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Хунс

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Хунс
370 -е -469
Территория под Ханническим контролем, c. 450 г. н.э.
Территория под Ханническим контролем, c. 450 г. н.э.
Капитал Аттила Суд
Общие языки
GovernmentTribal Confederation
King or chief 
• 370s?
Balamber?
• c. 395 – ?
Kursich and Basich
• c. 400–409
Uldin
• c. 412 – ?
Charaton
• c. 420s–430
Octar and Rugila
• 430–435
Rugila
• 435–445
Attila and Bleda
• 445–453
Attila
• 453–469
Dengizich and Ernak
• 469–?
Ernak
History 
• Huns appear north-west of the Caspian Sea
pre 370s
• Conquest of the Alans and Goths
370s
• Attila and Bleda become co-rulers of the united tribes
437
• Death of Bleda, Attila becomes sole ruler
445
451
• Invasion of northern Italy
452
454
• Dengizich, son of Attila, dies
469
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Alans
Greuthungi
Thervingi
Pannonia
Gepids
Rugiland
Ostrogothic Kingdom
Kingdom of the Suebi (Danube)

Хунс , был кочевым народом которые жили в Центральной Азии , Кавказе и Восточной Европе между 4 -м и 6 -м веками нашей эры. Согласно европейской традиции, они впервые сообщили, что они жили к востоку от реки Волга , в районе, которая была частью скифии в то время. [ 1 ] 370 г. К [ 2 ] К 430 году они создали обширную, но недолговую, империю на данубийской границе Римской империи в Европе. Либо под охотниной гегемонией , либо бегство от нее, несколько центральных и восточно -европейских народов основали королевства в регионе, в том числе не только готы и аланы, но и вандалы , gepids , heruli , суэбианцы и Ругианцы .

Хуны, особенно под их королем Аттилой , совершали частые и разрушительные рейды в восточную Римскую империю . В 451 году они вторглись в западную римскую провинцию Галлию , где они боролись с объединенной армией римлян и визиготов в битве на каталонских полей , а в 452 году они вторглись в Италию. После смерти Аттилы в 453 году Хунс перестала быть серьезной угрозой для Рима и потерял большую часть своей империи после битвы при Недао (ок. 454). Потомки гуннов, или преемников с аналогичными именами, регистрируются соседними группами населения на юге, востоке и западе, как они занимали части Восточной Европы и Центральной Азии примерно с 4-6 веков. Варианты названия гунны записаны на Кавказе до начала 8 -го века.

In the 18th century, French scholar Joseph de Guignes became the first to propose a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people, who lived in northern China from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD.[3] Since Guignes's time, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. The issue remains controversial, but recent archaeogenetic studies show some Hun-era individuals to have DNA similar to populations in ancient Mongolia.[4] Their relationships with other entities, such as the Iranian Huns and the Huna people of South Asia, have also been disputed.

Very little is known about Hunnic culture, and very few archaeological remains have been conclusively associated with the Huns. They are believed to have used bronze cauldrons and to have performed artificial cranial deformation. No description exists of the Hunnic religion of the time of Attila, but practices such as divination are attested, and the existence of shamans is likely. It is also known that the Huns had a language of their own; however, only three words and personal names attest to it.

Economically, the Huns are known to have practiced a form of nomadic pastoralism. As their contact with the Roman world grew, their economy became increasingly tied with Rome through tribute, raiding, and trade. They do not seem to have had a unified government when they entered Europe but rather to have developed a unified tribal leadership in the course of their wars with the Romans. The Huns ruled over a variety of peoples who spoke numerous languages, and some maintained their own rulers. Their main military technique was mounted archery.

The Huns may have stimulated the Great Migration, a contributing factor in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.[5] The memory of the Huns also lived on in various Christian saints' lives, where the Huns play the roles of antagonists, as well as in Germanic heroic legend, where the Huns are variously antagonists or allies to the Germanic main figures. In Hungary, a legend developed based on medieval chronicles that the Hungarians, and the Székely ethnic group in particular, are descended from the Huns. However, mainstream scholarship dismisses a close connection between the Hungarians and Huns.[6] Modern culture generally associates the Huns with extreme cruelty and barbarism.[7]

Origin

The Eurasian Steppe Belt (), and main contemporary continental Asian polities circa 400 CE. Towards the east of the Steppe Belt, the rise of the powerful Rouran Khaganate may have encouraged the migration of the Huns to the west.[8] On the other hand, some historians have noted a high synchronicity between the "reign of terror" of Attila in the west and the southern expansion of the Hephthalites, a vassal state of the Rourans, with extensive territorial overlap between the Huns and the Hephthalites in Central Asia.[9]

The origins of the Huns and their links to other steppe people remain uncertain:[10] scholars generally agree that they originated in Central Asia but disagree on the specifics of their origins. Classical sources assert that they appeared in Europe suddenly around 370.[1]

Roman-era sources

Most typically, Roman writers' attempts to elucidate the origins of the Huns simply equated them with earlier steppe peoples.[11] Roman writers repeated a tale that the Huns had entered the domain of the Goths while they were pursuing a wild stag, or else one of their cows that had escaped, across the Kerch Strait into Crimea. Discovering the land fertile, they then attacked the Goths.[12] Jordanes' Getica relates that the Goths held the Huns to be offspring of "unclean spirits" and Gothic witches (Getica 24:121).[13]

Relation to the Xiongnu and other peoples called Huns

Domain and influence of Xiongnu under Modu Chanyu around 205 BC: the area hypothesised to have formed the cradle of Hun culture.

Since Joseph de Guignes in the 18th century, modern historians have associated the Huns who appeared on the borders of Europe in the 4th century AD with the Xiongnu who had invaded numerous Central Plain polities from the Mongolian Plateau between the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD.[3] After the devastating defeat by the Han dynasty, the northern branch of the Xiongnu retreated north-westward; their descendants may have migrated through the Eurasian Steppe and consequently they may have some degree of cultural and genetic continuity with the Huns.[14] Scholars also discussed the relationship between the Xiongnu, the Huns, and a number of people in central Asia who were also known as or came to be identified with the name "Hun" or "Iranian Huns". The most prominent of these were Chionites, the Kidarites, and the Hephthalites.[15]

Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen was the first to challenge the traditional approach, based primarily on the study of written sources, and to emphasize the importance of archaeological research.[16] Since Maenchen-Helfen's work, the identification of the Xiongnu as the Huns' ancestors has become controversial.[17] Additionally, several scholars have questioned the identification of the "Iranian Huns" with the European Huns.[18] Walter Pohl cautions that

none of the great confederations of steppe warriors was ethnically homogenous, and the same name was used by different groups for reasons of prestige, or by outsiders to describe their lifestyle or geographic origin. [...] It is therefore futile to speculate about identity or blood relationships between H(s)iung-nu, Hephthalites, and Attila's Huns, for instance. All we can safely say is that the name Huns, in late antiquity, described prestigious ruling groups of steppe warriors.[19]

Arrival of the Huns in Pannonia (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

Today, there is "no general consensus" and "scholarship is divided" on the issue of a Hun-Xiongnu connection.[20] Recent supporters of a connection between the Huns and Xiongnu include Hyun Jin Kim and Etienne de la Vaissière. De la Vaissière argues that ancient Chinese and Indian sources used Xiongnu and Hun to translate each other,[21] and that the various "Iranian Huns" were similarly identified with the Xiongnu.[22] Kim believes that the term Hun was "not primarily an ethnic group, but a political category"[23] and argues for a fundamental political and cultural continuity between the Xiongnu and the European Huns,[24] as well as between the Xiongnu and the "Iranian Huns".[25]

Etymology

The name Hun is attested in classical European sources as Greek Οὖννοι (Ounnoi) and Latin Hunni or Chuni.[26] John Malalas records their name as Οὖννα (Ounna).[27] Another possible Greek variant may be Χοὖνοι (Khounoi), although this group's identification with the Huns is disputed.[28] Classical sources also frequently use the names of older and unrelated steppe nomads instead of the name Hun, calling them Massagetae, Scythians, and Cimmerians, among other names.[29]

The etymology of Hun is unclear. Various proposed etymologies generally assume at least that the names of the various Eurasian groups known as Huns are related. There have been a number of proposed Turkic etymologies, deriving the name variously from Turkic ön, öna (to grow), qun (glutton), kün, gün, a plural suffix "supposedly meaning 'people'",[30] qun (force), and hün (ferocious).[30] Maenchen-Helfen dismisses all of these Turkic etymologies as "mere guesses"[31] and proposes an Iranian etymology, from a word akin to Avestan hūnarā (skill), hūnaravant- (skillful). He suggests that it may originally have designated a rank rather than an ethnicity.[32] Robert Werner has advanced an etymology from Tocharian ku (dog), suggesting—as the Chinese called the Xiongnu dogs—that the dog was the totem animal of the Hunnic tribe. He also compares the name Massagetae, noting that the element saka in that name means dog.[33] Others such as Harold Bailey, S. Parlato, and Jamsheed Choksy have argued that the name derives from an Iranian word akin to Avestan Ẋyaona, and was a generalized term meaning "hostiles, opponents".[34] Christopher Atwood dismisses this possibility on phonological and chronological grounds.[35] While not arriving at an etymology per se, Atwood derives the name from the Ongi River in Mongolia, which was pronounced the same as, or similarly to, the name Xiongnu, and suggests that it was originally a dynastic name rather than an ethnic name.[36]

Physical appearance

A reconstruction of Attila by George S. Stuart, Museum of Ventura County.

