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Жилье

(Перенаправлено из многоквартирных зданий )
Для других видов использования см. В условиях (устранение неоднозначности) .
Высококачественные дома в Хинддленд жилом районе Глазго построены в 1898–1910. [ 1 ]
Многочисленные дома в Морнингсайде в Эдинбургском , в котором представлены нетипичные декоративные перемычки, построены в 1880 году.

Многоцелевое место - это тип здания, разделяемого несколькими жилищами, обычно с квартирами или квартирами на каждом этаже, и с общим доступом к лестнице. Они распространены на Британских островах , особенно в Шотландии . В средневековом Старом городе в Эдинбурге были разработаны жилые дома с каждой квартирой, которую рассматривали как отдельный дом, построенный друг на друга (например, земля Гладстона ). На протяжении сотен лет обычай стал законом, касающимися технического обслуживания и ремонта, как впервые официально обсуждалось в сочинениях лестницы 1681 года о законе об имуществе шотландцев . [ 2 ] В Шотландии они в настоящее время регулируются Законом о домечаниях , который заменил старый закон жилой власти и создал новую систему общей собственности и процедур, касающихся ремонта и обслуживания жилых домов. Многочисленные квартиры с одной или двухкомнатной квартирой обеспечивали популярное арендованное жилье для работников, но в некоторых районах внутренних городов проблемы переполненности и технического обслуживания привели к блестящим городам , которые были очищены и перепланированы. В более богатых районах жидкие квартиры образуют просторные частные дома, некоторые из которых с шестью спальнями, которые продолжают быть желательными свойствами. [ 1 ]

Долговые дома на Парк -авеню и 107 -я улица, Нью -Йорк , ок. 1898–1910

В Соединенных Штатах этот термин первоначально означал большое здание с несколькими небольшими пространствами для аренды. По мере того, как города растут росли в девятнадцатом веке, между богатыми и бедными разделение . Благодаря быстрому росту города и иммиграции , переполненные дома с плохой санитарией дали жилым домам репутацию трудящихся городов. [ 3 ] Выражение «жилой дом» использовалось для обозначения подразделения здания для обеспечения дешевого арендного жилья, которое первоначально было подразделением большого дома. Начиная с 1850-х годов, специально построенные жильем до шести этажей содержали несколько домохозяйств на каждом этаже. [ 4 ] Различные имена были введены для лучших жилищ, и в конечном итоге современные квартиры, преобладающие в американской городской жизни. [ 3 ]

В некоторых частях Англии, особенно Девон и Корнуолл , слово относится к переоценке или дополнительной выступающей части в задней части террасного дома, обычно с его крышей. [ 5 ]

История

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Земля Гладстона является многоквартирным домом из 1617 года в Старом городе, Эдинбург . [ 6 ]

Одним из самых ранних примеров жилья является замок Моррис в Суонси , Уэльс . Замок был построен за 1775 год сэром Джоном Моррисом для рабочих в области быстро индустриализации. Расположение замка было опасным и непрактичным, и многие работники предпочитали жить в отдельных коттеджах. Таким образом, жилье была заброшена в 1850 -х годах. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]

Термин «Долговился», первоначально упоминаемый в аренду и, следовательно, в любое арендованное жилье. Законодательный орган штата Нью -Йорк определил его в Законе о доме на дому 1867 года с точки зрения аренды многочисленных домохозяйств, как

Любой дом, здание или его часть, которая арендована, арендуется, пусть или нанят, чтобы быть занятыми или заняты , или более чем двумя семьями на полу, так же жизнь и приготовление пищи, а также общее право в залах, лестницах, ярдах, водных клозе или каких-либо из них. [ 9 ]

