Jump to content

Первая мировая война

Страница полузащищенная
Послушайте эту статью
(Перенаправлено из Первой мировой войны )

Первая мировая война
Сверху вниз, слева направо :
Дата 28 июля 1914 г. - 11 ноября 1918 г.
(4 года, 3 месяца и 2 недели)
Мирные договоры
Расположение
Результат союзных держав Победа
См. Последствия Первой мировой войны.
Территориальный
изменения
Воюющие стороны
Союзные державы :
и Империя :
и другие   ...
Центральные державы :
Командиры и лидеры
Главные лидеры союзников : Главные лидеры Центра :
Жертвы и потери
  • Военные погибли:
  • Более 5 525 000
  • Гражданский погиб:
  • Более 4 000 000
  • Всего мертвых:
  • Более 9 000 000
  • ... подробнее
  • Военные погибли:
  • Более 4 386 000
  • Гражданский погиб:
  • Более 3 700 000
  • Всего мертвых:
  • Более 8 000 000
  • ... подробнее

Первая мировая война [Дж] или Первая мировая война (28 июля 1914 г. – 11 ноября 1918 г.) была глобальным конфликтом между двумя коалициями: союзниками (или Антантой) и центральными державами . Боевые действия происходили в основном в Европе и на Ближнем Востоке , а также в некоторых частях Африки и Азиатско-Тихоокеанского региона и характеризовались позиционной войной и применением артиллерии , пулеметов и химического оружия (газового). Первая мировая война была одним из самых смертоносных конфликтов в истории, в результате которого, по оценкам, погибло 9 миллионов военных и было ранено 23 миллиона, а также до 8 миллионов мирных жителей погибли по причинам, включая геноцид . Передвижение большого количества войск и гражданского населения стало основным фактором распространения пандемии испанского гриппа .

Причинами Первой мировой войны были подъем Германии и упадок Османской империи , что нарушило баланс сил, существовавший в Европе на протяжении большей части XIX века, а также усиление экономической конкуренции между странами, вызванное новыми волнами индустриализации и империализм . Растущая напряженность между великими державами и на Балканах достигла критической точки 28 июня 1914 года, когда боснийский серб по имени Гаврило Принцип убил эрцгерцога Франца Фердинанда , наследника австро-венгерского престола. Австро-Венгрия возложила ответственность на Сербию и 28 июля объявила войну. Россия мобилизовалась для защиты Сербии, и к 4 августа Германия, Россия, Франция и Великобритания были втянуты в войну, а в ноябре того же года к ней присоединились османы. Стратегия Германии в 1914 году заключалась в том, чтобы быстро разгромить Францию, а затем перебросить свои силы на русский фронт. Однако это не удалось, и к концу года Западный фронт представлял собой сплошную линию траншей, протянувшуюся от Ла-Манша до Швейцарии. Восточный фронт был более динамичным, но ни одна из сторон не смогла получить решающего преимущества, несмотря на дорогостоящие наступления. По мере того как боевые действия распространялись на новые фронты, Италия , Болгария , Румыния , Греция с 1915 года к ним присоединились и другие.

В апреле 1917 года Соединенные Штаты вступили в войну на стороне союзников после возобновления Германией неограниченной подводной войны против атлантического судоходства; позже в том же году большевики в России захватили власть в результате Октябрьской революции , после чего Советская Россия в декабре подписала перемирие с центральными державами, за которым последовал сепаратный мир в марте 1918 года. В том же месяце Германия начала наступление на западе, которое, несмотря на Первые успехи оставили немецкую армию истощенной и деморализованной. Успешное контрнаступление союзников в августе 1918 года привело к разрушению немецкой линии фронта. К началу ноября Болгария , Османская империя и Австро-Венгрия подписали перемирие с союзниками, оставив Германию изолированной. Столкнувшись с революцией внутри страны, кайзер Вильгельм   II отрекся от престола 9 ноября, и война закончилась перемирием 11 ноября 1918 года .

Парижская мирная конференция 1919–1920 годов навязала побежденным державам различные соглашения, в первую очередь Версальский договор , по которому Германия потеряла значительные территории, была разоружена и была обязана выплатить большие суммы военных репараций союзникам . Распад Российской, Германской, Австро-Венгерской и Османской империй изменил национальные границы и привел к созданию новых независимых государств, включая Польшу , Финляндию, страны Балтии , Чехословакию и Югославию . Лига Наций была создана для поддержания мира во всем мире, но ее неспособность справиться с нестабильностью в межвоенный период способствовала началу Второй мировой войны в 1939 году.

