ǃkung Languages
| ǃkung | |
|---|---|
| Хорошо | |
| Мрачный Xun | |
| Уроженец | Намибия , Ангола , Ботсвана , Южная Африка |
| Этническая принадлежность | ǃkung |
Носители родных | Все сорта: 77 000 (2015) [ 1 ] |
Хака
| |
| Диалекты |
|
| Латинский с символами клика | |
| Языковые коды | |
| ISO 639-3 | Variously:vaj – Northern ǃKungknw – Ekoka ǃKungktz - Южный ǃkung |
| Glottolog | juku1256 |
| ELP | !Xun |
| People | ǃKung |
|---|---|
| Language | ǃXun |
ǃkung / ˈ k ʊ ŋ / / / [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Kuung ( ǃxun ), также известный как ju ( / ˈ dʒ uː / Joo ), является диалектным континуумом (языковым комплексом), произносящимся в Намибии , Ботсване и Анголе от ǃkung People , составляющий два или три языка. Вместе с языком ǂамко , ǃkung образует языковую семью kxʼa . ǃkung составлял одну из ветвей предполагаемой семьи Хусанского языка, и в этом сценарии назывался северным Хойсаном , но единство Хойсана никогда не было продемонстрировано и в настоящее время считается ложным. Тем не менее, антропологический термин «Khoisan» был сохранен в качестве зонтичного термина для языков клика в целом. [ 4 ]
ǃKung is famous for its many clicks, such as the ǃ in its name, and has some of the most complex inventories of both consonants and vowels in the world. It also has tone and nasalization. For a description, see Juǀʼhoan. To pronounce ǃXuun (pronounced [ǃ͡χũː˦˥] in Western ǃKung/ǃXuun) one makes a click sound before the x sound (which is like a Scottish or German ch), followed by a long nasal u vowel with a high rising tone.[a]
Names
[edit]The term ǃKung, or variants thereof, is typically used when considering the dialects to constitute a single language; Ju tends to be used when considering them as a small language family. ǃKung is also sometimes used for the northern/northwestern dialects, as opposed to the well documented Juǀʼhoan dialects in the south(east); however speakers of nearly all dialects call themselves ǃKung.
The spellings ǃXun and ǃXuun seen in recent literature are related to the Juǀʼhoan form spelled ǃXʼu(u)n in the 1975 orthography, or ǃKu(u)n in current orthography. Additional spellings are ǃHu, ǃKhung, ǃKu, Kung, Qxü, ǃung, ǃXo, Xû, ǃXû, Xun, ǃXung, ǃXũũ, ǃXun, ʗhũ:,[5] and additional spellings of Ju are Dzu, Juu, Zhu.
Speakers
[edit]If the ǃKung dialects are counted together, they would make the third-most-populous click language after Khoekhoe and Sandawe. The most populous ǃKung variety, Juǀʼhoan, is perhaps tied for third place with Naro.
Estimates vary, but there are probably around 15,000 speakers. Counting is difficult because speakers are scattered on farms, interspersed with speakers of other languages, but Brenzinger (2011) counts 9,000 in Namibia, 2,000 in Botswana, 3,700 in South Africa and 1,000 in Angola (down from perhaps 8,000 in 1975).
Until the mid–late twentieth century, the northern dialects were widespread in southern and central Angola. However, most ǃKung fled the Angolan Civil War to Namibia (primarily to the Caprivi Strip), where they were recruited into the South African Defence Force special forces against the Angolan Army and SWAPO. At the end of the Border War, more than one thousand fighters and their families were relocated to Schmidtsdrift in South Africa amid uncertainty over their future in Namibia.[6] After more than a decade living in precarious conditions, the post-Apartheid government bought and donated land for a permanent settlement at Platfontein, near Schmidtsdrift.[7]
Only Juǀʼhoan is written, and it is not sufficiently intelligible with the Northwestern dialects for the same literature to be used for both.
Varieties
[edit]The better-known ǃKung dialects are Tsumkwe Juǀʼhoan, Ekoka ǃKung, ǃʼOǃKung, and ǂKxʼauǁʼein. Scholars distinguish between eleven and fifteen dialects, but the boundaries are unclear. There is a clear distinction between North/Northwest vs South/Southeast, but also a diverse Central group that is poorly attested.