Most of the ancient descriptions of the Huns stress their strange appearance from a Roman perspective. These descriptions typically caricature the Huns as monsters.[37] Jordanes stresses that the Huns were short of stature, had tanned skin and round and shapeless heads.[38] Various writers mention that the Huns had small eyes and flat noses.[39] The Roman writer Priscus gives the following eyewitness description of Attila: "Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin, showing evidence of his origin."[40]

Many scholars take these to be unflattering depictions of East Asian (obsolete "Mongoloid") racial characteristics.[41] Maenchen-Helfen argues that, while many Huns had East Asian racial characteristics, they were unlikely to have looked as Asiatic as the Yakut or Tungus.[42] He notes that archaeological finds of presumed Huns suggest that they were a racially mixed group containing only some individuals with East Asian features.[43] Kim similarly cautions against seeing the Huns as a homogenous racial group,[44] while still arguing that they were "partially or predominantly of Mongoloid extraction (at least initially)."[45] Some archaeologists have argued that archaeological finds have failed to prove that the Huns had any "Mongoloid" features at all,[46] and some scholars have argued that the Huns were predominantly "Caucasian" in appearance.[47] Other archaeologists have argued that "Mongoloid" features are found primarily among members of the Hunnic aristocracy,[48] which, however, also included Germanic leaders who were integrated into the Hun polity.[49] Kim argues that the composition of the Huns became progressively more "Caucasian" during their time in Europe; he notes that by the Battle of Chalons (451), "the vast majority" of Attila's entourage and troops appears to have been of European origin, while Attila himself seems to have had East Asian features.[50]

Genetics

Genetic data is difficult to apply to steppe nomad societies, because they frequently migrated, intermixed, and were assimilated into each other. Nevertheless, genetics can supply information on migrations from East Asia to Europe and vice versa.[51]

In a genetic study of individuals from the around the Tian Shan mountains of central Asia dating from the late second century CE, Damgaard et al. 2018 found that these individuals represented a population of mixed East Asian and West Eurasian origin. They argued that this population descended from Xiongnu who expanded westward and mixed with Iranian Sakas.[52] This population in the Tian Shan mountains may be connected to the European Huns by individual burials that contains objects stylistically related to those used by the European Huns, although this could be a sign of the exchange of goods and the connections between elites rather than a sign of migration.[53]

As of 2023, there is little genetic data from the Carpathian basin in the Hunnic period (5th century), and the population living there during the Hunnic period shows a variety of genetic signatures.[54] Maróti et al. 2022 showed that the genomes of nine Hun-era individuals who lived in the basin varied from European to Northeast Asian connections, with those individuals showing associations with Northeast Asia being most similar to groups found in Mongolia such as the Xiongnu and the Xianbei.[55] An analysis of Hun-era genomes by Gnecchi-Ruscone et al. 2022 likewise found a wide range of genetic variability, with two individuals showing a connection to ancient Northeast Asians and others showing European ancestry.[56]

History

Before Attila

A suggested path of the Huns' movement westwards (labels in German)

The history of the Huns in the fourth century is not very clear, and the Huns left no sources themselves.[57] The Romans became aware of the Huns[a] when the latter's invasion of the Pontic steppes forced thousands of Goths to move to the Lower Danube to seek refuge in the Roman Empire in 376.[60] The Huns conquered the Alans, most of the Greuthungi or Eastern Goths, and then most of the Thervingi or Western Goths, with many fleeing into the Roman Empire.[61] In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attack on the Eastern Roman Empire.[62] Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia. They entered parts of Syria, threatened Antioch, and passed through the province of Euphratesia.[63] At the same time, the Huns invaded the Sasanian Empire. This invasion was initially successful, coming close to the capital of the empire at Ctesiphon; however, they were defeated badly during the Persian counterattack.[63]

The depicted battle is the legendary Battle of Zeiselmauer when the Huns conquered Pannonia from the Romans (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

During their brief diversion from the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns may have threatened tribes further west.[64] Uldin, the first Hun identified by name in contemporary sources,[65] headed a group of Huns and Alans fighting against Radagaisus in defense of Italy. Uldin was also known for defeating Gothic rebels who troubled the East Romans around the Danube and for beheading the Goth Gainas around 400–401. The East Romans began to feel the pressure from Uldin's Huns again in 408. Uldin crossed the Danube and pillaged Thrace. The East Romans tried to buy off Uldin, but his sum was too high so they instead bought off Uldin's subordinates. This resulted in many desertions from Uldin's group of Huns. Uldin himself escaped back across the Danube, after which he is not mentioned again in history.[66]

Hunnish mercenaries are mentioned on several occasions being employed by the East and West Romans, as well as the Goths, during the late 4th and 5th century.[67] In 433 some parts of Pannonia were ceded to them by Flavius Aetius, the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire.[68]

Under Attila

From 434 the brothers Attila and Bleda ruled the Huns together. Attila and Bleda were as ambitious as their uncle Rugila. In 435 they forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus,[69] giving the Huns trade rights and an annual tribute from the Romans. When the Romans breached the treaty in 440, Attila and Bleda attacked Castra Constantias, a Roman fortress and marketplace on the banks of the Danube.[70] War broke out between the Huns and Romans, and the Huns overcame a weak Roman army to raze the cities of Margus, Singidunum and Viminacium. Although a truce was concluded in 441, two years later Constantinople again failed to deliver the tribute and war resumed. In the following campaign, Hun armies approached Constantinople and sacked several cities before defeating the Romans at the Battle of Chersonesus. The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II gave in to Hun demands and in autumn 443 signed the Peace of Anatolius with the two Hun kings. Bleda died in 445, and Attila became the sole ruler of the Huns.

In 447, Attila invaded the Balkans and Thrace. The war came to an end in 449 with an agreement in which the East Romans agreed to pay Attila an annual tribute of 2100 pounds of gold. Throughout their raids on the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Empire. However, Honoria, sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, sent Attila a ring and requested his help to escape her betrothal to a senator. Attila claimed her as his bride and half the Western Roman Empire as dowry.[71] Additionally, a dispute arose about the rightful heir to a king of the Salian Franks. In 451, Attila's forces entered Gaul. Once in Gaul, the Huns first attacked Metz, then their armies continued westward, passing both Paris and Troyes to lay siege to Orléans. Flavius Aetius was given the duty of relieving Orléans by Emperor Valentinian III. A combined army of Roman and Visigoths then fought the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.

Raphael's The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila depicts Pope Leo I, escorted by Saint Peter and Saint Paul, meeting with the Hun emperor outside Rome

The following year, Attila renewed his claims to Honoria and territory in the Western Roman Empire. Leading his army across the Alps and into Northern Italy, he sacked and razed a number of cities. Hoping to avoid the sack of Rome, Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as Pope Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua, and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor. The new Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian then halted tribute payments, resulting in Attila planning to attack Constantinople. However, in 453 Attila died of a hemorrhage on his wedding night.[72]

After Attila

After Attila's death in 453, the Hunnic Empire faced an internal power struggle between its vassalized Germanic peoples and the Hunnic ruling body. Led by Ellak, Attila's favored son and ruler of the Akatziri, the Huns engaged the Gepid king Ardaric at the Battle of Nedao, who led a Germanic coalition to overthrow Hunnic imperial authority. The Amali Goths would revolt the same year under Valamir, allegedly defeating the Huns in a separate engagement.[73] However, this did not result in the complete collapse of Hunnic power in the Carpathian region, but did result in the loss of many of their Germanic vassals. At the same time, the Huns were also dealing with the arrival of more Oghur Turkic-speaking peoples from the East, including the Oghurs, Saragurs, Onogurs, and the Sabirs. In 463, the Saragurs defeated the Akatziri, or Akatir Huns, and asserted dominance in the Pontic region.[74]

