Автомобиль
Автомобиль , представляет собой , также известный как автомобильный автомобиль , автомобильный автомобиль , автомобиль или дорожный автомобиль самоходное наземное транспортное средство , обычно проводящее , которое не работает на рельсах (таких как поезда или трамваи ) и используется для транспортировки людей или груза .
Движение транспортного средства обеспечивается двигателем или двигателем, обычно двигателем внутреннего сгорания или электродвигателем или некоторой комбинацией из двух, таких как гибридные электромобили и гибриды подключаемых модулей . Для юридических целей автомобили часто определяются в ряде классов транспортных средств, включая автомобили , автобусы , мотоциклы , транспортные средства внедорожника , легкие грузовики и обычные грузовики . Эти классификации варьируются в зависимости от правовых кодексов каждой страны. ISO 3833: 1977 является стандартом для типов дорожных транспортных средств, терминов и определений. [ 2 ] Как правило, чтобы не потребовать, чтобы люди с ограниченными возможностями имели лицензию оператора на использование его или требуют метков и страховки, инвалидные коляски с питанием будут специально исключены по закону, которые будут считаться автотранспортными средствами.
As of 2011[update]В мире было использовалось более одного миллиарда автомобилей, за исключением транспортных средств внедорожников и тяжелого строительного оборудования . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] По оценкам американского издателя Уорда , в 2019 году в мире использовалось 1,4 миллиарда автомобилей. [6]
Global vehicle ownership per capita in 2010 was 148 vehicles in operation (VIO) per 1000 people.[5] China has the largest motor vehicle fleet in the world, with 322 million motor vehicles registered at the end of September 2018.[7] The United States has the highest vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 832 vehicles in operation per 1000 people in 2016.[1] Also, China became the world's largest new car market in 2009.[4][5][8] In 2022, a total of 85 million cars and commercial vehicles were built, led by China which built a total of 27 million motor vehicles.[9]
Definitions and terminology
[edit]In 1968 the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic gave one of the first international definitions of a motor vehicle:
- (o) “Power-driven vehicle” means any self-propelled road vehicle, other than a moped in the territories of Contracting Parties which do not treat mopeds as motorcycles, and other than a rail-borne vehicle;
- (p) “Motor vehicle” means any power-driven vehicle which is normally used for carrying persons or goods by road or for drawing, on the road, vehicles used for the carriage of persons or goods. This term embraces trolley-buses, that is to say, vehicles connected to an electric conductor and not rail-borne. It does not cover vehicles, such as agricultural tractors, which are only incidentally used for carrying persons or goods by road or for drawing, on the road, vehicles used for the carriage of persons or goods
— Vienna convention on road traffic
Other sources might provide other definitions, for instance in the year 1977, ISO 3833:1977 provide other definitions.