Имена

Первое зарегистрированное использование термина « Первая мировая война» было в сентябре 1914 года немецким биологом и философом Эрнстом Геккелем , который заявил: «Нет сомнений в том, что ход и характер пугающей «Европейской войны»… станет первой мировой войной». в полном смысле этого слова». [1] Позже подполковник использовал его в качестве названия для своих мемуаров 1920 года. Чарльз а Корт Репингтон . [2]

До Второй мировой войны события 1914–1918 годов были широко известны как Великая война или просто Мировая война . [3] В августе 1914 года журнал The Independent написал: «Это Великая война. Она называет себя». [4] В октябре 1914 года канадский журнал Maclean's аналогичным образом написал: «Некоторые войны называют сами себя. Это Великая война». [5] Современные европейцы также называли ее « войной, которая положит конец войне », а также «войной, которая положит конец всем войнам» из-за их восприятия ее беспрецедентных масштабов, опустошений и человеческих жертв. [6]

Фон

Политические и военные союзы

Карта Европы с акцентом на Австро-Венгрию и указанием центрального расположения в ней этнических групп, включая словаков, чехов, словенцев, хорватов, сербов, румын, украинцев, поляков.
Соперничающие военные коалиции в 1914 году: [к]

На протяжении большей части XIX века крупнейшие европейские державы поддерживали хрупкий баланс сил , известный как «Европейский концерт» . [7] После 1848 года этому вопросу бросили вызов уход Британии в так называемую « блестящую изоляцию» , упадок Османской империи , новый империализм и возвышение Пруссии при Отто фон Бисмарке . 1866 года Австро-прусская война установила прусскую гегемонию в немецких государствах, а победа во франко-прусской войне 1870–1871 годов позволила Бисмарку консолидировать Германскую империю под руководством Пруссии. После 1871 года основной целью французской политики была месть за это поражение. [8] но к началу 1890-х годов это перешло к расширению Французской колониальной империи . [9]

В 1873 году Бисмарк заключил « Союз трёх императоров» , в который вошли Австро-Венгрия , Россия и Германия. После русско-турецкой войны 1877–1878 годов Лига была распущена из-за опасений Австрии по поводу расширения российского влияния на Балканах , области, которую они считали представляющей жизненно важный стратегический интерес. Германия и Австро-Венгрия затем сформировали Двойной союз 1879 года , который стал Тройственным союзом, когда Италия присоединилась к нему в 1882 году. [10] По мнению Бисмарка, целью этих соглашений было изолировать Францию, гарантируя, что три империи разрешат любые споры между собой; когда в 1880 году этому угрожали попытки Великобритании и Франции вести прямые переговоры с Россией, он реформировал Лигу в 1881 году, которая была продлена в 1883 и 1885 годах. После истечения срока ее действия в 1887 году Бисмарк заключил Договор о перестраховании , секретное соглашение между Германией. и Россия должна оставаться нейтральной в случае нападения Франции или Австро-Венгрии. [11]

Мировые империи и колонии c. 1914 год

Для Бисмарка мир с Россией был основой внешней политики Германии, но в 1890 году Вильгельм II вынудил его уйти в отставку . Последнего убедил не продлевать договор перестрахования его новый Лео канцлер фон Каприви . [12] Это дало Франции возможность заключить франко-российский союз в 1894 году, за которым затем последовало сердечное согласие 1904 года с Великобританией. Тройственное согласие было завершено Англо-российской конвенцией 1907 года . Хотя это и не формальные союзы, но благодаря разрешению давних колониальных споров в Азии и Африке, британская поддержка Франции или России в любом будущем конфликте теперь стала возможной. [13] Это было подчеркнуто поддержкой Великобритании и России Франции против Германии во время Агадирского кризиса 1911 года . [14]

Гонка вооружений

SMS Rheinland , «Нассау» линкор типа , первый ответ Германии на британский дредноут , 1910 год.