The western Huns under Dengizich experienced difficulties in 461 when they were defeated by Valamir in a war against the Sadages, a people allied with the Huns.[75] His campaigning was also met with dissatisfaction from Ernak, ruler of the Akatziri Huns, who wanted to focus on the incoming Oghur speaking peoples.[74] Dengizich attacked the Romans in 467, without the assistance of Ernak. He was surrounded by the Romans and besieged, and came to an agreement that he would surrender if his people were given land for their herds and his starving forces given food. During the negotiations, a Hun in service of the Romans named Chelchel persuaded the enemy Goths to attack their Hun overlords. The Romans, under their General Aspar and with the help of his bucellarii, then attacked the quarreling Goths and Huns, defeating them.[76] In 469, Dengizich was defeated and killed in Thrace.[77]

After Dengizich's death, the Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as the Bulgars.[77] Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the Kutrigur and Utigur Hunno-Bulgars.[74] This conclusion is still subject to some controversy. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the North Caucasian Huns, were genuine Huns.[78] The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to the power, and various steppe peoples were also called "Huns" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward.[79]

Lifestyle and economy

Pastoral nomadism

The Huns have traditionally been described as pastoral nomads, living off of herding and moving from pasture to pasture to graze their animals.[80] Hyun Jin Kim, however, holds the term "nomad" to be misleading:

[T]he term 'nomad', if it denotes a wandering group of people with no clear sense of territory, cannot be applied wholesale to the Huns. All the so-called 'nomads' of Eurasian steppe history were peoples whose territory/territories were usually clearly defined, who as pastoralists moved about in search of pasture, but within a fixed territorial space.[45]

Maenchen-Helfen notes that pastoral nomads (or "seminomads") typically alternate between summer pastures and winter quarters: while the pastures may vary, the winter quarters always remained the same.[81] This is, in fact, what Jordanes writes of the Hunnic Altziagiri tribe: they pastured near Cherson on the Crimea and then wintered further north, with Maenchen-Helfen holding the Syvash as a likely location.[82] Ancient sources mention that the Huns' herds consisted of various animals, including cattle, horses, and goats; sheep, though unmentioned in ancient sources, "are more essential to the steppe nomad even than horses"[83] and must have been a large part of their herds.[82] Sheep bones are frequently found in Hun period graves.[84] Additionally, Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Huns may have kept small herds of Bactrian camels in the part of their territory in modern Romania and Ukraine, something attested for the Sarmatians.[85]

Ammianus Marcellinus says that the majority of the Huns' diet came from the meat of these animals,[86] with Maenchen-Helfen arguing, on the basis of what is known of other steppe nomads, that they likely mostly ate mutton, along with sheep's cheese and milk.[82] They also "certainly" ate horse meat, drank mare's milk, and likely made cheese and kumis.[87] In times of starvation, they may have boiled their horses' blood for food.[88]

Ancient sources uniformly deny that the Huns practiced any sort of agriculture.[89] Thompson, taking these accounts at their word, argues that "[w]ithout the assistance of the settled agricultural population at the edge of the steppe they could not have survived".[90] He argues that the Huns were forced to supplement their diet by hunting and gathering.[91] Maenchen-Helfen, however, notes that archaeological finds indicate that various steppe nomad populations did grow grain; in particular, he identifies a find at Kunya Uaz in Khwarezm on the Ob River of agriculture among a people who practiced artificial cranial deformation as evidence of Hunnic agriculture.[92] Kim similarly argues that all steppe empires have possessed both pastoralist and sedentary populations, classifying the Huns as "agro-pastoralist".[45]

Horses and transportation

Huns by G. Rochegrosse (detail)

As a nomadic people, the Huns spent a great deal of time riding horses: Ammianus claimed that the Huns "are almost glued to their horses",[93] Zosimus claimed that they "live and sleep on their horses",[94] and Sidonius claimed that "[s]carce had an infant learnt to stand without his mother's aid when a horse takes him on his back".[95] They appear to have spent so much time riding that they walked clumsily, something observed in other nomadic groups.[96] Roman sources characterize the Hunnic horses as ugly.[97] It is not possible to determine the exact breed of horse the Huns used, despite a relatively good description by the Roman writer Vegetius.[98] Sinor believes that it was likely a breed of Mongolian pony.[99] However, horse remains are absent from all identified Hun burials.[99] Based on anthropological descriptions and archaeological finds of other nomadic horses, Maenchen-Helfen believes that they rode mostly geldings.[100]

Apart from horses, ancient sources indicate that the Huns used wagons for transportation. Maenchen-Helfen suggests that these wagons were mainly utilized to carry their tents, loot, as well as the elderly, women, and children.[101]

Economic relations with the Romans

The Huns received a large amount of gold from the Romans, either in exchange for fighting for them as mercenaries or as tribute.[102] Raiding and looting also furnished the Huns with gold and other valuables.[103] Denis Sinor has argued that at the time of Attila, the Hunnic economy became almost entirely dependent on plunder and tribute from the Roman provinces.[104]

1910 Rochegrosse depiction of Roman villa in Gaul sacked by the hordes of Attila the Hun

Civilians and soldiers captured by the Huns might also be ransomed back, or else sold to Roman slave dealers as slaves.[105] The Huns themselves, Maenchen-Helfen argued, had little use for slaves due to their nomadic pastoralist lifestyle.[106] More recent scholarship, however, has demonstrated that pastoral nomadists are actually more likely to use slave labor than sedentary societies: the slaves would have been used to manage the Huns' herds of cattle, sheep, and goats.[107] Priscus attests that slaves were used as domestic servants, but also that educated slaves were used by the Huns in positions of administration or even architects. Some slaves were even used as warriors.[108]

The Huns also traded with the Romans. E. A. Thompson argued that this trade was very large scale, with the Huns trading horses, furs, meat, and slaves for Roman weapons, linen, and grain, and various other luxury goods.[109] While Maenchen-Helfen concedes that the Huns traded their horses for what he considered to have been "a very considerable source of income in gold", he is otherwise skeptical of Thompson's argument.[110] He notes that the Romans strictly regulated trade with the barbarians and that, according to Priscus, trade only occurred at a fair once a year.[111] While he notes that smuggling also likely occurred, he argues that "the volume of both legal and illegal trade was apparently modest".[111] He does note that wine and silk appear to have been imported into the Hunnic Empire in large quantities, however.[112] Roman gold coins appear to have been in circulation as currency within the whole of the Hunnic Empire.[113]

Connections to the Silk Road

Christopher Atwood has suggested that the purpose of the original Hunnic incursion into Europe may have been to establish an outlet to the Black Sea for the Sogdian merchants under their rule, who were involved in the trade along the Silk Road to China.[114] Atwood notes that Jordanes describes how the Crimean city of Cherson, "where the avaricious traders bring in the goods of Asia", was under the control of the Akatziri Huns in the sixth century.[114]

Empire and rule

Government

Hunnic governmental structure has long been debated. Peter Heather argues that the Huns were a disorganized confederation in which leaders acted completely independently and that eventually established a ranking hierarchy, much like Germanic societies.[115] Denis Sinor similarly notes that, with the exception of the historically uncertain Balamber, no Hun leaders are named in the sources until Uldin, indicating their relative unimportance.[67] Thompson argues that permanent kingship only developed with the Huns' invasion of Europe and the near-constant warfare that followed.[116] Regarding the organization of Hunnic rule under Attila, Peter Golden comments "it can hardly be called a state, much less an empire".[117] Golden speaks instead of a "Hunnic confederacy".[118] Kim, however, argues that the Huns were far more organized and centralized, with some basis in organization of the Xiongnu state.[119] Walter Pohl notes the correspondences of Hunnic government to those of other steppe empires, but nevertheless argues that the Huns do not appear to have been a unified group when they arrived in Europe.[120]

Ammianus wrote that the Huns of his day had no kings, but rather that each group of Huns instead had a group of leading men (primates) for times of war .[121] E.A. Thompson supposes that, even in war, the leading men had little actual power.[122] He further argues that they most likely did not acquire their position purely hereditarily.[123] Heather, however, argues that Ammianus merely meant that the Huns didn't have a single ruler; he notes that Olympiodorus mentions the Huns having several kings, with one being the "first of the kings".[124] Ammianus also mentions that the Huns made their decisions in a general council (omnes in commune) while seated on horseback.[125] He makes no mention of the Huns being organized into tribes, but Priscus and other writers do, naming some of them.[90]

The first Hunnic ruler known by name is Uldin. Thompson takes Uldin's sudden disappearance after he was unsuccessful at war as a sign that the Hunnic kingship was "democratic" at this time rather than a permanent institution.[126] Kim, however, argues that Uldin is actually a title and that he was likely merely a subking.[127] Priscus calls Attila "king" or "emperor" (βασιλέυς), but it is unknown what native title he was translating.[128] With the exception of the sole rule of Attila, the Huns often had two rulers; Attila himself later appointed his son Ellac as co-king.[129] Heather argues that by the time of the report of Olympiodorus, the Huns at some point developed a system of ranked kings, including a senior king by the time of Charaton.[130]