Ownership trends
[edit]
The U.S. publisher Ward's estimates that as of 2010, there were 1.015 billion motor vehicles in use in the world. This figure represents the number of cars, trucks (light, medium and heavy duty), and buses, but does not include off-road vehicles or heavy construction equipment. The world vehicle population passed the 500 million-unit mark in 1986, from 250 million motor vehicles in 1970. Between 1950 and 1970, the vehicle population doubled roughly every 10 years.[3][4][5] Navigant Consulting forecasts that the global stock of light-duty motor vehicles will reach 2 billion units in 2035.[12]
Global vehicle ownership in 2010 was 148 vehicles in operation per 1,000 people, a ratio of 1:6.75 vehicles to people, slightly down from 150 vehicles per 1,000 people in 2009, a rate of 1:6.63 vehicles to people.[5] The global rate of motorization increased in 2013 to 174 vehicles per 1000 people.[13] In developing countries vehicle ownership rates rarely exceed 200 cars per 1,000 population.[14]
The following table summarizes the evolution of motor vehicle registrations in the world from 1960 to 2019:
| Historical trend of worldwide vehicle registrations 1960-2017 (thousands)[1][15][16][17][18][19][20] | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type of vehicle | 1960 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 |
| Car registrations(1) | 98,305 | 193,479 | 320,390 | 444,900 | 548,558 | 617,914 | 723,567 | 931,260 | 973,353 | 1,015,643 | 1,042,274 | 1,083,528 |
| Truck and bus registrations | 28,583 | 52,899 | 90,592 | 138,082 | 203,272 | 245,798 | 309,395 | 332,434 | 348,919 | 356,044 | 389,174 | 406,770 |
| World total | 126,888 | 246,378 | 410,982 | 582,982 | 751,830 | 863,712 | 1,032,962 | 1,263,694 | 1,322,272 | 1,371,687 | 1,431,448 | 1,490,298 |
| Note (1) Car registrations do not include U.S. light trucks (SUVs, minivan and pickups) that are used for personal travel. The US accounts these vehicles among trucks. | ||||||||||||
- Alternative fuels and vehicle technology adoption
Since the early 2000s, the number of alternative fuel vehicles has been increasing driven by the interest of several governments to promote their widespread adoption through public subsidies and other non-financial incentives. Governments have adopted these policies due to a combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil prices, and less dependence on imported oil.[3][21][22]
Among the fuels other than traditional petroleum fuels (gasoline or diesel fuel), and alternative technologies for powering the engine of a motor vehicle, the most popular options promoted by different governments are: natural gas vehicles, LPG powered vehicles, flex-fuel vehicles, use of biofuels, hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids, electric cars, and hydrogen fuel cell cars.[3]
Since the late 2000s, China, European countries, the United States, Canada, Japan and other developed countries have been providing strong financial incentives to promote the adoption of plug-in electric vehicle. As of 2020[update], the stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles in use totaled over 10 million units.[23][24] As of 2019[update], in addition, the medium and heavy commercial segments add another 700,000 units to the global stock of plug-in electric vehicles.[24] In 2020 the global market share of plug-in passenger car sales was 4.2%, up from 2.5% in 2019.[23] Nevertheless, despite government support and the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles (0.4%) on the world's roads by the end of 2018.[25]
China
[edit]
The People's Republic of China had 322 million motor vehicles in use at the end of September 2018, of which, 235 million were passenger cars in 2018, making China the country with largest motor vehicle fleet in the world.[7] In 2016, the motor vehicle fleet consisted of 165.6 million cars and 28.4 million trucks and buses.[1] About 13.6 million vehicles were sold in 2009, and motor vehicle registrations in 2010 increased to more than 16.8 million units, representing nearly half the world's fleet increase in 2010.[4][5] Ownership per capita rose from 26.6 vehicles per 1000 people in 2006 to 141.2 in 2016.[1]
