and the Caribbean Antilles.

The formal independence from Spain of the Dutch Republic, by the Act of Abjuration, theoretically permitted their openly practice of Judaism. In 1602 Moses Uri HaLevi arrived in the city. In 1614 the change came through a diktat from the States of Holland.[8] Soon many Jews settled at Vlooienburg. There were three struggling congregations which merged to Talmud Torah, a united Sephardic congregation when in 1638 a reconciliation was achieved. One synagogue was sold, one remained in existence and the third continued to be used as a schoolroom.[9] Spinoza's father was a parnassim and the school was located in the adjacent house at Houtgracht.

Ashkenazim

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The first Ashkenazim, Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Chmielnicki Uprising in Poland and the Thirty Years War. Their numbers soon swelled, eventually outnumbering the Sephardic Jews at the end of the 17th century; by 1674, some 5,000 Ashkenazi Jews were living in Amsterdam, while 2,500 Sephardic Jews called Amsterdam their home.[10] Many of the new Ashkenazi immigrants were poor, contrary to their relatively wealthy Sephardic co-religionists. They were only allowed in Amsterdam because of the financial aid promised to them and other guarantees given to the Amsterdam city council by the Sephardic community, despite the religious and cultural differences between the Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazim and the Portuguese-speaking Sephardim.

Statue of Anne Frank, by Mari Andriessen, outside the Westerkerk in Amsterdam.

Only in 1671 did the large Ashkenazi community inaugurate their own synagogue, the Great Synagogue,[11] which stood opposite to the Sephardic Esnoga Synagogue.[12] Soon after, several other synagogues were built, among them the Obbene Shul[13] (1685-1686), the Dritt Shul[14] (1700) and the Neie Shul[15] (1752, also known as the New Synagogue). For a long time, the Ashkenazi community was strongly focused on Central and Eastern Europe, the region where most of the Dutch Ashkenazi originated from. Rabbis, cantors and teachers hailed from Poland and Germany. Up until the 19th century, most of the Ashkenazi Jews spoke Yiddish, with some Dutch influences. Meanwhile, the community grew and flourished. At the end of the 18th century, the 20,000-strong Ashkenazi community was one of the largest in Western and Central Europe.[10]

The Holocaust

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Main article: The Holocaust in the Netherlands

Occupation of Amsterdam by Nazi Germany began 10 May 1940.[16] Amsterdam, the largest city in the Netherlands,[17] had an estimated 75–80,000 Jews, approximately 53–57% of the country's Jewish population.[18][19] Among them was the German Jewish family of Anne Frank.

Approximately 25–35,000 of the Dutch Jews were refugees.[20][21] but most of these were not in Amsterdam.[22]

Although less than 10 percent of Amsterdam's population was Jewish, there were two seemingly contradictory outcomes:

  • a general strike against mass Nazi arrests of Jews[17][23]
  • about 75–80% of the Jewish population was deported and murdered.[24][25]

Part of the Nazi action plan included consolidating the Dutch Jewish population into Amsterdam, prior to the "Final Solution."[17] Canadian Forces liberated Amsterdam in early 1945.

Prominent Jewish politicians

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Six of Amsterdam's mayors were Jewish. Job Cohen was runner-up for the award of World Mayor in 2006.[26][27]

Cheider

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Princess Margriet opening the Cheider with Arthur Juda Cohen

In 1964 Adje Cohen began Jewish classes with five children in his home. This grew into an Orthodox Jewish school (Yeshiva) that provides education for children from kindergarten through high school. Many Orthodox families would have left The Netherlands if not for the existence of the Cheider [citation needed]: Boys and girls learn separately as orthodox Judaism requires, and the education is with a greater focus on the religious needs. By 1993 the Cheider had grown to over 230 pupils and 60 Staff members. The Cheider moved into its current building at Zeeland Street in Amsterdam Buitenveldert. Many prominent Dutch Figures attended the opening, most noteworthy was Princess Margriet who opened the new building.[28][29]