Priscus also speaks of "picked men" or logades (λογάδες) forming part of Attila's government, naming five of them.[131] Some of the "picked men" seem to have been chosen because of birth, others for reasons of merit.[132] Thompson argued that these "picked men" "were the hinge upon which the entire administration of the Hun empire turned":[133] he argues for their existence in the government of Uldin, and that each had command over detachments of the Hunnic army and ruled over specific portions of the Hunnic empire, where they were responsible also for collecting tribute and provisions.[134] Maenchen-Helfen, however, argues that the word logades denotes simply prominent individuals and not a fixed rank with fixed duties.[135] Kim affirms the importance of the logades for Hunnic administration, but notes that there were differences of rank between them, and suggests that it was more likely lower ranking officials who gathered taxes and tribute.[136] He suggests that various Roman defectors to the Huns may have worked in a sort of imperial bureaucracy.[137] Unlike the Iranian Huns, who quickly began to mint their own coinage, the European Huns did not strike their own coins.[57]

Extent of Hunnic territory

The extent of Hunnish control in Barbarian Europe is poorly understood, as it is not much covered in Roman sources.[138] It is generally assumed that they established an empire that stretched as far West as the Rhine and perhaps as far north as the Baltic, though it is difficult to establish its boundaries with certainty.[139] Some scholars, such as Otto Maenchen-Helfen and Peter Golden, believe that the extant of Attila's empire has been exaggerated and he probably only controlled Pannonia and some adjacent areas.[140]

In the 390s, the majority of the Huns were probably based around the Volga and Don on the Pontic Steppe.[141] But by the 420s, the Huns were based on Great Hungarian Plain, the only large grassland near the Roman empire capable of supporting large numbers of horses.[142] However, Aleksander Paroń believes that they likely continued to control the Pontic Steppe north of the Black Sea.[143] They had conquered the Hungarian Plain in stages. The precise date that they conquered the north bank of the Danube is unclear.[144] Maenchen-Helfen argued that they may have already taken control of it in the 370s.[145] The dates when they gained control of the Roman territory south of the Middle Danube, Pannonia Valeria and the other provinces of Pannonia, is likewise disputed, but probably in 406/407 and 431/433 respectively.[144] Otherwise, the Huns made no attempt to conquer or settle on Roman territory.[142] Following Attila's death, the Huns were driven out of Pannonia and some appear to have returned to the Pontic Steppe, while one group settled in Dobruja.[117]

One of the only written sources for the size of Attila's domain is given by the Roman historian Priscus.[146] Priscus refers to Attila ruling as far as the islands in the "ocean" (Ὠκεανός), but it is unclear if this meant the Baltic Sea or the world-encircling Ocean that the Greeks and Romans believed in. In either case, the description of Attila ruling as far as the islands in the "ocean" may be hyperbole.[147] Archaeology is often used to argue for an area having been under Hunnic control; however, nomadic peoples often control territories beyond their immediate settlement.[148] A large number of major finds from Silesia and Lesser Poland, north of the Carpathian Mountains, have been attributed to the time of Attila and associated with the nomadic milieu of the Huns.[149] While scholars have speculated about direct Hunnic control and settlement here, it is entirely unclear what kind of relationship the population of these regions had to the Huns.[150]

Subject peoples

The Huns ruled over numerous other groups, including Goths, Gepids, Sarmatians, Heruli, Alans, Rugii, Suevi, and Sciri, alongside other groups where they occasionally asserted control.[151] Peter Heather suggests that some of these groups were resettled along the Danube by the Huns.[152] Subject peoples of the Huns were led by their own kings.[153] Those recognized as ethnic Huns appear to have had more rights and status, as evidenced by the account of Priscus.[154]

Warfare

One of the principal sources of information on Hunnic warfare is Ammianus Marcellinus, who includes an extended description of the Huns' methods of war:

They also sometimes fight when provoked, and then they enter the battle drawn up in wedge-shaped masses, while their medley of voices makes a savage noise. And as they are lightly equipped for swift motion, and unexpected in action, they purposely divide suddenly into scattered bands and attack, rushing about in disorder here and there, dealing terrific slaughter; and because of their extraordinary rapidity of movement they are never seen to attack a rampart or pillage an enemy's camp. And on this account you would not hesitate to call them the most terrible of all warriors, because they fight from a distance with missiles having sharp bone, instead of their usual points, joined to the shafts with wonderful skill; then they gallop over the intervening spaces and fight hand to hand with swords, regardless of their own lives; and while the enemy are guarding against wounds from the sabre-thrusts, they throw strips of cloth plaited into nooses over their opponents and so entangle them that they fetter their limbs and take from them the power of riding or walking.[155]

Based on Ammianus' description, Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Huns' tactics did not differ markedly from those used by other nomadic horse archers.[97] He argues that the "wedge-shaped masses" (cunei) mentioned by Ammianus were likely divisions organized by tribal clans and families, whose leaders may have been called a cur. This title would then have been inherited as it was passed down the clan.[156] Like Ammianus, the sixth-century writer Zosimus also emphasizes the Huns' almost exclusive use of horse archers and their extreme swiftness and mobility.[157] These qualities differed from other nomadic warriors in Europe at this time: the Sarmatians, for instance, relied on heavily armored cataphracts armed with lances.[158] The Huns' use of terrible war cries are also found in other sources.[159] However, a number of Ammianus's claims have been challenged by modern scholars.[160] In particular, while Ammianus claims that the Huns knew no metalworking, Maenchen-Helfen argues that a people so primitive could never have been successful in war against the Romans.[161]

Hunnic armies relied on their high mobility and "a shrewd sense of when to attack and when to withdraw".[162] An important strategy used by the Huns was a feigned retreat—pretending to flee and then turning and attacking the disordered enemy. This is mentioned by the writers Zosimus and Agathias.[97] They were, however, not always effective in pitched battle, suffering defeat at Toulouse in 439, barely winning at the Battle of the Utus in 447, likely losing or stalemating at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451, and losing at the Battle of Nedao (454?).[163] Christopher Kelly argues that Attila sought to avoid "as far as possible, [...] large-scale engagement with the Roman army".[163] War and the threat of war were frequently-used tools to extort Rome; the Huns often relied on local traitors to avoid losses.[164] Accounts of battles note that the Huns fortified their camps by using portable fences or creating a circle of wagons.[165]

The Huns' nomadic lifestyle encouraged features such as excellent horsemanship, while the Huns trained for war by frequent hunting.[166] Several scholars have suggested that the Huns had trouble maintaining their horse cavalry and nomadic lifestyle after settling on the Hungarian Plain, and that this in turn led to a marked decrease in their effectiveness as fighters.[167]

The Huns are almost always noted as fighting alongside non-Hunnic, Germanic or Iranian subject peoples or, in earlier times, allies.[168] As Heather notes, "the Huns' military machine increased, and increased very quickly, by incorporating ever larger numbers of the Germani of central and eastern Europe".[169] At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, Attila is noted by Jordanes to have placed his subject peoples in the wings of the army, while the Huns held the center.[170]

Peter Heather notes that the Huns were able to successfully besiege walled cities and fortresses in their campaign of 441: they were thus capable of building siege engines.[171] Heather makes note of multiple possible routes for acquisition of this knowledge, suggesting that it could have been brought back from service under Aetius, acquired from captured Roman engineers, or developed through the need to pressure the wealthy silk road city states, and carried over into Europe.[172]

Society and culture

Artificial cranial deformation

Skull of a Hun-period individual found in Hungary showing artificial cranial deformation. Over 200 artificially deformed skulls have been found in the Carpathian Basin from the Hun and Avar periods.[173]

Artificial cranial deformation, the process of artificially lengthening the skulls of babies by binding them, first appears in Europe on the Pontic Steppe in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, before spreading to the Carpathian basin, becoming common there in the 5th century.[174] During the Hun period, between 50% and 80% of all burials in the Carpathian basin contain individuals with artificial cranial deformation.[175] This chronology and its spread in Europe has been linked to nomadic invasions from Asia and in particularly the spread of the Huns,[176] with the argument that it was practiced by their nobility and then taken up by Germanic groups influenced by them, in particular the Gepids.[177] Some scholars argue that the practice was not originally introduced to Europe by the Huns, however, but rather with the Alans, with whom the Huns were closely associated, and Sarmatians.[178]

In Kim's view, the goal of this process was "to create a clear physical distinction between the nobility and the general populace".[179] Susanne Hakenbeck, however, notes that graves with individuals who had undergone artificial cranial deformation are not usually distinct from other individuals; she suggests instead that the process was used to show kinship and distinguish families, something attested for the practice in Mesoamerica.[174]