В Шотландии он продолжает оставаться наиболее распространенным словом для здания с несколькими занятиями , но в других местах его используется в качестве уничижительного в отличие от жилого здания или квартир . [ 10 ] Домашние дома были либо адаптированы, либо построены для рабочего класса в качестве промышленно развитых городов, [ 11 ] и стал противопоставить жилые дома среднего класса, которые стали становиться модными позже в 19 веке. Социальные реформаторы в конце 19-го века в Соединенных Штатах были враждебны обоим домам (для содействия болезням и безнравственности у молодых) и жилых домов (для развития «сексуальной безнравственности, лени и развода»). [ 12 ]

Конкретные места

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Нью-Йорк

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Жилые дома в Soundview, Bronx
Способный вид на дому, 38 Cherry Street , NY, 1865

Поскольку Соединенные Штаты промышляли в 19-м веке, иммигранты и работники из сельской местности находились в бывших домах среднего класса и в других зданиях, таких как склады, которые были куплены и разделены на небольшие жилища. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Начиная с 1830 -х годов в -Йорка Нью Нижнем Ист -Сайде [ 11 ] или, возможно, 1820 -е годы на Мотт -стрит , [ 15 ] Трех- и четырехэтажные здания были преобразованы в « железнодорожные квартиры », так называемые, потому что комнаты были связаны вместе, как автомобили поезда, [ 16 ] с внутренними комнатами без окон. Адаптированные здания были также известны как « Рукеры », и это была особая проблема, так как они были склонны к разрушению и огню. Mulberry Bend и пять очков были местами пресловутых кормящих, которые город работал десятилетиями, чтобы очистить. [ 15 ] Как в корпусах, так и в специально построенных многоквартирных домах, общинные водяные краны и водные шкафы (либо личные, или «школьные раковины», которые открывались в хранилище, которое часто засорилось) были втиснуты в небольшие открытые пространства между зданиями. [ 16 ] В некоторых частях Нижнего Ист -Сайда здания были старше и имели внутренние дворы , обычно занятые механическими цехами, конюшнями и другими предприятиями. [ 17 ]

Lower East Side tenement buildings
Charles Henry White, The Condemned Tenement, NY, 1906, National Gallery of Art

Such tenements were particularly prevalent in New York, where in 1865 a report stated that 500,000 people lived in unhealthy tenements, whereas in Boston in 1845, less than a quarter of workers were housed in tenements.[11] One reason New York had so many tenements was the large number of immigrants; another was that the grid plan on which streets were laid out, and the economic practice of building on individual 25- by 100-foot lots, combined to produce high land coverage.[18] Prior to 1867, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, and had 18 rooms per floor, of which only two received direct sunlight. Yards were a few feet wide and often filled with privies. Interior rooms were unventilated.[16]

Early in the 19th century, many of the poor were housed in cellars, which became even less sanitary after the Croton Aqueduct brought running water to wealthier New Yorkers: the reduction in well use caused the water table to rise, and the cellar dwellings flooded. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859 the number of people living in cellars began to decline.[19]

The airshaft of a dumbbell tenement, c. 1900
Tenements. Brooklyn, Gold Street, 1890. Brooklyn Museum.
A Sweltering Night in New York, 1883. Brooklyn Museum.

The Tenement House Act of 1866, the state legislature's first comprehensive legislation on housing conditions, prohibited cellar apartments unless the ceiling was 1 foot above street level; required one water closet per 20 residents and the provision of fire escapes; and paid some attention to space between buildings.[20] This was amended by the Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. As of 1869, New York State law defined a “tenement house” as “any house or building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased let or hired out, to be occupied, or is occupied as the home or residence of three families or more living independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon the premises, or by more than two families upon any floor, so living and cooking, but having a right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets or privies, or some of them.” L 1867, ch 908.[21] The New York City Board of Health was empowered to enforce these regulations, but it declined to do so. As a compromise, the "Old Law tenement" became the standard: this had a "dumbbell" shape, with air and light shafts on either side in the center (usually fitted to the shafts in the adjacent buildings), and it typically covered 80 percent of the lot.[22] James E. Ware is credited with the design;[23] he had won a contest the previous year held by Plumber and Sanitary Engineer Magazine to find the most practical improved tenement design, in which profitability was the most important factor to the jury.[24]