Heine & Honken (2010)
[edit]Heine & Honken (2010) classify the 11 traditionally numbered dialects into three branches of what they consider a single language:
- ǃKung
- Northern–Western ǃXun
- Northern ǃXun
- (N1) Maligo (ǃxuun, kúándò ǃxuun "Kwando ǃXuun"; SE Angola)
- (N2) ǃʼOǃKung (ǃʼo ǃuŋ "Forest ǃXuun"; eastern C Angola)
- Western ǃXun
- (W1) — (ǃxūún, ǃʼālè ǃxòān "Valley ǃXuun"; Eenhana district, N Namibia)
- (W2) ǀʼAkhwe (ǃxūún, ǀʼākhòè ǃxòān "Kwanyama ǃXuun"; Eenhana, N Namibia)
- (W3) Tsintsabis (ǃxūún; Tsintsabis, Tsumeb district, N Namibia)
- (K) Kavango ǃXuun (ǃxūún, known as dom ǃxūún "River ǃXuun" in Ekoka; Western Rundu district, N Namibia, & Angola adjacent)
- Northern ǃXun
- Central ǃXun
- (C1) Gaub (Tsumeb district, N Namibia)
- (C2) Neitsas (Grootfontein district, N Namibia)
- tentatively also the Tsintsabis, Leeunes and Mangetti (different from Mangetti Dune) dialects
- Southeastern ǃXun
- (E1) Juǀʼhoan (ju-ǀʼhoan(-si); Tsumkwe district, N Namibia, & Bots adjacent)
- (E2) Dikundu (ǃxun, ju-ǀʼhoa(si); Dikundu, W Caprivi)
- (E3) ǂKxʼauǁʼein (ju-ǀʼhoan(-si), ǃxun, ǂxʼāōǁʼàèn "Northern people"; Gobabis district, E Namibia)
- Northern–Western ǃXun
Heine & König (2015, p. 324) state that speakers of all Northwestern dialects "understand one another to quite some extent" but that they do not understand any of the Southeastern dialects.
Sands (2010)
[edit]Sands (2010) classifies ǃKung dialects into four clusters, with the first two being quite close:
- ǃKung
- Northern ǃKung: Southern Angola, around the Cunene, Cubango, Cuito, and Cuando rivers, but with many refugees now in Namibia:
- ǃʼOǃKung
- Maligo
- North-Central ǃKung: Namibia, between the Ovambo River and the Angolan border, around the tributaries of the Okavango River east of Rundu to the Etosha Pan:
- Tsintsabis
- Okongo
- Ovambo
- Mpunguvlei
- ǀʼAkhwe (Ekoka)
- Central ǃKung: The area around Grootfontein, Namibia, west of the central Omatako River and south of the Ovambo River
- Southeastern ǃKung: Botswana east of the Okavango Delta, and northeast Namibia from near Windhoek to Rundu, Gobabis, and the Caprivi Strip:
- Tsumkwe
- Omatako
- Kameeldoring
- Epukiro.
- Northern ǃKung: Southern Angola, around the Cunene, Cubango, Cuito, and Cuando rivers, but with many refugees now in Namibia:
ǂKxʼauǁʼein was too poorly attested to classify at the time.
Snyman (1997)
[edit]A preliminary classification of the !Xũũ and Žuǀ'hõasi dialects by Snyman (1997):[8]
- ǃKung
- Southern (Žuǀʼhõansi)
- Epukiro Žuǀʼhõansi is bounded by the Omuramba Otjozondjou, stretching along the Omuramba Epukiro and north of the Sandfontein Omuramba up to Ghanzi in Botswana.
- Tsumkwe Žuǀʼhõansi is spoken east of 20° longitude from the Omuramba Otjozondjou up to the Kaudom Omuramba and extending to Samagaigai in the west and 22° longitude in Botswana.
- Rundu Žuǀʼhõansi presumably occurs south of the Okavango river from Rupara south-eastward to Ncaute and then north of the Omuramba Kaudom.
- Omatako Žuǀʼhõansi consists of a northern dialect probably stretching from Ncaute southwards up to ca. 100km South of Karakuwisa, and a southern dialect extending southwards to include the tributaries of the Omatako, viz. the Omambonde, Klein Omatako and Gunib. The dialects are probably spoken in an area about 40 km wide along the river. According to the map in Westhpal (1956), the upper reaches of the Gunib Omuramba as well as the Omuramba Otjozondjou, i.e. the area between Okozonduzu Omazera and Blignaut, was Haillom territory. This area roughly lies on the watershed between the Omatako and the Otjozondjou which served as a natural boundary between the Epukiro and Omatako Žuǀʼhõansi.
- Central (!Xũũ)
- Grootfontein !Xũũ is found in the district to the north-east, east and south-east of the town of Grootfontein.
- Tsintsabis !Xũũ is restricted to the North-eastern part of the Tsumeb district and adjacent areas in the western and eastern Mangetti.
- Okongo !Xũũ is found in the Okongo, Olokula, Ekoka and Otyolo area of Northeastern Owambo.
