Яд стрел
Яды стрелы используются для отравления головами стрел или дротиков в целях охоты и войны. Они использовались коренными народами по всему миру и все еще используются в районах Южной Америки, Африки и Азии. Примечательными примерами являются яды, секретируемые из кожи ядовитой лягушки , и Curare (или «ampi»), общего термина для ряда яйвов, полученных из растений, используемых коренными народами Южной Америки . [ 1 ]
История
[ редактировать ]Отравленные стрелы были показаны в мифологии , в частности греческую историю о том, как Геракл убил Кентавра Нессуса , используя стрелы, отравленные кровью Лернан Гидры . Греческий герой Одиссей с Hellebore в Homer Odyssey отравляет свои стрелы . Отравленные стрелы также фигурируют в «Эпике Гомера» о Троянской войне , Илиаде , в которой как ахейцы , так и трояны использовали токсичные стрелы и копья. [ 2 ] Отравленные стрелы упоминаются в Книге Иоватора в Библии , описывающие страдания, испытываемые справедливым человеком, Иов . [ 3 ]
Современные термины «токсичные» и «токсин» происходят из древнегреческого слова «лук», токсон , от старых персидских таксонов , «стрелы». [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]
Poisoned arrows were used by real people in the ancient world, including the Gauls, ancient Romans, and the nomadic Scythians and Soanes. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for poisoning projectiles and historical battles in which poison arrows were used. Alexander the Great encountered poisoned projectiles during his conquest of India (probably dipped in the venom of Russell's viper) and the army of the Roman general Lucullus suffered grievous poison wounds from arrows shot by nomads during the Third Mithridatic War (1st century BC).[2]
In the Kingdom of Kush, arrows were often poison-tipped. There is some indication that poisoned arrows were used in battle against the Romans from 27 BC to 22 BC.[7]
Gregory of Tours claimed that during the reign of Emperor Maximus a Roman army was ambushed and destroyed by the Franks in Germany who used arrows poisoned in herb juices.[8]
The use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare by some Native Americans has also been documented.[9]
Over the ages, Chinese warfare has included projectiles poisoned with various toxic substances.[10]
Varieties
[edit] | This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2021) |
Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources:
Plant-based poisons
[edit]
- Curare is a generic term for arrow poisons that contain tubocurarine, curarine, quinine, protocurarine and related alkaloids. Most frequently it is derived from the bark of Strychnos toxifera, Strychnos guianensis (family Loganiaceae), Chondrodendron tomentosum or Sciadotenia toxifera (family Menispermaceae). Curare is a competitive antagonist that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the post synaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction. It is a muscle relaxant that causes death by paralyzing the respiratory system, resulting in asphyxiation.
- In Africa, many arrow poisons are made from plants that contain cardiac glycosides, such as Acokanthera (possessing ouabain), oleander (Nerium oleander), milkweeds (Asclepias), or Strophanthus, all of which are in the family Apocynaceae.[1] Inee or onaye is a poison made from Strophanthus hispidus, which contains the cardiac glycoside strophanthin. It is used in sub-Saharan West Africa, particularly in the areas of Togo and Cameroon.[11] Certain species of the genus Mostuea (family Gelsemiaceae) are used as additives to arrow poisons (other ingredients unspecified). The toxic principles of Mostuea are alkaloids, not cardiac glycosides.[12]
- Poisoned arrows and blowgun darts are used widely in the jungle areas of Southeast Asia and South Asia for warfare and hunting. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the genera Antiaris, Strychnos and Strophanthus. Antiaris toxicaria, a tree of the mulberry and breadfruit family locally known as upas or ancar, is the most commonly used source for arrow poison in various ethnic groups in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrowhead on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.[13][14][15][16] The fast-acting active ingredient (either antiarin, strychnine or strophanthin) attacks the central nervous system causing paralysis, convulsions and cardiac arrest.[16]
- Several species of Aconitum or "aconite," belonging to the buttercup family, have been used as arrow poisons. The Brokpa in Ladakh use Aconitum napellus on their arrows to hunt Siberian ibex; they were in use recently near lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan.[17] The Ainu and Matagi of northern Japan used an Aconitum paste called surku (スㇽク) to hunt brown bear and sika, applied to arrows fired from either bows or amappo.[18][19] It was also used by the Butias and Lepchas in Sikkim and Assam.[20][21] The Chinese used Aconitum poisons both for hunting[22] and warfare.[23]
- The Kalinago of the Caribbean used poisons made from the sap of the manchineel tree (Hippomane mancinella) or sandbox tree (Hura crepitans), both members of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.[24]
Animal-based poisons
[edit]
- In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó of western Colombia dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of Phyllobates, a genus of poison dart frog. In northern Chocó Department, Phyllobates aurotaenia is used, while P. bicolor is used in Risaralda Department and southern Chocó. In Cauca Department, only P. terribilis is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the steroids in P. terribilis are powerful enough that it is sufficient to rub the dart on the back of the frog without killing it.