Public concern about New York tenements was stirred by publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis's How the Other Half Lives ,[25] and in 1892 by Riis's The Children of the Poor. [26] The New York State Assembly Tenement House Committee report of 1894 surveyed 8,000 buildings with approximately 255,000 residents and found New York to be the most densely populated city in the world, at an average of 143 people per acre, with part of the Lower East Side having 800 residents per acre, denser than Bombay. It used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs.[27] Together with the publication in 1895 by the US Department of Labor of a special report on housing conditions and solutions elsewhere in the world, The Housing of Working People, it ultimately led to the passage of the Tenement House Act of 1901, known as the New Law, which implemented the Tenement House Committee's recommendation of a maximum of 70 percent lot coverage and mandated strict enforcement, specified a minimum of 12 feet for a rear yard and 6 feet for an air and light shaft at the lot line or 12 feet in the middle of the building (all of these being increased for taller buildings), and required running water and water closets in every apartment and a window in every room. There were also fire-safety requirements. These rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and they have made single-lot development uneconomical.[28]

Most of the purpose-built tenements in New York were not slums, although they were not pleasant to be inside, especially in hot weather, so people congregated outside, made heavy use of the fire escapes, and slept in summer on fire escapes, roofs, and sidewalks.[29]

The Lower East Side Tenement Museum, a five-story brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site, is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side.

Other famous tenements in the US include tenement housing in Chicago, in which various housing areas were built to the same affect as tenements in New York.

Glasgow and Edinburgh

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Tenements in Dumbarton Road, Glasgow

Tenements make up a large percentage of the housing stock of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. Glasgow tenements were built to provide high-density housing for the large number of people immigrating to the city in the 19th and early 20th century as a result of the Industrial Revolution, when the city's population boomed to more than 1 million people. Edinburgh's tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time.[30] Glasgow tenements were generally built no taller than the width of the street on which they were located; therefore, most are about 3–5 storeys high. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, which has become distinctive.

In Edinburgh, residential dwellings in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the medieval Old Town and Georgian New Town (as well as the Victorian city centre districts immediately surrounding them) are almost exclusively tenements. The Tenement House historic house museum in the Garnethill area of Glasgow preserves the interior, fittings and equipment of a well-kept, upper middle-class tenement from the late 19th century.

Many tenements in Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. Perhaps the most striking case of this is seen in the Gorbals, where virtually all the tenements were demolished to make way for tower blocks, many of which have in turn have been demolished and replaced with newer structures. The Gorbals is an area of approximately 1 km2 and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. The population now is roughly 10,000.

Tenement demolition was to a significantly lesser extent in Edinburgh, thus making its later World Heritage designations in 1985 possible. Largely, such clearances were limited to pre-Victorian buildings outside the New Town area and were precipitated by the so-called "Penny Tenement" incident of 1959 in which a tenement collapsed.[31]

Apartments in tenement buildings in both cities are now often highly sought after, due to their locations, often large rooms, high ceilings, ornamentation and period features.

Berlin

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In German, the term corresponding to tenement is Mietskaserne, "rental barracks", and the city especially known for them is Berlin. In 1930, Werner Hegemann's polemic Das steinerne Berlin (Stony Berlin) referred to the city in its subtitle as "the largest tenement city in the world."[32] They were built during a period of great increases in population between 1860 and 1914, particularly after German unification in 1871, in a broad ring enclosing the old city center, sometimes called the Wilhelmian or Wilhelmine Ring. The buildings are almost always five stories high because of the mandated maximum height.[33] The blocks are large because the streets were required to be able to handle heavy traffic, and the lots are therefore also large: required to have courtyards large enough for a fire truck to turn around, the buildings have front, rear, and cross buildings enclosing several courtyards.[34][35] Buildings within the courtyards were the location of much of Berlin's industry until the 1920s, and noise and other nuisances affected the apartments, only the best of which had windows facing the street.[36]