- Northern (!Xũũ)
- Mpungu !Xũũ occurs in the Tondoro and Mpungu area of the north-western Kavango and presumably in adjacent areas in Angola. This dialect clearly forms a transition from Okongo !Xũũ to the other dialects of the Northern dialect cluster. Cuando/Quito !Xũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
- Quilo/Cubango !Xũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
- Cubango/Cunene !Xũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
- Southern (Žuǀʼhõansi)
Proto-language
[edit]| Proto-ǃKung | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | ǃKung languages |
The ancestral language, Proto-Juu or Proto-ǃXuun, had five places of click articulation: Dental, alveolar, palatal, alveolar lateral, and retroflex (*‼). The retroflex clicks have dropped out of Southeastern dialects such as Juǀʼhoan, but remain in Central ǃKung. In ǀʼAkhwe (Ekoka), the palatal click has become a fricated alveolar.[9][10]
| Proto-Juu | *ǃ 'belly' | *‼ 'water' | *ǂ |
|---|---|---|---|
| SE (Tsumkwe) | ᶢǃű | ᶢǃű | ǂ |
| N (Okongo/ǀʼAkhwe) | ᶢǃű | ᶢǁű | ⨎ |
| NW (Mangetti Dune) | ᶢǃű | ᶢǁű | ǂ |
| C (Neitsas/Nurugas) | ᶢǃú | ᶢ‼ú | ǂ |
See also
[edit]- ǃKung word lists (Wiktionary)
Notes
[edit]- ^ For phonology and tones, see list of ǃXun dialect names in Heine & Honken (2010).
Footnotes
[edit]- ^ Northern ǃKung at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
Ekoka ǃKung at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
Southern ǃKung at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ "Kung". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
- ^ The ⟨ǃ⟩ indicates an alveolar click, which is not pronounced in English.
- ^ Haacke 2009
- ^ Doke 1926
- ^ Suzman 2001
- ^ Robins, Madzudzo & Brenzinger 2001
- ^ Snyman, Jan Winston. 1997. A preliminary classification of the !Xũũ and Žuǀ'hõasi dialects. In Haacke, Wilfrid and Elderkin, Edward Derek (eds.), Namibian languages: reports and papers, 21-106. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag; University of Namibia (UNAM).
- ^ Scott et al. 2010
- ^ Miller et al. 2011
References
[edit]- Brenzinger, Matthias (2011). Witzlack-Makarevich; Ernszt, M (eds.). "The twelve Modern Khoisan languages". Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Riezlern / Kleinwalsertal. Research in Khoisan Studies. 29. Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
- Doke, Clement Martyn (July 1926). "The Phonetics of the Zulu Language". Bantu Studies. 2. Johannesburg, South Africa: University of the Witwatersrand Press. ISSN 0256-1751.
- Haacke, Whg (2009). "Хозаанские языки". В Брауне, Кит; Огилви, Сара (ред.). Краткая энциклопедия языков мира . Оксфорд, Великобритания: Elsevier. С. 600–602. ISBN 9780080877747 Полем LCCN 2008934269 .
- Хейн, Бернд; Хонкен, Генри (2010). «Семья KXʼA: новая генеалогия Khoisan» (PDF) . Журнал азиатских и африканских исследований (79). Токио, Япония: 5–36. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 2 ноября 2018 года.
- Хейн, Бернд; Кениг, Криста (2015). Язык ǃxun: диалектная грамматика северного хойсана . Источники Khoisan Research, 33. Rüdiger Köppe. ISBN 9783896458773 .
- Миллер, Ал; Холлидей, Дж.; Howcroft, DM; Phillips, S.; Смит, Б.; TSZ-Hum, T.; Скотт, А. (2011). «Фонетика современных рефлексов прото-палатального щелчка на языках juu». Материалы 4 -го международного симпозиума по языкам и лингвистике .
- Робинс, Стивен; Мадзудзо, Элиас; Брензингер, Матиас (апрель 2001 г.). Региональная оценка статуса Сан в южной части Африки - оценка статуса Сан в Южной Африке, Анголе, Замбии и Зимбабве (PDF) . Тол. 2. Винхук, Намибия: Центр юридической помощи (LAC). ISBN 99916-765-4-6 Полем Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 2 июля 2017 года . Получено 31 августа 2017 года .
- Sands, Bonny (2010). Брензингер, Матиас; Кениг, Криста (ред.). «Подгруппы JUU на основе фонологических паттернов». Хуайсский язык и лингвистика: Симпозиум Riezlern 2003 . Кельн, Германия: Рудигер Кёппе: 85–114.
- Скотт, Эбигейл; Миллер, Аманда; Намасеб, Леви; Пески, Бонни; Шах, Шина (2 июня 2010 г.). «Ретрофлексовые щелчки в двух диалектах ǃxung». Университет Ботсваны, кафедра африканских языков .
- Сузман, Джеймс (апрель 2001 г.). Региональная оценка статуса SAN в южной части Африки - оценка статуса SAN в Намибии (PDF) . Тол. 4. Windhoek, Намибия: Центр юридической помощи (LAC). ISBN 99916-765-1-1 Полем Архивировал (PDF) из оригинала 27 апреля 2018 года . Получено 31 августа 2017 года .