The stock of highway-legal plug-in electric or new energy vehicles in China totaled 2.21 million units by the end of September 2018, of which, 81% are all-electric vehicles. These figures include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks, which represent about 11% of the total stock.[26] China is also the world's largest electric bus market, reaching about 385,000 units by the end of 2017.[27][28]
The number of cars and motorcycles in China increased 20 times between 2000 and 2010.[29] This explosive growth has allowed China to become the world's largest new car market, overtaking the US in 2009.[4][8] Nevertheless, ownership per capita is 58 vehicles per 1000 people, or a ratio of 1:17.2 vehicles to people, still well below the rate of motorization of developed countries.[5]
United States
[edit]| Historical evolution of vehicle ownership rates in the U.S. (Selected years 1900–2016)[1] | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Veh. per 1000 people |
Year | Veh. per 1000 people |
Year | Veh. per 1000 people |
| 1900 | 0.11 | 1940 | 245.63 | 1990 | 773.4 |
| 1905 | 0.94 | 1945 | 221.80 | 2000 | 800.3 |
| 1910 | 5.07 | 1950 | 323.71 | 2005 | 837.3 |
| 1920 | 86.78 | 1960 | 410.37 | 2010 | 808.4 |
| 1930 | 217.34 | 1970 | 545.35 | 2015 | 821.5 |
| 1935 | 208.6 | 1980 | 710.71 | 2016 | 831.9 |
The United States has the second-largest fleet of motor vehicles in the world after China. As of 2016[update], had a motor vehicles stock of 259.14 million, of which, 246 million were light duty vehicles, consisting of 112.96 million passenger cars and 133 million light trucks (includes SUVs). A total of 11.5 million heavy trucks were registered at the end 2016[1] Vehicle ownership per capita in the U.S. is also the highest in the world, the U.S. Department of Energy (USDoE) reports a motorization rate of 831.9 vehicles in operation per 1000 people in 2016, or a ratio of 1:1.2 vehicles to people.[1]
According to USDoE, the rate of motorization peaked in 2007 at 844.5 vehicles per 1,000 people.[1] In terms of licensed drivers, as of 2009 the country had 1.0 vehicle for every licensed driver, and 1.87 vehicles per household.[30] Passenger car registrations in the United States declined -11.5% in 2017 and -12.8% in 2018.[31]
As of 2016[update], the stock of alternative fuel vehicles in the United States included over 20 million flex-fuel cars and light trucks, the world's second-largest flexible-fuel fleet in the world after Brazil.[32] However, actual use of ethanol fuel is significantly limited due to the lack of E85 refueling infrastructure.[33]
Regarding the electrified segment, the fleet of hybrid electric vehicles in the United States is the second largest in the world after Japan, with more than four million units sold through April 2016.[34] Since the introduction of the Tesla Roadster electric car in 2008, cumulative sales of highway legal plug-in electric vehicles in the United States passed one million units in September 2018.[35][36] The U.S. stock of plug-in vehicles is the second largest after China (2.21 million by September 2018).[26]
As of 2017[update], the country's fleet also includes more than 160,000 natural gas vehicles, mainly transit buses and delivery fleets.[37] Despite its relative small size, natural gas use accounted for about 52% of all alternative fuels consumed by alternative transportation fuel vehicles in the U.S. in 2009.[38]
Europe
[edit]
The 27 European Union (EU-27) member countries had a fleet of over 256 million in 2008, and passenger cars accounted for 87% of the union's fleet. The five largest markets, Germany (17.7%), Italy (15.4%), France (13.3%), the UK (12.5%), and Spain (9.5%), accounted for 68% of the region's total registered fleet in 2008.[39][40] The EU-27 member countries had in 2009 an estimated ownership rate of 473 passenger cars per 1000 people.[41]
According to Ward's, Italy had the second highest (after the U.S.) vehicle ownership per capita in 2010, with 690 vehicles per 1000 people.[5] Germany had a rate of motorization of 534 vehicles per 1000 people and the UK of 525 vehicles per 1000 people, both in 2008. France had a rate of 575 vehicles per 1000 people and Spain 608 vehicles per 1000 people in 2007.[42] Portugal, between 1991 and 2002 grew up 220% on its motorization rate, having had in 2002, 560 cars per 1000 people.[43]
Italy also leads in alternative fuel vehicles, with a fleet of 779,090 natural gas vehicles as of June 2012[update], the largest NGV fleet in Europe.[44] Sweden, with 225,000 flexible-fuel vehicles, has the largest flexifuel fleet in Europe by mid-2011.[45]