Members of a tenants' collective in front of their tenement building in East Berlin in 1959 (the façade still pockmarked with 1945 battle damage)

One notorious Berlin Mietskaserne was Meyers Hof [de] in Gesundbrunnen,[37] which at times housed 2,000 people and required its police officer to keep order.[38]

Between 1901 and 1920, a Berlin clinic investigated and documented in photographs the living conditions of its patients, revealing that many lived in damp basements and garrets, spaces under stairs, and apartments where the windows were blocked by courtyard businesses.[39]

Many apartments in the Wilhelmian Ring were very small, only one room and a kitchen.[40] Also, apartments were laid out with their rooms reached via a common internal corridor, which even the Berlin Architects' Association recognized was unhealthy and detrimental to family life.[41] Sanitation was inadequate: in a survey of one area in 1962, only 15 percent of apartments had both a toilet and a bath or shower; 19 percent had only a toilet, and 66 percent shared staircase toilets.[40] Heating was provided by stoves burning charcoal briquettes.[42]

Dublin

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See also: History of Dublin and Tenement Museum Dublin
Dublin slum dwellers, 1901

By the 19th and early 20th century, Dublin's tenements (Irish: tionóntán)[43] were infamous, often described as the worst in Europe.[44] Many tenement buildings were originally the Georgian townhouses of upper-class families, neglected and subdivided over the centuries to house dozens of Dublin's poor.[45] Henrietta Street's fifteen buildings housed 835 people. In 1911 nearly 26,000 families lived in inner-city tenements, and 20,000 of these families lived in a single room. Disease was common, with death rates of 22.3 per thousand (compared with 15.6 for London at the same time).[46]

The collapse of 65–66 Church Street in 1913, which killed seven residents, led to inquiries into housing.[47] A housing committee report of 1914 said,

There are many tenement houses with seven or eight rooms that house a family in each room and contain a population of between 40 and 50 souls. We have visited one house that we found to be occupied by 98 persons, another by 74 and a third by 73.

The entrance to all tenement houses is by a common door off either a street, lane or alley, and, in most cases, the door is never shut, day or night. The passages and stairs are common and the rooms all open directly either off the passages or landings.

Most of these houses have yards at the back, some of which are a fair size, while others are very small, and some few houses have no yards at all. Generally, the only water supply of the house is furnished by a single water tap, which is in the yard. The yard is common and the closet accommodation [toilet] is to be found there, except in some few cases in which there is no yard, when it is to be found in the basement where there is little light or ventilation.

The closet accommodation is common not only to the occupants of the house, but to anyone who likes to come in off the street, and is, of course, common to both sexes. The roofs of the tenement houses are, as a rule, bad . . .

Having visited a large number of these houses in all parts of the city, we have no hesitation in saying that it is no uncommon thing to find halls and landings, yards and closets of the houses in a filthy condition, and, in nearly every case, human excreta is to be found scattered about the yards and in the floors of the closets and, in some cases, even in the passages of the house itself.[48]

Tenement life often appeared in fiction, such as the "Dublin trilogy" of plays by Seán O'Casey, Oliver St. John Gogarty's play Blight, and James Plunkett's novel Strumpet City (adapted for television in 1980). 14 Henrietta Street serves as a museum of Dublin tenement life.[49]

The last tenements were closed in the 1970s, families being rehoused in new suburbs such as Ballymun.[50]

Buenos Aires

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Conventillo in La Boca, Buenos Aires

In Buenos Aires the tenements, called conventillos, developed from subdividing one- or two-story houses built around courtyards for well-off families. These were long and narrow, three to six times as long as they were wide, and the size of the patios was reduced until as many as 350 people could be living on a lot that had originally housed 25. Purpose-built tenements copied their form. By 1907 there were some 2,500 conventillos, with 150,000 occupants.[51] El conventillo de la Paloma was particularly famous and is the title of a play by Alberto Vaccarezza.