Jewish community in the 21st century

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Most of the Amsterdam Jewish community (excluding the Progressive and Sephardic communities) is affiliated to the Ashkenazi Nederlands Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap. These congregations combined form the Nederlands-Israëlietische Hoofdsynagoge (NIHS) (the Dutch acronym for the Jewish Community of Amsterdam). Some 3,000 Jews are formally part of the NIHS.[1] The Progressive movement currently has some 1,700 Jewish members in Amsterdam, affiliated to the Nederlands Verbond voor Progressief Jodendom. Smaller Jewish communities include the Sephardic Portugees-Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap (270 families in and out of Amsterdam) and Beit Ha'Chidush, a community of some 200 members and 'friends' connected to Jewish Renewal and Reconstructionist Judaism. Several independent synagogues exist as well.[30] The glossy Joods Jaarboek (Jewish Yearbook), is based in Amsterdam, as well as the weekly Dutch Jewish newspaper in print: the Nieuw Israëlitisch Weekblad.

Contemporary synagogues

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The Tuschinski Theater, founded by Polish-Jewish-Dutch businessman Abraham Icek Tuschinski

There are functioning synagogues in Amsterdam at the following addresses.

Ashkenazi
Nederlands Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap (Modern Orthodox; Orthodox)
Progressive
Nederlands Verbond voor Progressief Jodendom (Progressive)
  • Jacob Soetendorpstraat 8[36]
Reconstructionist
Beit Ha'Chidush (Jewish Renewal/Reconstructionist Judaism/Liberal Judaism)
Sephardic
Portugees-Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap (Sephardic Judaism)

Kashrut in Amsterdam

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Kosher food is available in Amsterdam restaurants and shops. [38] There is the possibility of eating kosher in Restaurant Ha-Carmel,[39] and the well-known Sandwichshop Sal-Meijer.[40]

Jewish culture

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Joods Historisch Museum

The Joods Historisch Museum[41] is the center of Jewish culture in Amsterdam. Other Jewish cultural events include the Internationaal Joods Muziekfestival (International Jewish Music Festival)[42] and the Joods Film Festival (Jewish Film Festival).[43]

The Anne Frank House hosts a permanent exhibit on the story of Anne Frank.

Jewish cemeteries

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Field A-7 of the Jewish Cemetery of Diemen, which can be seen from trains leaving Amsterdam from the East.

Six Jewish cemeteries exist in Amsterdam and surroundings, three Orthodox Ashkenazi (affiliated to the NIK), two linked to the Progressive community and one Sephardic. The Ashkenazi cemetery[44] at Muiderberg is still frequently used by the Orthodox Jewish community. The Orthodox Ashkenazi cemetery[45] at Zeeburg, founded in 1714, was the burial ground for some 100,000 Jews between 1714 and 1942. After part of the ground of the cemetery was sold in 1956, many graves were transported to the Orthodox Ashkenazi Jewish cemetery[46] near Diemen (also still in use, but less frequent than the one in Muiderberg). A Sephardic cemetery, Beth Haim,[47] exists near the small town of Ouderkerk aan de Amstel, containing the graves of some 28,000 Sephardic Jews. Two Progressive cemeteries, one[48] in Hoofddorp (founded in 1937) and one[48] in Amstelveen (founded in 2002), are used by the large Progressive community.

Abraham Blooteling after Jacob van Ruisdael, Begraef-plaets der Joden, buyten Amsteldam (Jewish Cemetery outside Amsterdam), 1670, etching on laid paper; sheet size: 20.8 x 27.8 cm (8 3/16 x 10 15/16 in.). National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund, 1999.64.1