More than one million plug-in electric passenger cars and vans have been registered in Europe by June 2018,[46] the world's second largest regional plug-in stock after China.[47][48][49]
Norway is the leading plug-in market in Europe with almost 500,000 units registered as of December 2020[update].[50] In October 2018, Norway became the world's first country where 10% of all passenger cars on the road are plug-in electrics.[51][52] Also, the Norwegian plug-in car segment market share has been the highest in the world for several years, achieving 39.2% in 2017, 49.1% in 2018, and 74.7% in 2020.[53][54][55]
Japan
[edit]Japan had 73.9 million vehicles by 2010, and had the world's second largest motor vehicle fleet until 2009.[5] As of 2016[update], the registered motor vehicle fleet totaled 75.81 million vehicles consisting of 61,40 million cars and 14,41 million trucks and buses.[1] Japan has the largest hybrid electric vehicle fleet in the world.[34] As of March 2018[update], there were 7.51 million hybrids registered in the country, excluding kei cars, and representing 19.0% of all passenger cars on the road.[56]
Brazil
[edit]
The Brazilian vehicle fleet reached 64.8 million vehicles in 2010, up from 29.5 million units in 2000, representing a 119% growth in ten years, and reaching a motorization rate of 340 vehicles per 1000 people.[58] In 2010 Brazil experienced the second largest fleet increase in the world after China, with 2.5 million vehicle registrations.[5]
As of 2018[update], Brazil has the largest alternative fuel vehicle fleet in the world with about 40 million alternative fuel motor vehicles in the road. The clean vehicle stock includes 30.5 million flexible-fuel cars and light utility vehicles and over 6 million flex-fuel motorcycles by March 2018;[59] between 2.4 and 3.0 million neat ethanol vehicles still in use,[60][61] out of 5.7 million ethanol only light-vehicles produced since 1979;[62] and, as of December 2012[update], a total of 1.69 million natural gas vehicles.[44]
In addition, all the Brazilian gasoline-powered fleet is designed to operate with high ethanol blends, up to 25% ethanol fuel (E25).[63][64][65] The market share of flex fuel vehicles reached 88.6% of all light-duty vehicles registered in 2017.[59]
India
[edit]India's vehicle fleet had the second-largest growth rate after China in 2010, with 8.9%. The fleet went from 19.1 million in 2009 to 20.8 million units in 2010.[5] India's vehicle fleet has increased to 210 million in March 2015.[66] India has a fleet of 1.1 million natural gas vehicles as of December 2011[update] .[44]
Australia
[edit]As of January 2011, the Australian motor vehicle fleet had 16.4 million registered vehicles, with an ownership rate of 730 motor vehicles per 1000 people, up from 696 vehicles per 1000 residents in 2006. The motor vehicle fleet grew 14.5% since 2006, for an annual rate of 2.7% during this five-year period.[67]
Motorization rates by region and selected country
[edit]The following table compares vehicle ownership rates by region with the United States, the country with one of the highest motorization rates in the world, and how it has evolved from 1999 to 2016.
| Comparison of motorization rates by region and selected country (1999 and 2016) (vehicles per 1,000 people) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Country or region | 1999[68] | 2006[1] | 2016[1] |
| Africa | 20.9 | 25.2 | 38.9 |
| Asia – Far East | 39.1 | 49.7 | 105.6 |
| Asia – Middle East | 66.2 | 99.8 | 147.4 |
| Brazil | 107.5 | 129.0 | 209.3 |
| Canada | 560.0 | 599.6 | 686.3 |
| Central and South America | 133.6 | 102.4 | 174.7 |
| China | 10.2 | 26.6 | 141.2 |
| Europe – Eastern Europe | 370.0 | 254.4 | 362.1 |
| Europe – Western Europe | 528.8 | 593.7 | 606.0 |
| India | 8.3 | 11.6 | 36.3 |
| Indonesia | 13.7 | 31.7 | 87.2 |
| Pacific | 513.9 | 524.7 | 634.9 |
| United States | 790.1 | 840.7 | 831.9 |
Production by country
[edit]In 2017, a total of 97.3 million cars and commercial vehicles were built worldwide, led by China, with about 29 million motor vehicles manufactured, followed by the United States with 11.2 million, and Japan with 9.7 million.[69] The following table shows the top 15 manufacturing countries for 2017 and their corresponding annual production between 2004 and 2017.