- In the northern Kalahari Desert, the most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the larva and pupae of beetles of the genus Diamphidia. It is applied to the arrow either by crushing the larva directly onto the arrow head and mixing it with plant sap to act as an binder, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and large animals, including humans, can survive 4–5 days before succumbing to the effects.[25]
- In the United States, Native American tribes [which?] used venomous reptiles to provide the poisons required. In the Southwest United States, the Gila monster, being one of the only two venomous lizards, has been used as a source.[citation needed]
- There is evidence of Pacific Island cultures using poison arrow and spear tips. An account from Hector Holthouse's book "Cannibal Cargoes"[26] (on the subject of the Australian Pacific Island Labour Trade) describes a canoe, resting on forks in the sand; within the canoe the body of a man rotting in the sun. The unsealed canoe allowing the putrefaction to collect in a notched shallow bowl in which arrow heads and spear tips are soaked. Wounds with these weapons caused tetanus infection.
Preparation
[edit]![[икона]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2014) |
The following 17th-century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:
In making poison arrows for shooting wild beasts, the tubers of wild aconitum are boiled in water. The resulting liquid, being highly viscous and poisonous, is smeared on the sharp edges of arrowheads. These treated arrowheads are effective in the quick killing of both human beings and animals, even though the victim may shed only a trace of blood.[22]
See also
[edit]- Blowgun
- Bushman poison (disambiguation)
- Fire Arrow
- Fukiya, Japanese blowgun
- Loire style blowgun (French page)
References
[edit]- ^ Jump up to: a b "Curare". Archived from the original on 10 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Mayor, Adrienne (2009). Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (Revised ed.). The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-177-0.
- ^ Job 6:4
- ^ http://www.aarc.org/resources/biological/history.asp Archived 2012-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, A History of Biological Warfare from 300 B.C.E. to the Present, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
- ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=toxic, Online Etymology Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
- ^ http://www.thefreedictionary.com/toxic, The Free Dictionary, Retrieved August 7, 2012.
- ^ David Nicolle, Angus McBride. 1991. Rome's Enemies 5: The Desert Frontier. p. 11-15
- ^ Gregory of Tours, A history of the Franks, Pantianos classics, 1916
- ^ Jones, David E (2007). Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1.
- ^ Sawyer, Ralph D (2007). The Tao of Deception: Unorthodox Warfare in Historic and Modern China. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07205-7.
- ^ "Definition of inee". Webster's International Dictionary. 1913. Archived from the original on 2012-02-16. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Vol. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. page 2564.
- ^ Darmadi, Hamid (30 March 2018). "Sumpit (Blowgun) as Traditional Weapons with Dayak High Protection". Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning. 3 (1): 113. doi:10.26737/jetl.v3i1.601.
- ^ Marinas, Amante P. Sr. (17 April 2012). Blowgun Techniques: The Definitive Guide to Modern and Traditional Blowgun Techniques. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 9781462905546.
- ^ "Sumpit: The Filipino blowgun". The Manila Times. 24 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Poisoned arrows". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-10.
- ^ St. George, George (1974). Soviet Deserts and Mountains. Amsterdam: Time-Life International.
- ^ 萱野 Kayano, 茂 Shigeru (January 1, 1978). アイヌの民具 Ainu no mingu (1st ed.). Japan: すずさわ書店 Suzusawa Shoten. ISBN 978-4795404014.
- ^ Peissel, Michel (1984). Золото муравьев: открытие греческого эльдорадо в Гималаях . Лондон Харлэль Пресс . С. 99–100. ISBN 9780002725149 .
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Хукер, Джозеф Далтон (1854). Гималайские журналы или ноты натуралиста . Лондон: Джон Мюррей . п. 168 . Получено 2006-09-17 .
- ^ Хаттон, JH (июль 1924 г.). «Возникновение удара в Ассам». Мужчина . 24 Королевский антропологический институт Великобритании и Ирландии : 106. DOI : 10.2307/2788776 . JSTOR 2788776 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Песня, Yingxing; Солнце, Шиу-Чуан; Sun, E-Tu Zen (1996). Китайская технология в семнадцатом веке: T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu . Mineola, Нью -Йорк : Dover Publications . п. 267. ISBN 978-0-486-29593-0 .
- ^ Chavannes, édouard. «Три китайских генерала восточной династии Хань. Pan Tch'ao (32-102 PC); - его сын Пан Йонг; - Леанг К'Ин (112 ПК). Глава LXXVII DU HEO HAN CHOU. 1906. T'oung Pao 7, pp. 226-227.
- ^ Джонс, Дэвид Э. (2007). Ядовитые стрелы: североамериканские индейцы охота и война . Университет Техасской прессы . п. 29. ISBN 978-0-292-71428-1 Полем Получено 2009-01-24 .
- ^ «Как охотники за сан используют жуки, чтобы отравить свои стрелы» . Музеи Кейптауна Изико. Архивировано из оригинала на 2006-05-06 . Получено 2006-08-09 .
- ^ р. 141