Languages

A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun Empire. Priscus noted that the Hunnic language differed from other languages spoken at Attila's court.[180] He recounts how Attila's jester Zerco made Attila's guests laugh also by the "promiscuous jumble of words, Latin mixed with Hunnish and Gothic."[180] Priscus said that Attila's "Scythian" subjects spoke "besides their own barbarian tongues, either Hunnish, or Gothic, or, as many have dealings with the Western Romans, Latin; but not one of them easily speaks Greek, except captives from the Thracian or Illyrian frontier regions".[181] Some scholars have argued that Gothic was used as the lingua franca of the Hunnic Empire.[182] Hyun Jin Kim argues that the Huns may have used as many as four languages at various levels of government, without any one being dominant: Hunnic, Gothic, Latin, and Sarmatian.[183]

As to the Hunnic language itself, there is no consensus on its relationship to other languages.[184] Only three words are recorded in ancient sources as being "Hunnic," all of which appear to be from an Indo-European language.[185] All other information on Hunnic is contained in personal names and tribal ethnonyms.[186] On the basis of these names, scholars have proposed that Hunnic may have been a Turkic language,[187] a language between Mongolic and Turkic,[188] an Eastern Iranian language,[189] or a Yeniseian language.[190] However, given the small corpus, many hold the language to be unclassifiable.[191]

Marriage and the role of women

The elites of the Huns practiced polygamy,[192] while the commoners were probably monogamous.[193] Ammianus Marcellinus claimed that the Hunnish women lived in seclusion; however, the first-hand account of Priscus shows them freely moving and mixing with men.[194] Priscus describes Hunnic women swarming around Attila as he entered a village, as well as the wife of Attila's minister Onegesius offering the king food and drink with her servants.[195] Priscus was able to enter the tent of Attila's chief wife, Hereca, without difficulty.[196]

Priscus also attests that the widow of Attila's brother Bleda was in command of a village that the Roman ambassadors rode through: her territory may have included a larger area.[196] Thompson notes that other steppe peoples, such as the Utigurs and the Sabirs, are known to have had female tribal leaders, and argues that the Huns probably held widows in high respect.[196] Due to the pastoral nature of the Huns' economy, the women likely had a large degree of authority over the domestic household.[192]

Religion

Almost nothing is known about the religion of the Huns.[197] Roman writer Ammianus Marcellinus claimed that the Huns had no religion,[198] while the fifth-century Christian writer Salvian classified them as Pagans.[199] Jordanes' Getica also records that the Huns worshipped "the sword of Mars", an ancient sword that signified Attila's right to rule the whole world.[200] Maenchen-Helfen notes a widespread worship of a war god in the form of a sword among steppe peoples, including among the Xiongnu.[201] Denis Sinor, however, holds the worship of a sword among the Huns to be apocryphal.[202] Additionally, Maenchen-Helfen argues that, while the Huns themselves do not appear to have regarded Attila as divine, some of his subject people clearly did.[203] A belief in prophecy and divination is also attested among the Huns.[204] Maenchen-Helfen argues that the performers of these acts of soothsaying and divination were likely shamans.[b] Sinor also finds it likely that the Huns had shamans, although they are completely unattested.[206] Maenchen-Helfen further deduces a belief in water-spirits from a custom mentioned in Ammianus.[c] He furthermore suggests that the Huns may have made small metal, wooden, or stone idols, which are attested among other steppe tribes, and which a Byzantine source attests for the Huns in Crimea in the sixth century.[208] Moreover, he connects archaeological finds of Hunnish bronze cauldrons found buried near or in running water to possible rituals performed by the Huns in the Spring.[209]

John Man argues that the Huns of Attila's time likely worshipped the sky and the steppe deity Tengri, who is also attested as having been worshipped by the Xiongnu.[210] Maenchen-Helfen also suggests the possibility that the Huns of this period may have worshipped Tengri, but notes that the god is not attested in European records until the ninth century.[211] Worship of Tengri under the name "T'angri Khan" is attested among the Caucasian Huns in the Armenian chronicle attributed to Movses Dasxuranci during the later seventh-century.[206] Movses also records that the Caucasian Huns worshipped trees and burnt horses as sacrifices to Tengri,[206] and that they "made sacrifices to fire and water and to certain gods of the roads, and to the moon and to all creatures considered in their eyes to be in some way remarkable."[206]

There is some evidence for human sacrifice among the European Huns. Maenchen-Helfen argues that humans appear to have been sacrificed at Attila's funerary rite, recorded in Jordanes under the name strava.[212] Priscus claims that the Huns sacrificed their prisoners "to victory" after they entered Scythia, but this is not otherwise attested as a Hunnic custom and may be fiction.[213]

In addition to these Pagan beliefs, there are numerous attestations of Huns converting to Christianity and receiving Christian missionaries.[214] The missionary activities among the Huns of the Caucasus seem to have been particularly successful, resulting in the conversion of the Hunnish prince Alp Ilteber.[202] Attila appears to have tolerated both Nicene and Arian Christianity among his subjects.[215] However, a pastoral letter by Pope Leo the Great to the church of Aquileia indicates that Christian slaves taken from there by the Huns in 452 were forced to participate in Hunnic religious activities.[216]

Burials and burial customs

Nomad-style burial of a warrior from Ługi, Migration period in Silesia. The grave shows many similarities to burials along the Black Sea among the Alano-Sarmatian milieu.[217]

An account of the funeral of Attila is provided by Jordanes, who may derive it from Priscus:[218] Jordanes reports that the Huns cut their hair and disfigured their faces with swords as part of the rite, a widely attested custom among steppe peoples.[219] After this, Attila's coffin was placed in a silk tent, and horsemen rode around it singing funeral dirges called a strava. The coffin was then covered in precious metals and buried secretly together with weapons, and the slaves who dug the grave were killed to keep the location secret.[220] Maenchen-Helfen suggests that the dirges and the horsemanship were likely separate events, with the latter possibly representing funereal horse races as found among other steppe peoples, while the killing of the slaves may have been a sacrifice.[221]

Although a great amount of archaeological material has been unearthed since 1945, as of 2005 there were only 200 burials that have plausibly identified as Hunnic, including both in the Carpathian Basin and the Pontic Steppe.[222] Hun-period burials identified with the nomadic milieu on the Eurasian steppe and in the Carpathian Basin typically feature rich deposits of grave goods, which modern archaeologists call Totenopfer (offerings to the dead).[223] However, the richest nomad-related burials have all been found in other locations than the Carpathian Basin, although this was Attila's center of power and one would expect to find elite burials clustered there.[224] Most burials from the Carpathian Basin match the material culture of the previously indigenous Germanic peoples; the dearth of Hun related burials may indicate that most Hunnish funerals may have disposed of the body in such a way that no remains were left, or that they adopted Germanic material culture.[225]

Frequently, nomad-related graves from the Hun period contain evidence of objects being burned, probably as part of the burial ceremonies.[226] The common nomadic practice of burying parts of animals, such as their shoulder blades or limbs, with the deceased is only attested rarely in the Carpathian Basin.[227] Likewise, while Central Asian and East European nomad burials frequently feature kurgans, these are entirely absent in the Carpathian basin.[226]

Material culture

There are two sources for the material culture of the Huns: ancient descriptions and archaeology. Roman descriptions of the Huns are often highly biased, stressing the Huns' supposed primitiveness.[228] Unfortunately, the nomadic nature of Hun society means that they have left very little in the archaeological record.[229] It can be difficult to distinguish Hunnic archaeological finds from those of the Sarmatians, as both peoples lived in close proximity and seem to have had very similar material cultures. Kim thus cautions that it is difficult to assign any artifact to the Huns ethnically.[230]

Cauldrons

Ханнишский котел

Археологические находки привели к большому количеству котла, которые с тех пор, как работа Пола Рейнеке в 1896 году, была идентифицирована как изготовленные гунными. [231] Although typically described as "bronze cauldrons", the cauldrons are often made of copper, which is generally of poor quality.[ 232 ] Маенхен-Хелфен перечисляет 19 известных находок охотничьих котлов со всей Центральной и Восточной Европы и Западной Сибири. [ 233 ] Он утверждает из состояния бронзовых отливок, что гунны были не очень хорошими металламитами, и вполне вероятно, что котлы были разыграны в тех же местах, где они были найдены. [ 234 ] Они бывают разных форм и иногда встречаются вместе с сосудами из разных других истоков. [ 235 ] Маенхен-Хелфен утверждает, что котлы готовили сосуды для кипячения мяса, [ 236 ] Но то, что тот факт, что многие находятся в откладывании вблизи воды и, как правило, не были похоронены с людьми, может также указывать на сакральное использование. [ 237 ] Котлы, по -видимому, вытекают из тех, которые используются Xiongnu. [ 238 ]