Экономическая и промышленная мощь Германии продолжала быстро расти после 1871 года. При поддержке Вильгельма II адмирал Альфред фон Тирпиц стремился использовать этот рост для создания Имперского немецкого флота , который мог бы конкурировать с британским Королевским флотом . [15] Эта политика была основана на работах американского военно-морского автора Альфреда Тайера Махана , который утверждал, что обладание военно-морским флотом жизненно важно для проецирования глобальной власти; Тирпиц перевел свои книги на немецкий язык, а Вильгельм обязал их читать своих советников и старших военных. [16]

Однако это было также эмоциональное решение, вызванное одновременно восхищением Вильгельма Королевским флотом и желанием превзойти его. Бисмарк думал, что британцы не будут вмешиваться в дела Европы, пока ее господство на море остается безопасным, но его отставка в 1890 году привела к изменению политики, и началась англо-германская гонка военно-морских вооружений . [17] Несмотря на огромные суммы, потраченные Тирпицем, запуск HMS Dreadnought в 1906 году дал британцам технологическое преимущество над их немецкими соперниками. [15] В конечном итоге гонка отвлекла огромные ресурсы на создание немецкого флота, достаточно большого, чтобы вызвать недовольство Британии, но не победить ее; В 1911 году канцлер Теобальд фон Бетманн Хольвег признал поражение, что привело к Rüstungswende или «поворотному моменту в вооружениях», когда он переключил расходы с военно-морского флота на армию. [18]

Это решение было вызвано не снижением политической напряженности, а озабоченностью Германии по поводу быстрого восстановления России после поражения в русско-японской войне и последующей русской революции 1905 года в том же году. Экономические реформы, поддержанные французским финансированием, привели к значительному после 1908 года расширению железных дорог и транспортной инфраструктуры, особенно в западных приграничных регионах. [19] Поскольку Германия и Австро-Венгрия полагались на более быструю мобилизацию, чтобы компенсировать свое численное превосходство по сравнению с Россией , угроза, исходящая от сокращения этого разрыва, была более важной, чем конкуренция с Королевским флотом. После того, как в 1913 году Германия увеличила свою постоянную армию на 170 000 человек, Франция продлила обязательную военную службу с двух до трех лет; аналогичные меры были приняты балканскими державами и Италией, что привело к увеличению расходов Османской империи и Австро-Венгрии. Абсолютные цифры трудно рассчитать из-за различий в классификации расходов, поскольку они часто не учитывают проекты гражданской инфраструктуры, такие как железные дороги, которые также имели логистическое значение и военное использование. Однако известно, что с 1908 по 1913 год военные расходы шести крупнейших европейских держав в реальном выражении увеличились более чем на 50%. [20]

Конфликты на Балканах

Фотография большого белого здания с надписью «Мориц Шиллер» на одной и другой на арабском языке; впереди кучка людей, смотрящих на плакат на стене.
Жители Сараево читают плакат с провозглашением австрийской аннексии в 1908 году.

Годы до 1914 года были отмечены серией кризисов на Балканах, поскольку другие державы стремились извлечь выгоду из упадка Османской империи. Хотя панславянская и православная Россия считала себя защитницей Сербии и других славянских государств, они предпочитали, чтобы стратегически важные проливы Босфор контролировались слабым османским правительством, а не амбициозной славянской державой, такой как Болгария . У России были амбиции в северо-восточной Анатолии , в то время как у ее клиентов были пересекающиеся претензии на Балканах. Эти конкурирующие интересы разделили российских политиков и усилили региональную нестабильность. [21]

Австрийские государственные деятели считали Балканы необходимыми для дальнейшего существования своей империи и считали сербскую экспансию прямой угрозой. 1908–1909 годов Боснийский кризис начался, когда Австрия аннексировала бывшую османскую территорию Боснии и Герцеговины , которую она оккупировала с 1878 года. Это одностороннее действие, приуроченное к Декларации независимости Болгарии от Османской империи, было осуждено европейскими державами. но принято, поскольку не было единого мнения о том, как разрешить ситуацию. Некоторые историки рассматривают это как значительную эскалацию, лишающую Австрии любых шансов на сотрудничество с Россией на Балканах, а также наносящую ущерб дипломатическим отношениям между Сербией и Италией, обе из которых имели свои экспансионистские амбиции в регионе. [22]