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Jump up to: a b NIHS General Information Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed July 17, 2007
  2. ^ Baron, S.W. A Social and Religious History of the Jews, vol. 15, Late Middle Ages and Era of European Expansion, 1200-1650 chap. 63 "Dutch Jerusalem". New York: Columbia University Press 1952.
  3. ^ Swetschinski, Daniel M. Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam. London: Littman Library of Jewish Cibilization 2000, xii
  4. ^ Bodian, Miriam. Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1997
  5. ^ Abas, W. "Mose Curiel Abas (alias: Jeronimo Nunes Da Costa) (1620-1697) » Stamboom Abas » Genealogy Online". Genealogy Online. Archived from the original on 2019-10-01. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  6. ^ ISRAEL, JONATHAN I. (1984). "An Amsterdam Jewish Merchant of the Golden Age: Jeronimo Nunes da Costa (1620-1697), Agent of Portugal in the Dutch Republic". Studia Rosenthaliana. 18 (1): 21–40. ISSN 0039-3347. JSTOR 41442146.
  7. ^ "Woonhuis familie Nunes da Costa (Residence of the Nunes Da Costa family)". www.iamsterdam.com. Archived from the original on 2019-10-01. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  8. ^ [https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/synagogen.pdf Hoe Amsterdam Mokum werd
  9. ^ BARUCH SPINOZA
  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Ashkenazi Jews in Amsterdam Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. Edward van Voolen. Accessed July 21, 2007
  11. ^ "Great Synagogue". Archived from the original on July 6, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2007.
  12. ^ Etching showing the Portuguese and High German Synagogues[permanent dead link], at the Amsterdam City Archives
  13. ^ [1] Archived July 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ "Dritt Sjoel". Archived from the original on July 6, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2007.
  15. ^ [2] Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  16. ^ Linda M. Woolf, Ph.D. "Survival and Resistance: The Netherlands Under Nazi Occupation". Archived from the original on 2018-06-26. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
  17. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Amsterdam". Archived from the original on 2018-07-06. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
  18. ^ Dutch Census tables, 1930, 1941
  19. ^ Croes, Marnix (Winter 2006). "The Holocaust in the Netherlands and the Rate of Jewish Survival'"
  20. ^ Voolen, Edward van. "Askhenazi Jews in Amsterdam"
  21. ^ "Administrators of the German occupied Netherlands during WW II". Archived from the original on 2004-01-24.
  22. ^ A rare photo of a round-up of Jews in 1943 in the Uiterwaardenstraat. [permanent dead link]
  23. ^ lasting 3 days
  24. ^ Tammes, Peter "Surviving the Holocaust: Socio-demographic Differences Among Amsterdam Jews
  25. ^ The percentage of Pre-WW II Dutch Jewry surviving is estimated as under 20%
  26. ^ "Amsterdam closes a window on its red-light tourist trade" Archived 2016-10-18 at the Wayback Machine by Anushka Asthana, The Observer, September 23, 2007.
  27. ^ "John So, Lord Mayor of Melbourne wins the 2006 World Mayor Award". www.worldmayor.com. 2006-12-05. Archived from the original on 2012-05-01. Retrieved 2009-04-08.
  28. ^ Cheider [nl]
  29. ^ van Kemenade., J (4 February 1994). "Margriet opent Cheider" (PDF). Nieuw Israelietisch Weekblad. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  30. ^ Jewish Amsterdam Archived 2007-06-29 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed July 20, 2007
  31. ^ "Jewish Historical Museum - Gerard Dou Synagogue". 29 September 2007. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
  32. ^ "Gerarddou.org". Gerarddou.org. Archived from the original on 2012-11-16. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  33. ^ "De Gerrit". Archived from the original on 2018-06-02. Retrieved 2022-03-01.
  34. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Synagogues and Services - Chabad Central Amsterdam - בית חב"ד מרכז אמסטרדם". www.chabadamsterdamcenter.com. Archived from the original on 2013-08-15. Retrieved 2013-11-14.
  35. ^ Siraad.nl Archived 2003-03-30 at the Wayback Machine (in Dutch)
  36. ^ "Beeldbank.amsterdam.nl". Beeldbank.amsterdam.nl. 1998-12-04. Archived from the original on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  37. ^ "Jewish Historical Museum - Uilenburg synagogue". 29 September 2007. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
  38. ^ "NIK.nl". NIK.nl. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  39. ^ "Hacarmel.nl". Hacarmel.nl. Archived from the original on 2012-11-30. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  40. ^ "Sal-meijer.com". Sal-meijer.com. Archived from the original on 2013-01-02. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  41. ^ [www.jck.nl "Joods Museum"]. Jck.nl. Archived from the original on 2011-02-26. Retrieved 2012-12-11. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  42. ^ "Joodsmuziekfestival.nl". Joodsmuziekfestival.nl. Archived from the original on 2012-12-26. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  43. ^ "Joodsfilmfestival.nl". Joodsfilmfestival.nl. Archived from the original on 2012-11-30. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  44. ^ "Pagina niet gevonden / Page not found -". 4 March 2016. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. {{cite web}}: Cite uses generic title (help)[full citation needed]
  45. ^ "Pagina niet gevonden / Page not found -". 3 March 2016. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. {{cite web}}: Cite uses generic title (help)[full citation needed]
  46. ^ "Amsterdam Diemen cemetery". Jhm.nl. Archived from the original on 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  47. ^ "Portuguese cemetery Beth Haim". Jhm.nl. Archived from the original on 2013-03-27. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b "Begraafplaats Gan Hasjalom". Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved November 18, 2007.