| World rank 2017 |
Country | 2017 | 2016 | 2015 | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 29,015,434 | 28,118,794 | 24,503,326 | 23,722,890 | 22,116,825 | 19,271,808 | 18,418,876 | 18,264,761 | 13,790,994 | 9,299,180 | 8,882,456 | 7,188,708 | 5,717,619 | 5,234,496 |
| 2 | United States | 11,189,985 | 12,198,137 | 12,100,095 | 11,660,699 | 11,066,432 | 10,335,765 | 8,661,535 | 7,743,093 | 5,709,431 | 8,672,141 | 10,780,729 | 11,263,986 | 11,946,653 | 11,989,387 |
| 3 | Japan | 9,693,746 | 9,204,590 | 9,278,238 | 9,774,558 | 9,630,181 | 9,943,077 | 8,398,630 | 9,628,920 | 7,934,057 | 11,575,644 | 11,596,327 | 11,484,233 | 10,799,659 | 10,511,518 |
| 4 | Germany | 5,645,581 | 6,062,562 | 6,033,164 | 5,907,548 | 5,718,222 | 5,649,260 | 6,146,948 | 5,905,985 | 5,209,857 | 6,045,730 | 6,213,460 | 5,819,614 | 5,757,710 | 5,569,954 |
| 5 | India | 4,782,896 | 4,488,965 | 4,125,744 | 3,840,160 | 3,898,425 | 4,174,713 | 3,927,411 | 3,557,073 | 2,641,550 | 2,332,328 | 2,253,729 | 2,019,808 | 1,638,674 | 1,511,157 |
| 6 | South Korea | 4,114,913 | 4,228,509 | 4,555,957 | 4,524,932 | 4,521,429 | 4,561,766 | 4,657,094 | 4,271,741 | 3,512,926 | 3,826,682 | 4,086,308 | 3,840,102 | 3,699,350 | 3,469,464 |
| 7 | Mexico | 4,068,415 | 3,597,462 | 3,565,469 | 3,365,306 | 3,054,849 | 3,001,814 | 2,681,050 | 2,342,282 | 1,561,052 | 2,167,944 | 2,095,245 | 2,045,518 | 1,684,238 | 1,577,159 |
| 8 | Spain | 2,848,335 | 2,885,922 | 2,733,201 | 2,402,978 | 2,163,338 | 1,979,179 | 2,373,329 | 2,387,900 | 2,170,078 | 2,541,644 | 2,889,703 | 2,777,435 | 2,752,500 | 3,012,174 |
| 9 | Brazil | 2,699,672 | 2,156,356 | 2,429,463 | 3,146,118 | 3,712,380 | 3,402,508 | 3,407,861 | 3,381,728 | 3,182,923 | 3,215,976 | 2,977,150 | 2,611,034 | 2,530,840 | 2,317,227 |
| 10 | France | 2,227,000 | 2,082,000 | 1,970,000 | 1,817,000 | 1,740,000 | 1,967,765 | 2,242,928 | 2,229,421 | 2,047,693 | 2,568,978 | 3,015,854 | 3,169,219 | 3,549,008 | 3,665,990 |
| 11 | Canada | 2,199,789 | 2,370,271 | 2,283,474 | 2,393,890 | 2,379,834 | 2,463,364 | 2,135,121 | 2,068,189 | 1,490,482 | 2,082,241 | 2,578,790 | 2,572,292 | 2,687,892 | 2,711,536 |
| 12 | Thailand | 1,988,823 | 1,944,417 | 1,915,420 | 1,880,007 | 2,457,057 | 2,429,142 | 1,457,798 | 1,644,513 | 999,378 | 1,393,742 | 1,287,346 | 1,194,426 | 1,122,712 | 927,981 |
| 13 | United Kingdom | 1,749,385 | 1,816,622 | 1,682,156 | 1,598,879 | 1,597,872 | 1,576,945 | 1,463,999 | 1,393,463 | 1,090,139 | 1,649,515 | 1,750,253 | 1,648,388 | 1,803,109 | 1,856,539 |
| 14 | Turkey | 1,695,731 | 1,485,927 | 1,358,796 | 1,170,445 | 1,125,534 | 1,072,978 | 1,189,131 | 1,094,557 | 869,605 | 1,147,110 | 1,099,413 | 987,780 | 879,452 | 823,408 |
| 15 | Russia | 1,551,293 | 1,303,989 | 1,384,399 | 1,886,646 | 2,184,266 | 2,233,103 | 1,990,155 | 1,403,244 | 725,012 | 1,790,301 | 1,660,120 | 1,508,358 | 1,354,504 | 1,386,127 |
| World total | 97,302,534 | 94,976,569 | 90,780,583 | 89,747,430 | 87,507,027 | 84,236,171 | 79,880,920 | 77,583,519 | 61,762,324 | 70,729,696 | 73,266,061 | 69,222,975 | 66,719,519 | 64,496,220 |