Mumbai

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A chawl in Mumbai
Main article: Chawl

"Chawls" are found in India. They are typically four to five story buildings with 10 to 20 kholis (tenements) on each floor, kholis literally meaning 'rooms'. Many chawl buildings can be found in Mumbai, where chawls were constructed by the thousands to house people migrating to the large city because of its booming cotton mills and overall strong economy.

A typical chawl tenement consists of one all-purpose room, which functions both as a living and sleeping space, and a kitchen which also serves as a dining room. A frequent practice is for the kitchen to also serve as a bedroom for a newly married couple in order to give them some degree of privacy.

Poland

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Tenements in Warsaw Old Town, Market Place

Kamienica (plural kamienice) is a Polish term describing a type of residential tenement building made of brick or stone, with at least two floors. There are two basic types: one designed as a single-family residence, which existed until the 1800s (a burgher house), and the other designed as multi-family housing, which emerged in the 19th century and was the basic type of housing in cities. From the architectural point of view, the word is usually used to describe a building that abuts other similar buildings forming the street frontage, in the manner of a terraced house. The ground floor often consists of shops and other businesses, while the upper floors are apartments, oftentimes spanning the entire floor. Kamienice have large windows in the front, but not in the side walls, since the buildings are close together.

The first type of kamienica is most prevalent especially in centers of historical cities such as Kraków, Poznań, Wrocław, and Toruń, whereas the second type is most prominent in Łódź. City which is known for beautiful kamienice in Art Nouveau style is Bydgoszcz. The name derives from the Polish word kamień (stone) and dates from the 15th century.[52][53] Late 19th century and early 20th century kamienice often took form of city palaces with ornamental facades, high floors and spacious, representative and heavily decorated interiors.

Later in the 20th century, especially after the Second World War, large apartments would be divided into several smaller flats due to general lack of habitable space caused by vast destruction of cities, thus lowering the generally high standard of living in so-called grand city tenements (Polish: kamienice wielkomiejskie). Examples of kamienice include Korniakt Palace and Black Kamienica in Lviv. Some kamienice in some areas have a reputation for being inhabited by poor people and families that depend on government money and welfare programs to support them; kamienice are often used as public housing. Those areas are often considered dangerous. The buildings are often neglected, in bad shape (both the exteriors and the interiors), in need of general renovations, sometimes without access to heating or hot water. [citation needed]