Sources

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This article incorporates text from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and has been released under the GFDL.

Further reading

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  • Бергер, Шломо. «Восточно -европейские евреи в Амстердаме: исторические и литературные анекдоты». Восточно -европейские еврейские дела 33.2 (2003): 113–120. Обложки с 1630 по 1952 год
  • Бодиан, Мириам. Conful & Community в раннем современном Амстердаме (1997, стр. покрывает 1600 до ISBN   0253332923
  • Хофместер, Карин. Еврейские работники и рабочее движение: сравнительное исследование Амстердама, Лондон и Париж, 1870-1914 (2004).
  • Израиль, Джонатан I. «Экономический вклад голландского еврея Сефарди в Голландию Золотого возраста, 1595-1713». Журнал истории 96.4 (1983): 505–535. По-английски.
  • Каплан, Йосеф. «Еврейские общины Кюрасао и Амстердам в 17 и 18 веках». Американская еврейская история 72.2 (1982): 193–211.
  • Клостер, Wim. «Сообщества портовых евреев и их контакты в голландском атлантическом мире». Еврейская история 20.2 (2006): 129–145.
  • Leydesdorff, Selma; и Фрэнк Хени. Мы жили с достоинством: еврейский пролетариат Амстердама, 1900-1940 (1995), 278 стр.
  • Надлер, Стивен М. «Отлучение от Спинозы: неприятности и терпимость в« голландском Иерусалиме ». Шофар: междисциплинарный журнал еврейских исследований 19.4 (2001): 40-52.
  • Сонненберг-Стерн, Карина. Эмансипация и бедность: ашкенази-евреи Амстердама, 1796-1850 (2000) 236 стр.
  • Певица, Исидор и Сайрус Адлер, ред. (1916). Еврейская энциклопедия . С. 536–45. {{cite book}}: |author= Имеет общее имя ( справка ) CS1 Maint: несколько имен: список авторов ( ссылка )
  • Снайдер, Саския Коенен. «Повествование об отсутствии: монументальная архитектура синагоги в Амстердаме конца девятнадцатого века». Еврейская история 25.1 (2011): 43–67.
  • Сатклифф, Адам. «Идентичность, космический и межкультурный контакт в городском Entrepôt: сефардное ограничение сообщества в раннем современном Амстердаме и Лондоне». Еврейская культура и история 7.1-2 (2004): 93-108.
  • Таммс, Питер. «Взлом, упаковка, мешок»: профессиональная структура, статус и мобильность евреев в Амстердаме 1851–1941 ». Журнал междисциплинарной истории 43.1 (2012): 1-26. ( Doi : 10.1162/jinh_a_00336 )
  • Таммс Питер. «Еврейский-и-дендильный смешанный брак в довоенном Амстердаме». История семьи 15.3 (2010): 298–315. ( два : 10.1016/j.hisfam.2010.05.003
  • Таммс, Питер. «Жилая сегрегация евреев в Амстердаме накануне Шоа». Непрерывность и изменение 26,2 (2011): 243–270. ( doi : 10.1017/s0268416011000129 )
  • Таммс, Питер. «Выживание Холокоста: социально-демографические различия между евреями Амстердама». Европейский журнал населения 33,3 (2017): 293–318. ( Doi : 10.1007/s10680-016-9403-3 )
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