See also
[edit]- Active mobility
- Effects of the car on societies
- Environmentally friendly vehicle
- History of the automobile
- List of countries by vehicles per capita
- List of countries by motor vehicle production
- List of countries by traffic-related death rate
- List of motor vehicle awards
- Motor vehicle emissions
- Peak car use
- Road traffic safety
- Sustainable transport
- Traffic congestion
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China's fleet of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids topped 2.21 million by the end of September as sales of electrified vehicles continued to surge in the country. Of the total, EVs accounted for 1.78 million, or nearly 81 percent. The rest were plug-in hybrids, China's Ministry of Public Security said this week. Electrified cargo vehicles — which include trucks, pickups and delivery vans — approached 254,000, representing 11 percent of the electrified vehicle fleet as of last month.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Click on "Download File" to get the full report, 15 pp. - ^ International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (May 2016). "Global EV Outlook 2016: Beyond one million electric cars" (PDF). IEA Publications. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-24. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) See pp. 4–5, and 24–25 and Statistical annex, pp. 34–37. - ^ Джонатан Уоттс (2011-08-24). «Любовь Китая с автомобилем избегает зеленых транспортных средств» . Хранитель . Получено 2011-08-24 .
- ^ Дэвис; и др. (2011). доклада цит - С. 8–6. Смотрите таблицу 8.5
- ^ «Регистрация пассажирских автомобилей OECD» . Ключевые краткосрочные показатели, основные экономические показатели . ОЭСР . Получено 2019-04-01 . [ Постоянная мертвая ссылка ]
- ^ «Альтернативное топливо центра обработки данных: гибкие топливные транспортные средства» . Альтернативные топлива и передовые транспортные средства . Министерство энергетики США . Получено 2018-12-15 .
- ^ Национальная лаборатория возобновляемой энергии USDOE (2007-09-17). «Альтернативные и передовые транспортные средства: гибкие топливные транспортные средства» . Альтернативные топлива и передовые транспортные средства . Получено 2008-08-19 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Кобб, Джефф (2016-06-06). «Американцы покупают свой четырехмиллионный гибридный автомобиль» . Hybridcars.com . Получено 2016-06-06 .
- ^ Кейн, Марк (2018-10-06). «Продажи подключаемых электромобилей в США превышают 1 миллион» . InsideEvs.com . Получено 2018-10-21 .
- ^ Национальная лаборатория аргонов (2018-11-26). «FOTW #1057, 26 ноября 2018 года: в Соединенных Штатах продано один миллион плагинных автомобилей» . Транспортные технологии офис, USDOE . Получено 2018-12-01 .
- ^ «Альтернативное топливо центра обработки данных: автомобили с природным газом» . Альтернативные топлива и передовые транспортные средства . Министерство энергетики США . Получено 2018-12-15 .