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Watson, Alex (12 January 2018). "13 surprising things Glasgow is famous for". The Scotsman. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019., links to Why Glasgow is the only place in the UK protecting its tenements Archived 2019-03-28 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ^ Kenneth G. C. Reid; Reinhard Zimmermann (2000). A History of Private Law in Scotland. Oxford University Press. pp. 216–219. ISBN 978-0-19-826778-2. Archived from the original on 2020-08-19. Retrieved 2020-02-17.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Mauch, Jason (14 May 2018). Industrialism. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781604132229. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018 – via Google Books.
  4. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 665. ISBN 978-0415862875.
  5. ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University, 2007, ISBN 0199206872, p. 3804.
  6. ^ "Gladstone's Land". National Trust for Scotland. 27 November 2017. Archived from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2019. a towering testament to tenement life in Edinburgh's Old Town. It was once owned by merchant Thomas Gladstone, who extended and remodelled the building to create opulently decorated apartments. Gladstone attracted wealthy tenants including William Struther, Minister of St Giles' Cathedral, and Lord Crichton, as well as the high-end grocer John Riddoch, who traded from the ground floor.
  7. ^ "Morris Castle A Scheduled Monument in Landore (Glandŵr), Swansea (Abertawe)". Ancient Monuments.
  8. ^ "Morris Castle, Swansea, Glamorgan, Wales". 25 September 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  9. ^ Quoted in Plunz, p. 167.
  10. ^ For example, Heller, Vivian. The City Beneath Us: Building the New York Subways, New York Transit Museum, New York: Norton, 2004, ISBN 978-0-393-05797-3, p. 34 Archived 2014-12-08 at the Wayback Machine quotes an Italian mason contrasting the better accommodations for the poor built in New York in response to a 1901 law with tenements: "We didn't call them tenements ... we called them apartment houses, because that's what they really were. To us, a tenement was a dump."
  11. ^ Jump up to: a b c Bauman, p. 6 Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  12. ^ Hutchison, Janet. "Shaping Housing and Enhancing Consumption: Hoover's Interwar Housing Policy", From Tenements to the Taylor Homes pp. 81–101, p. 83 Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  13. ^ Bauman, pp. 5–6.
  14. ^ Fairbanks, Robert B. "From Better Dwellings to Better Neighborhoods: The Rise and Fall of the First National Housing Movement," From Tenements to the Taylor Homes pp. 21–42, p. 22 Archived 2014-06-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Plunz, p. 161.
  16. ^ Jump up to: a b c Plunz, p. 164.
  17. ^ Nadel, Stanley. Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City, 1845-80, Urbana: University of Illinois, 1990, ISBN 0-252-01677-7, p. 34 Archived 2013-05-28 at the Wayback Machine.
  18. ^ Plunz, p. 163.
  19. ^ Plunz, p. 160.
  20. ^ Plunz, pp. 167–68.
  21. ^ "Judge Declines to Extend Definition of "Tenement House" by Andrew Fraser, Esq. | MOULINOS & ASSOCIATES". Archived from the original on 2017-09-26. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
  22. ^ Plunz, p. 168.
  23. ^ *Howe, Kathy (January 2004). "National Register of Historic Places Registration: Maple Grove Cemetery". New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. Archived from the original on 2012-10-18. Retrieved 2011-01-12.
  24. ^ Plunz, pp. 168–69.
  25. ^ Riis, Jacob A., How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York. Repr. ed. Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap/Harvard University, 1970.
  26. ^ Riis, 2018 [1892]
  27. ^ Plunz, p. 172.
  28. ^ Plunz, p. 175.
  29. ^ Girouard, стр. 312–13.
  30. ^ Чемберс, Роберт (1824). Уведомления о самых замечательных пожарах в Эдинбурге, с 1385 по 1824 год, в том числе отчет о большом пожаре ноября 1824 года . Эдинбург: Смит. п. 11. OCLC   54265692 . Архивировано с оригинала 2016-01-01 . Получено 2017-09-15 .
  31. ^ «Копание« Пенни -жилолет », который навсегда изменил Эдинбург» . Scotsman.com . Архивировано из оригинала 2019-03-28 . Получено 2019-03-28 .
  32. ^ Hegemann, Werner. Стейнерн Берлин: История крупнейшего в мире прокат казарманного города , Берлин: Kiepenheuer, 1930.
  33. ^ Связано с шириной улицы, но, как правило, максимальный, 72 фута: Girouard, p. 329.
  34. ^ Вербки, с. 145.
  35. ^ Girouard, pp. 337–38 говорит, что блоки были предназначены для подразделения с боковыми улицами.
  36. ^ Элкинс, с. 20, 126, 164–67.
  37. ^ Хак, Сабина. Топографии класса: современная архитектура и массовое общество в Веймаре Берлине , Энн Арбор: Мичиганский университет, 2008, ISBN   0-472-07038-X , P. 30
  38. ^ Риз, Дагмар. Взвещая женщина в нацистской Германии , Энн -Арбор: Мичиганский университет, 2006 г. ISBN   0-472-09938-8 , с. 165 Архивированный 2018-05-14 на The Wayback Machine .
  39. ^ Переиздано как задний двор, Келлер и Мансард: понимание в квартире Берлина Эленд 1901–1920 , изд. ISBN   3-499-17668-8 .
  40. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Элкинс, с. 189.
  41. ^ Вербки, с. 146
  42. ^ Элкинс, с. 190.
  43. ^ «14 Генриетта -стрит | Грузинский таунхаус до жилища» . 14henriettastreet.ie . Архивировано из оригинала 2020-02-20 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  44. ^ «Жизнь в одной комнате, арендациях | век Ирландия» . www.rte.ie. ​ Архивировано из оригинала 2020-02-20 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  45. ^ Фалви, Дейрдре. «Дублинская многоквартирная жизнь:« Я родился прямо в 1939 году » . Ирландские времена . Архивировано из оригинала 2021-05-16 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  46. ^ «Выставка - бедность и здоровье» . www.census.nationalarchives.ie . Архивировано из оригинала 2017-03-11 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  47. ^ «Похоронен живым на Черч -стрит, когда падают дома» . независимый . 25 ноября 2013 года. Архивировано с оригинала 2020-02-20 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  48. ^ «Жизнь в многоквартирных домах была тяжелой и жестокой» . независимый . 25 ноября 2013 года. Архивировано с оригинала 2020-02-20 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  49. ^ Барри, Aoife (17 ноября 2013 г.). « Улица была моей игровой площадкой»: путешествие обратно в многоквартирные дни » . Thejournal.ie . Архивировано из оригинала 2020-02-20 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  50. ^ Томас, Канал (3 февраля 2019 г.). « Целая история, чтобы запечатлеть»: Музей на домиках Дублина хочет ваши воспоминания о жилой жизни » . Thejournal.ie . Архивировано из оригинала 2020-02-20 . Получено 2020-02-20 .
  51. ^ Girouard, p. 338.
  52. ^ Maria Bogdani-Czepita и Zbigniew Zuziak, Управляющие исторические города , Kraków: Международный культурный центр, 1993, ISBN   9788385739074 , p. 194 Архивированный 2018-05-14 в The Wayback Machine .
  53. ^ Томаш Торбус, Польша Архивирована 2018-05-14 в The Wayback Machine , Nelles Guides, Munich: Nelles, 2001, ISBN   9783886180882 .