Одежда

Хорошие описания одежды для периода Хун, известных из современных захородок Центральной Азии, вероятно, были Халатом , не хватает в греко-римских источниках. [ 239 ] Восточный римский историк Прискус сообщает, что видит греческого купца, которого он взял за гун, из -за его ношения «скифской» одежды; Похоже, что это показывает, что гунны носили отдельный наряд, который был частью этнической идентификации. [ 240 ] Ammianus сообщает, что Huns носила одежду из белья или меха мышей и леггинсов козки, которые они не вымывали. [ 83 ] В то время как использование мехов и льна может быть точным, описание гуннов в грязных шкурах для животных и ношения кожи мышей явно получено из негативных стереотипов и топои о примитивных варварах. [ 241 ] Прискус также упоминает об использовании различных дорогих и редких мехов животных и упоминает служанки аттилы королевы Крека, ткацкого декоративного льна. [ 242 ]

Используя находки из современного Казахстана, археолог Иоахим Вернер описал ханнистскую одежду как, вероятно, состоящую из коктейлей в рукавах (халат), которые иногда изготовлены из шелка , а также брюки и кожаные ботинки. [ 243 ] Святой Джером и Аммиан оба описывают гунны как ношение круглой кепки, которая, вероятно, была сделана из войлока . [ 244 ] Поскольку кочевая одежда не нуждалась в броше , отсутствие этого общего предмета в некоторых варварских захоронениях может указывать на культурное влияние Ханни. [ 245 ] По словам Мавен-Хелфен, обувь гуннов, вероятно, была сделана из овец. [ 82 ] На фигурке Бантапушта носится высокие, громоздкие ботинки, которые связаны с цепью воина ремнями, типа, также описанного Priscus. [ 246 ]

Художественное украшение

Охотная овальная малоберцовая кость с сердечно -сосудистым заболеванием и украшенным геометрическим рисунком золотой проволоки, 4 -го века, художественный музей Уолтерса

Ювелирные изделия и оружие, приписываемые гуннам, часто украшаются в стиле полихрома , Cloisonné . [ 247 ] Археолог Иоахим Вернер утверждал, что гунны разработали уникальный «данубианский» стиль искусства, который сочетал в себе азиатские методы золота с огромным количеством золота, придаваемого римлянам, дань уважения гуннам; Этот стиль тогда повлиял на европейское искусство. [ 248 ] В 1970 -х годах А.К. Амброз утверждал, что полихромный стиль возник с гунными; Тем не менее, более поздние археологические открытия показывают, что это предшествует их прибытию в Европу. [ 249 ] Более того, Warwick Ball утверждает, что украшенные артефакты охотничьего периода, вероятно, были сделаны местными мастерами для гуннов, а не самими гунгами. [ 250 ]

В настоящее время без головы медная фигурка, обнаруженная в Бантапуште, недалеко от Веспрема , Венгрия, показывает человека в доспехах, штаны которых и воротники были украшены локочками. [ 251 ] Археологические находки указывают на то, что гунны носили золотые таблички в виде украшений на их одежде, а также импортируемые стеклянные бусы. [ 252 ] Золотые бляшки, вероятно, использовались для украшения пети как мужской, так и женской праздничной одежды; Похоже, что эта мода была принята как элитами, так и восточно германскими элитами. [ 253 ] Как мужчины, так и женщины были найдены в шкурах из золота и драгоценностей в Восточной Европе, но из железа или бронзы в Центральной Азии; Золотые пряжки обуви также встречаются в нездоровых могилах в Европе. [ 254 ]

Детали браслета Hunnish Gold and Garnet, 5 -й век, художественный музей Уолтерса

Как древние источники, так и археологические находки от могил подтверждают, что охотничьи женщины носили тщательно украшенные золотистые или золотые диадема . [ 255 ] Эти диадемом, а также элементы банков , вероятно, были символами правительства. [ 254 ] Женщины также находятся похороненными с небольшими зеркалами изначально китайского типа, который часто, по -видимому, намеренно разбился, когда помещается в могилу. [ 256 ] Женщины -охотники, похоже, также носили ожерелья и браслеты с в основном импортированными бусинами различных материалов. [ 257 ] Мужчин часто встречаются похороненными с одному или парным серьгами и необычно для кочевых людей, бронзовых или золотистых колец шеи . [ 254 ]

Палатки и жилища

Ammianus сообщает, что у Huns нет зданий, [ 258 ] Но в прохождении упоминается, что гунны обладали палатками, а также жили в вагонах. [ 161 ] Никаких палаток или вагонов не было обнаружено в ханнических археологических контекстах, так как они, очевидно, не были похоронены с умершим. [ 84 ] Маенхен-Хелфен считает, что у Хунс, вероятно, были «палатки войлока и овчины»: Прискус однажды упоминает палатку Аттилы, и Джорданс сообщает, что Аттила лежит в штате в шелковой палатке. [ 259 ] Однако к середине пятого века Прискус упоминает, что гунны владели постоянными деревянными домами, которые, как считает Маенхен-Хелфен, были построены их готическими подданными. [ 260 ]

Луки и стрелы

Церемониальный рефлекторный лук «в стиле охоты», реконструированный из листового золота, найденного в кочевом захоронениях в Якусзовице, современная Польша. [ 261 ]

Древние римские источники подчеркивают важность лука для гун, [ 262 ] И это было главное оружие Хунса. [ 263 ] Хунс использовал композитный или рефлекторный лук того, что часто называют «Хан-типом», стиль, который распространился на всех степных кочевников на евразийской степи к началу периода Хун. [ 264 ] Они измеряли от 120 до 150 сантиметров. Примеры различаются редко в археологических записях, причем находки в Европе кластеризуются в районе пантической степи и среднего Дунака. [ 263 ] Редкость выживших примеров означает, что точные заявления о преимуществах этого оружия является сложной задачей. [ 265 ] Бауны были трудно построить и, вероятно, объекты, имеющие большое значение: они были сделаны из гибкой древесины, полосок рога или кости и сухожилия животных. [ 266 ] Кость, используемая для укрепления лука, сделала его более долговечным, но, вероятно, менее мощным. [ 267 ] Могилы фигур, идентифицированные как «князья» среди гуннов, были найдены похоронены с золотыми, церемониальными поклонами в обширной области от Рейна до Днепер. [ 268 ] Луки были похоронены с объектом, помещенным через грудь умершего. [ 269 ]

Луки выстрелили стрелками больше, чем более ранние луки "скифского типа", с появлением железа, трехселенных стрел в археологических записях, взятых в знак их распространения. [ 264 ] Ammianus, признавая важность Hunnic Bows, не кажется хорошо информированным о них, и, среди прочего, утверждает, что Huns использовали только в костные стрелы. [ 270 ]

Езда

Оборудование для верховой езды и жгуты-это частые находки от захоронений от охоты. [ 271 ] У гунцев не было шпор , и поэтому использовали кнуты, чтобы водить своих лошадей; Ручки таких кнутов были найдены в кочевых могилах. [ 95 ] Хун обычно считались изобретателями деревянного седла в рамке . [ 264 ] Например, Маенхен-Хелфен утверждал, что сохранившиеся украшения от кочевников, датируемых периодом Хун, показали, что седла, должно быть, имели деревянную раму. [ 272 ] Тем не менее, Oleksandr Symonenko утверждает, что более недавняя работа показала, что Huns по -прежнему использовали более ранний стиль седла, сделанный из прокладки. [ 264 ]

Хун также обычно приписывают введению стремя в Европу. [ 273 ] Похоже, что они использовались другими группами преемников Xionnu в Азии с 5 -го века нашей эры. [ 274 ] Тем не менее, в охотничьих захоронениях не было обнаружено никаких стремдов, и не существует текстовых доказательств их использования. [ 275 ] Маенхен-Хелфен также выступает против гунков, которые использовали стремительные призывы, на том основании, что нет никаких доказательств их использования после окончания империи Хун, даже если они могли бы легко скопировать субъектами. [ 95 ] Без стремдов у гуннов не было бы устойчивости сражаться в тесном бою на лошадях и, следовательно, предпочитает сражаться, используя луки и стрелы. [ 271 ] Отсутствие стремяков потребовало бы специальных методов для стрельбы стрел от лошадей. [ 276 ]