- ^ «EIA: потребление альтернативного транспортного топлива удерживалось в 2009 году» . Зеленый автомобильный конгресс. 2011-08-11 . Получено 2011-08-24 .
- ^ «Транспортные средства в использовании» . Европейская ассоциация автомобильных производителей . Получено 2011-08-23 .
- ^ «Автомобильный флот по стране 2008» (PDF) . Европейская ассоциация автомобильных производителей . 2011-08-15. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 2011-09-27 . Получено 2011-08-23 .
- ^ «Скорость моторизации» . Евростат . Получено 2011-08-22 . Eurostat определяет этот показатель « как количество пассажирских автомобилей на 1 000 жителей. Пассажирский автомобиль - это дорожный автомобиль, кроме мотоцикла, предназначенный для перевозки пассажиров и предназначенного для размещения не более девяти человек (включая водителя) Таким образом, термин «Пассажирский автомобиль» охватывает микрокари (не требует разрешения), такси и наемные легковые автомобили, при условии, что они имеют менее 10 мест; Включите пикапы .
- ^ «Индикаторы энергии, транспорта и окружающей среды - карманные книги Eurostat» (PDF) . Евростат . 2010. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 2011-09-16 . Получено 2011-08-23 . См. Таблицу 2.1.1 (стр. 92) и таблица 2.1.4 (стр.98). Были получены скорости, добавляя скорости моторизации световых транспортных средств с высокими показателями транспортных средств.
- ^ «Скорость моторизации» . Евростат . Получено 2013-08-07 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в «Статистика транспортного средства природного газа: сводные данные 2010» . Международная ассоциация автомобилей природного газа. Архивировано из оригинала 1 июля 2012 года . Получено 2011-08-02 .
- ^ Бафф. «Купил этанол автомобили» . BioAlcohol Fuel Foundation. Архивировано из оригинала 2011-07-21 . Получено 2011-08-02 . См. График "Купил машины с гибкой?"
- ^ «Электромобили превышают 1 м в Европе, поскольку продажи взлетают более чем на 40%» . Хранитель . 2018-08-26 . Получено 2018-10-23 .
- ^ Кобб, Джефф (2017-01-16). «Мир только что купил свой двухмиллионный плагинный автомобиль» . Hybridcars.com . Получено 2017-01-17 .
- ^ Кобб, Джефф (2017-01-17). «Топ-10 плагин-транспортные средства, принятые страны 2016 года» . Hybridcars.com . Архивировано из оригинала 2021-04-29 . Получено 2017-01-18 .
- ^ Хосе, Понтес (2018-01-28). «Европа декабрь 2017 года» . Evsales.com . Получено 2018-02-25 . «Европейские продажи составили 306 143 плагинальных автомобилей в 2017 году».
- ^ Norsk Elbilforing (Норвежская ассоциация электромобилей) (январь 2019 г.). «Норвежский рынок электромобилей» . Норск Эльбилформинг . Получено 2019-01-10 . Поместите указательное устройство на график, чтобы показать кумулятивное количество электромобилей и гибридов подключаемых модулей в Норвегии в конце каждого года. По состоянию на 31 декабря 2018 года [update], зарегистрированные подключаемые электрические запас с легким подключением в общей сложности 296 214 единиц, состоящие из 200 192 электромобилей аккумулятора и 96 022 гибридов.
- ^ Кейн, Марк (2018-10-07). «10% пассажирских транспортных средств Норвегии - подключаемые» . InsideEvs.com . Получено 2018-11-07 .
- ^ Майли, Джессика (2018-10-02). «45% новых автомобилей, проданных в Норвегии в сентябре, были все электрическими транспортными средствами» . Интересная инженерия . Получено 2018-11-10 .
Несмотря на огромное увеличение новых электромобилей на дороге, EVS по -прежнему составляет только примерно 10% всех автомобилей Норвегии.