Библиография

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  • Бауман, Джон Ф. «Введение: Вечная война с трущоб», от дома до домов Тейлора: в поисках городской жилищной политики в Америке двадцатого века , изд. Джон Ф. Бауман, Роджер Байлс и Кристин М. Шильвьян, Университетский парк: Университет штата Пенсильвания, 2000, 2000, ISBN   0-271-02012-1 , стр. 1-17.
  • Elkins, Th с Хофмейстером, Б. Берлин: пространственная структура разделенного города , Лондон/Нью -Йорк: Метуэн, 1988, ISBN   0-416-922220-1
  • Жируард, Марк. Города и люди: социальная и архитектурная история , Нью -Хейвен, Коннектикут/Лондон: Йельский университет, 1985, ISBN   978-0-300-03502-5
  • Плунц, Ричард А. «Об использовании и злоупотреблениях воздуха: совершенствование Нью -Йоркского дома, 1850–1901», Берлин/Нью -Йорк: нравится и в отличие от: эссе об архитектуре и искусстве с 1870 года по настоящее время , изд. Йозеф Пол Клейхес и Кристина Ратгебер, Нью -Йорк: Риццоли, 1993, ISBN   0-8478-1657-5 , стр. 159-79.
  • Риис, Джейкоб. Дети бедных: классика социального обеспечения детей , Питтсбург: TCB Classics, 2018 [1892], ISBN   0-999-66040-3
  • Вербки, Дитрих. «Берлинский Мицсказерн и его реформы», Берлин/Нью -Йорк , с. 144–57.

Дальнейшее чтение

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Историография

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Посмотрите на аренду в Wiktionary, свободный словарь.
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