Доспехи

Оборонительное оборудование и цепь - редкие находки в могилах Ханнического периода. [ 271 ] Ammianus не упоминает о каком -либо использовании брони среди гуннов. [ 277 ] Тем не менее, считается, что гунны использовали пластинчатую броню , стиль брони, популярный среди стоп -кочевников в течение этого времени. [ 264 ] Металлическая броня была, вероятно, редкостью. [ 277 ] Huns, возможно, использовали тип шлема, известный как Spangenhelm , но Hunnic Nobles, возможно, носили шлемы различных типов. [ 278 ]

Мечи и другое оружие

Спата, похороненная в могиле Hun-Protiod с кочевым опытом из Jakuszowice в современной Польше. [ 223 ]

Ammianus сообщает, что гунны использовали железные мечи, [ 279 ] и церемониальные мечи, кинжалы и украшенные ножницы-частые находки на захоронениях из хан-периода. [ 271 ] Кроме того, жемчуг часто встречается с мечами; Эти декоративные элементы могли иметь религиозное значение. [ 280 ] Начиная с Йоахима Вернера, археологи утверждают, что гунны, возможно, возникли в моде украшения мечей с Cloisonné ; [ 247 ] Тем не менее, Филипп фон Раммел утверждает, что эти мечи демонстрируют сильное средиземноморское влияние, редко встречаются в Карпатском бассейне из периода Хун и, возможно, были созданы византийскими мастерские. [ 281 ]

Томпсон скептически относится к тому, что гунны могут сбросить себя, [ 279 ] Но Маенхен-Хелфен утверждает, что «[t] Идея, что всадники Хун пробились к стенам Константинополя, и к Марне с обливаемыми и захваченными мечами абсурдно». [ 161 ] Одним из характерных мечей, используемых гунными и их субъектами, был узкий локник длинный Seax . [ 282 ] С момента работы Дж. Вернера в 1950 -х годах многие ученые полагали, что гунны представили этот тип меча в Европу. [ 283 ] В самых ранних версиях эти мечи, кажется, были короче, нанесло удар. [ 284 ] Хунсы, наряду с Аланами и восточно-германскими народами, также использовали тип меч, известный как восточно-германский или азиатский Спата , длинный, двойной железный меч с железной кросс-охраной. [ 223 ] Эти мечи были бы использованы для вырубки врагов, которые уже были отвезли в бегство залпами стрел Хунса. [ 271 ] Римские источники также упоминают Лассос как оружие, используемое на близком расстоянии для иммобилизации противников. [ 285 ]

Некоторые гунны или их субъектные народы также могли нести тяжелые копья , что подтверждается для некоторых ханнических наемников в римских источниках. [ 286 ]

Наследие

В христианской агиографии

Мученичество святой Урсулы, Ганс Мемлинга. Турбанские и бронированные фигуры представляют гунны.

После падения Ханнической империи возникли различные легенды о гуннах. Среди них ряд христианских хагиографических легенд, в которых гунны играют роль. В анонимной средневековой биографии папы Лео I , марш Аттилы в Италию в 452 году останавливается, потому что, когда он встречает Лео за пределами Рима, апостолы Петр и Павел кажутся ему, держав мечи над головой и угрожая убить его, если он не следует за папой. команда повернуть назад. [ 287 ] В других версиях Аттила берет заложник Папы и заставляет Святые освободить его. [ 288 ] В легенде о святой Урсуле Урсула и ее 11 000 священных девственников прибывают в Кельн на пути обратно из паломничества, как и хун, под неназванным принцем, [ 289 ] осаждают город. Урсула и ее девственницы убиты гунгами со стрелами после того, как они отказываются от сексуальных достижений хун. После этого души убитых девственниц образуют небесную армию, которая изводит гун и спасает одеколон. [ 290 ] Другие города с легендами, касающимися гуннов и святого, включают Орлеанс , Трои , Димиз , Мец , Модена и Реймс . [ 291 ] В легендах, окружающих святой слуга Тонгренена, по крайней мере, в восьмом веке, Серватий, как говорят, обратила Аттилу и гунны в христианство, прежде чем они позже стали отступниками и вернулись к своему язычнику. [ 292 ]

В германской легенде

Хунса (снаружи) поджигают в свой зал, чтобы убить бургундцев. Иллюстрация из кодекса Hundeshagen nibelungenlied .

Хун также играют важную роль в германских героических легендах, которые часто передают версии событий из периода миграции и первоначально передавались перорально. [ 293 ] Хунс и Аттила образуют центральные фигуры в двух наиболее распространенных германских легендарных циклах, цикле Нибелунга и Дитриха фон Берна (исторический теодер Великий ). Легенда Нибелунга, особенно записанная в старой норвежской поэтической поэтической эдде и саге Вёльсунга , а также в немецкой нибелунгенли , соединяющих гунны и Аттилу (и в скандинавской традиции, смерти Аттилы) с разрушением Бургундского царства на Рейн в 437. [ 294 ] В легендах о Дитрихе фон Берне Аттила и Хунс предоставляют Дитриху убежище и поддержку после того, как он был изгнан из своего королевства в Вероне. [ 295 ] поддерживаются в старом английском стихотворении , а также в старом норвежском стихотворении « за готи Битва Воспоминания о конфликтах между готами и гунными в Восточной Европе, по-видимому , Сага [ 296 ] Как правило, континентальные германские традиции рисуют более позитивную картину Аттилы и гуннов, чем скандинавские источники, где гунны появляются в явно негативном свете. [ 297 ]

В средневековой немецкой легенде гунны были идентифицированы с венгры, а их столица Эцельбурга (Аттила-Сити) была идентифицирована с Эсстергомом или Будой . [ 298 ] Однако старая норвежская Тидрекссага , которая основана на северных немецких источниках, находит Хунленда в Северной Германии с столицей в Soest в Вестфалии . [ 299 ] В других старых норвежских источниках термин, который иногда применяется без разбора к различным людям, особенно с юга Скандинавии. [ 300 ] Начиная с тринадцатого века, среднее немецкое слово для Хун, Хиун , стало синонимом для гиганта и продолжал использоваться в этом значении в формах Хюне и Хеуна в современную эпоху. [ 301 ] Таким образом, различные доисторические мегалитические структуры, особенно в северной Германии, стали идентифицированными как Hünengräber (Hun Graves) или Hünenbetten (Hun Beds). [ 302 ]

«Праздник Аттилы». Венгерская романтическая картина Мор, чем (1870).

Начиная с высоких средневековье, венгерские источники претендовали на происхождение или тесные отношения между венгры (мадьярами) и гунными. Представление, по-видимому, сначала возникло в не-венгерских источниках и только постепенно воспринимается сами венгры из-за его негативных коннотаций. [ 303 ] Анонимная геста Хунгарорум (после 1200 года) является первым венгерским источником, упомянутым, что линия царей Арпадиан была потомками Аттилы, но он не утверждает, что венгерские и гунские народы связаны. [ 304 ] Первым венгерским, ответственным за то, что Хун и венгерские народы были связаны, был Саймон из Кеза в его действиях Ханнорум и Венгерс (1282-1285). [ 305 ] Саймон утверждал, что гунны и венгры были произошли от двух братьев по имени Хун и Магор . [ D ] Эти претензии дали венгры древнюю родословную и служили узаконику их завоевания Паннонии . [ 307 ]

Современные ученые в значительной степени отклоняют эти претензии. [ 308 ] Что касается заявленного Hunnish Origins, найденного в этих хрониках, Джена Шис пишет:

Ханнистское происхождение магов, конечно, является художественной литературой, как и троянское происхождение французов или любая другая теория оригинальных джентеров, сфабрикованные в почти то же время. Мадьяры на самом деле возникли из угрской ветви финно -гарских народов; В ходе своих странствий в степи Восточной Европы они ассимилировали различные (особенно иранские и разные туркские) культурные и этнические элементы, но у них ни генетические, ни исторические связи с гунами. [ 309 ]

Как правило, доказательство отношений между венгерским и фингогрическим языком в девятнадцатом веке рассматривается, чтобы научно опровергнуть охотничье происхождение венгров. [ 310 ] В то время как Мадьяры могут не быть потомками гуннов, они исторически тесно связаны с туркскими народами. [ 311 ] Хён Джин Ким предполагает, что венгры могут быть связаны с гунными через болгар и авары, оба из которых он считает, что у него были охотничьи элементы. [ 312 ]

Аттила (справа) как король Венгрии вместе с Джулой и Белой I , иллюстрацией для костюма IL Antico E Moderno от Джулио Феррарио (1831).