- ^ Информационный совет для Вейтрафиккена как (OFV). «Продажи автомобилей в 2017 году» [Продажи автомобилей в 2017 году] (на норвежском языке). Оф. Архивировано с оригинала 2018-01-10 . Получено 2018-01-11 .
- ^ Норвежская дорожная федерация (OFV) (2019-01-02). «Bilsalget I 2018» [Продажи автомобилей в 2018 году] (на норвежском языке). Оф. Архивировано из оригинала 2019-02-07 . Получено 2019-01-03 .
- ^ «Продажи автомобилей в декабре и все 2020 год» . Информационный совет для дорожного движения .
- ^ «Гибриды составляют почти 20 процентов автомобилей в Японии, говорит автомобильная ассоциация» . Япония таймс . 2018-10-27 . Получено 2018-12-15 .
- ^ «Бразильская автомобильная индустрия ежегодник 2018, Anfavea» . Архивировано с оригинала 2018-12-16 . Получено 2018-12-16 .
- ^ Ardilles Moreira (2011-02-13). «Флот транспортных средств вырастет на 119% за десять лет в Бразилии, отмечает Денатран» (на португальском языке). Globo.com . Получено 2011-08-23 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Curcio, Mário (2018-03-23). «Flex Car достигает 15 лет с 30,5 миллионами единиц» [Flex Car прибывает в 15 с 30,5 миллионами единиц]. Автомобильный бизнес (на португальском языке). Архивировано из оригинала 2020-09-25 . Получено 2018-12-15 .
- ^ Альфред Шварк. «Аннотация: Использование био-жилищ в Бразилии» (PDF) . Рамочная конвенция Организации Объединенных Наций по изменению климата . Получено 2009-10-24 .
- ^ Луис А. Хорта Ногейра (2004-03-22). «Перспективы биотопливной программы в Центральной Америке: устойчивые углеводороды используют проект» (PDF) (на испанском языке). Экономическая комиссия для Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна (ECLAC). Арчндд из оригинала (PDF) 2008-05-28 . Получено 2008-05-09 .
- ^ Анфавея. «Бразильская промышленность Annary 2012: Таблица 2.3 Производство топлива - 1957/2012» (на португальском языке). ANFAVEA - Национальная ассоциация производителей автомобилей (Бразилия). Архивировано из оригинала 2013-12-06 . Получено 2013-11-17 . стр. 60-61 .
- ^ Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Адриан Геттетемеллер (2007). Устойчивый этанол: биотопливо, биорезоры, целлюлозная биомасса, транспортные средства с гибким топливом и устойчивое сельское хозяйство для энергетической независимости . Prairie Oak Publishing, Мэривилл, Миссури. С. 56–61. ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4 .
- ^ «Постановление № 143, от 27 июня 2007 года» (на португальском). Министерство сельского хозяйства, скота и снабжения . Получено 2008-10-05 . Этот указ установил обязательную смесь на 25%, начиная с 1 июля 2007 г.
- ^ «Закон № 8723 от 28 октября 1993 года. Предполагается сокращение выбросов загрязняющих веществ автомобилями и другими мерами» (по португальским языкам). Гражданский дом президентства Республики. Архивировано из оригинала 2008-10-06 . Получено 2008-10-05 . См. Статью 9 и модификации, утвержденные законом № 10.696, 2003-07-02 Увеличение верхнего предела до 25%
- ^ «Зарегистрированные автомобили в Индии по состоянию на 31.03. 2015» . Платформа открытого правительства (OGD) Индия . Правительство Индии . Получено 1 февраля 2018 года .
- ^ «Перепись автомобилей, Австралия, 31 января 2011 года» . Австралийское бюро статистики. 2011-07-28 . Получено 2011-08-23 .
- ^ Дэвис; и др. (2011). доклада цит - С. 3-8 и 3-9. См. Таблицы 3.4 и 3.5
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Международная организация производителей автомобилей (OICA). «Статистика производства 2017 года» . Ойма Получено 2018-12-15 .
Внешние ссылки
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