Другое утверждение, также полученное от Саймона Кеза, [ 313 ] заключается в том, что венгерские, говорящие Трансильвании на людях , произошли от Хунса, которые бежали в Трансильванию после смерти Аттилы и оставались там до венгерского завоевания Паннонии. В то время как происхождение Székely неясно, [ 314 ] Современные историки и археологи не считают, что Székelys были охотничьего происхождения из -за отсутствия доказательств. [ 315 ] Лашело Маккай также отмечает, что некоторые археологи и историки считают, что Székelys были венгерским племенем или племенем Оногур-Булгар, втянутым в Карпатскую бассейн в конце 7-го века аварами ( которые были отождествлены с охотниками современными европейцами). [ 316 ] В отличие от легенды, Székely были переселены в Трансильвании из западной Венгрии в одиннадцатом веке. [ 317 ] Их язык аналогично не показывает никаких доказательств изменения от любого не-венгерского языка на венгерский, как и следовало ожидать, если бы они были гунными. [ 318 ]

В то время как представление о том, что венгеры происходят от гуннов, было отвергнуто с помощью основной стипендии, эта идея продолжала оказывать соответствующее влияние на венгерский национализм и национальную идентичность. [ 319 ] Большая часть венгерской аристократии продолжала приписать гневный взгляд на начало двадцатого века. [ 320 ] Фашистская партия Стрела Крест также называла Венгрию Ханнией в своей пропаганде. [ 321 ] Предполагаемое охотничье происхождение венгров также сыграло большую роль в современной радикальной правой партии Джоббика идеологии пантуранизма . [ 322 ] Тем временем легенды, касающиеся охотничьего происхождения из -за шокейного меньшинства в Румынии , продолжают играть большую роль в этнической идентичности этой группы. [ 323 ] Члены венгерского правого крыла, при поддержке правительства премьер -министра Виктора Орбана и академических учреждений, таких как Институт венгерских исследований ( Magyarságkutató Intézet , MKI), продолжают продвигать венгерский происхождение от гун. [ 324 ]

Современные ассоциации с дикой

Современная культура, как правило, ассоциирует хун с чрезвычайной жестокостью и варварством. [ 7 ] Во время Первой мировой войны пропаганда часто называла немцами «хун» , союзничная чтобы нарисовать немцев дикими варварами; Это использование продолжалось в ограниченной степени во время Второй мировой войны . [ 325 ]

Смотрите также

Энджеты

  1. ^ Есть заблуждение, например, выраженная энциклопедией Всемирной истории , [ 58 ] Этот молчаливый ( ок. 56 - c. 120 г. н.э. ) впервые упомянул гун в 91 году. Тем не менее, TD Barnes (1977) уже отметил, что Tacitus вообще не упомянул гун; и что Оросий ( ок. 375/385 - ок. 420 г. н.э. ) не приписывал знания о гуннах Тацитуса, но просто определил современные Аланы, Готы и Хунс со скифами Тацитус и Джастин . , которых уже упоминали [ 59 ]
  2. ^ Он утверждает о существовании хуннических шаманов на основе присутствия элемента Кама в охотничьих именах Атакам и Эскам , которые он выводит от туркского кама , что означает Шаман. [ 205 ]
  3. ^ Он получает эту веру из охотничьего обычая, подтвержденного в Аммиане, что гунны не вымывали свою одежду: среди более поздних степных народов это сделано, чтобы не оскорбить дух вод. [ 207 ]
  4. ^ Szűcs утверждает, что название Hunor как венгерского предка искренне отражает магьярские устные легенды, но оно фактически происходит от имени Onogur ; использовал сходство Хунра , Поэтому Саймон просто чтобы поддержать свою теорию. [ 306 ]

Цитаты

  1. ^ Jump up to: а беременный De la Vaissière 2015 , с. 177.
  2. ^ Schor 1990 , p. 180.
  3. ^ Jump up to: а беременный De la Vaissière 2015 , с. 175, 180.
  4. ^ LIGHT & STANOKOK 2022 .
  5. ^ Синор 1990 , с. 177; Хизер 1995 , с. 16
  6. ^ Szűcs 1999 , p. Xliv; Engel 2001 , p. 2; Лендвай 2003 , с. 7; Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 386.
  7. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Sornet 1990 , p. 177.
  8. ^ Haug 2019 , p.
  9. ^ Lomazoff & Ralby 2013 , p. 246
  10. ^ Хизер 2010 , с. 502; De la Vaissière 2015 , с. 176
  11. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 7
  12. ^ Томпсон 1996 , с. 20
  13. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 5; Хизер 2010 , с. 209
  14. ^ Райт 2011 , с. 60
  15. ^ Pollk 1999 , p. 501
  16. ^ de la Vaissière 2015 , с. 175.
  17. ^ Райт 2011 , с. 60; Томпсон 1996 , с. 1; Шоткий 2004 ; Sinor 1990 , p. 178; Heather 2005 , с. 148–149.
  18. ^ Скоткий 2004 ; Sinor 1990 , p. 200
  19. ^ Pohl 1999 , pp. 501–502.
  20. ^ Мяч 2021 , с. 174.
  21. ^ de la Vaissière 2015 , стр. 178–180.
  22. ^ de la Vaissière 2015 , стр. 181–183.
  23. ^ Ким 2015 , с. 46
  24. ^ Ким 2013 , с. 31; Kim 2015 , с. 6–8.
  25. ^ Ким 2015 , стр. 39, 44–53.
  26. ^ Домашник 1973 , с. 8; Werrus 1967 , P. 528.
  27. ^ Этвуд 2012 , с. 31
  28. ^ Ким 2015 , с. 66
  29. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 4–9.
  30. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Maenchen-Help 1959 , p. 237
  31. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1959 , p. 236
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  33. ^ Вернер 1967 , с. 555.
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  64. ^ Томпсон 1996 , с. 32–33.
  65. ^ Томпсон 1996 , с. 33.
  66. ^ Schor 1990 , p. 185.
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  71. ^ Halsall 2007 , с. 251–252.
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  77. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Maenchen-Help 1973 , p. 168.
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  82. ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый Maenchen-Help 1973 , p. 171.
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  88. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 220–221.
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  92. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 174–178.
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  99. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Sornet 1990 , p. 203.
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  109. ^ Томпсон 1996 , с. 189–194.
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  112. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 188-189.
  113. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 185–186.
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  119. ^ Ким 2015 , стр. 81–89.
  120. ^ Pohl 2015 , с. 258–259.
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  194. ^ Томпсон 1996 , с. 185.
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  201. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 279-280.
  202. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Surestrian 2005 , p. 4229.
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  206. ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый Surestrian 2005 , p. 4228.
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  208. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 278–296.
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  216. ^ Lenski 2015 , p. 241.
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  220. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 275–277.
  221. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 277–278.
  222. ^ Heather 2005 , с. 330–331.
  223. ^ Jump up to: а беременный в Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
  224. ^ Kulcsár & istvánovits 2019 , стр. 178-179.
  225. ^ Heather 2005 , p. 331-332.
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  227. ^ Обзор 2010 , с. 520.
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  233. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 307-318.
  234. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 320.
  235. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 323.
  236. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 326.
  237. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 327–330.
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  240. ^ от Rummel 2007 , p. 116
  241. ^ von Rummel 2007 , с. 115–116.
  242. ^ von Rummel 2007 , с. 117, 119.
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  244. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 171–172.
  245. ^ Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
  246. ^ Takáts 1963 , p. 241-244.
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  248. ^ от Rummel 2007 , p. 38, 354.
  249. ^ Bitner-Wroblewska, Pesch & Przybył, 2020 , с.
  250. ^ Мяч 2021 , с. 196
  251. ^ Takáts 1963 , p. 241.
  252. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 354–356.
  253. ^ Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
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  255. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 297
  256. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 352–354.
  257. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 357.
  258. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 178.
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  260. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 179–180.
  261. ^ Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
  262. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 221
  263. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Казански 2018 , с. 408.
  264. ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый и Symonenko 2017 .
  265. ^ Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
  266. ^ Rodzińska-nowak 2020 , стр. 383–384.
  267. ^ 2016 , с. 83.
  268. ^ Ким 2013 , с. Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
  269. ^ 2016 , с. 82-83.
  270. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 221–222.
  271. ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый и Казански 2013 , с. 513.
  272. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , p. 209-210.
  273. ^ Кросс, 2023 .
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  279. ^ Jump up to: а беременный Томпсон 1996 , с. 59
  280. ^ Surdy 2010 , с. 518-519.
  281. ^ von Rummel 2007 , с. 346–348.
  282. ^ Rodzińska-Nowak 2020 , с.
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  284. ^ Kiss 2014 , p. 135.
  285. ^ Heather 2005 , p. 157
  286. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973 , с. 239.
  287. ^ Истман 2011 , с. 88
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  309. ^ Szűcs 1999 , p. Xliv.
  310. ^ Лаффертон 2007 , с. 717.
  311. ^ Lendvai 2003 , стр. 14-15.
  312. ^ Ким 2015 , с. 140.
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  315. ^ Borbély et al. 2023 , с. 2
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