Напряженность возросла после того, как итало-турецкая война 1911–1912 годов продемонстрировала слабость Османской империи и привела к формированию Балканской лиги — союза Сербии, Болгарии, Черногории и Греции . [23] Лига быстро захватила большую часть территории Османской империи на Балканах во время Первой Балканской войны 1912–1913 годов , к большому удивлению сторонних наблюдателей. [24] Захват сербами портов на Адриатике привел к частичной австрийской мобилизации, начавшейся 21 ноября 1912 года, включая части вдоль российской границы в Галиции . На встрече на следующий день российское правительство решило не мобилизоваться в ответ, не желая провоцировать войну, к которой оно еще не было готово. [25]

Великие державы стремились восстановить контроль посредством Лондонского договора 1913 года , в соответствии с которым была создана независимая Албания , одновременно расширяя территории Болгарии, Сербии, Черногории и Греции. Однако споры между победителями спровоцировали 33-дневную Вторую Балканскую войну , когда Болгария напала на Сербию и Грецию 16 июня 1913 года; он потерпел поражение, уступив большую часть Македонии Сербии и Греции, а Южную Добруджу - Румынии. [26] The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.[27] This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the "powder keg of Europe".[28][29][30][31]

Prelude

Sarajevo assassination

Traditionally thought to show the arrest of Gavrilo Princip (right), this photo is now believed by historians to depict an innocent bystander, Ferdinand Behr on 28 June 1914.[32][33]

In the summer of 1914, the sovereigns of Europe were woven together by treaties, alliances, as well as secret agreements. The Triple Alliance (1882) encompassed the German Empire, Austria, and Italy.[34]

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, visited Sarajevo, the capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, and Vaso Čubrilović (Bosnian Serbs) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community),[35] from the movement known as Young Bosnia, took up positions along the route taken by the Archduke's motorcade, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule, although there was little agreement on what would replace it.[36]

Nedeljko Čabrinović threw a grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides, who were taken to hospital while the convoy carried on. The other assassins were also unsuccessful but, an hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie.[37] Although Emperor Franz Joseph was shocked by the incident, political and personal differences meant the two men were not close; allegedly, his first reported comment was "A higher power has re-established the order which I, alas, could not preserve".[38]

According to historian Zbyněk Zeman, in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened."[39] Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna".[40]

Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, 29 June 1914

Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks killed two Bosnian Serbs and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings.[41][42] Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs.[43][44][45][46]

July Crisis

Cheering crowds in London and Paris on the day war was declared.

The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this.[47] However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement and a dossier used to make its case contained multiple errors.[48] On 23 July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities.[49]

Ethno-linguistic map of Austria-Hungary, 1910. Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed in 1908.

Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25 July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.[50][51] Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. Having initiated war preparations on 25 July, Russia now ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30th.[52]

Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July.[53] That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours.[54] A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war.[55] The German General Staff had long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switch to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon.[56]

At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force. However, this was largely driven by Prime Minister Asquith's desire to maintain unity; he and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention.[57] On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply.[58]

Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. Later the same day, Wilhelm was informed by his ambassador in London, Prince Lichnowsky, that Britain would remain neutral if France was not attacked, and might not intervene at all given the ongoing Home Rule Crisis in Ireland.[59] Jubilant at this news, he ordered General Moltke, the German chief of staff, to "march the whole of the ... army to the East". This allegedly brought Moltke to the verge of a nervous breakdown, before Lichnowsky realized he was mistaken. Once Wilhelm received a telegram from George V, it confirmed there had been a misunderstanding, and he told Moltke, "Now do what you want."[60]

Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.[61] Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid any incident which might provoke the war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3 August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London.[62][63] Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war.[64]

Progress of the war

Opening hostilities

Confusion among the Central Powers

The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia.[65]

Serbian campaign

Serbian Army Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915

Beginning on 12 August, the Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses, dashing their hopes of a swift victory and marking the first major Allied victories of the war. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia.[66] Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.[67] In spring 1915, the campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army in autumn 1915.[68][69]

German offensive in Belgium and France

German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914; at this stage, all sides expected the conflict to be a short one.

Upon mobilisation, 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East; officially titled Aufmarsch II West, it is better known as the Schlieffen Plan after its creator, Alfred von Schlieffen, head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. Schlieffen estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians.[70]

The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine, which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII.[70] However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings from 85:15 to 70:30.[71] He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan.[72] Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success and thus led to unrealistic goals and timings.[73]

French bayonet charge during the Battle of the Frontiers; by the end of August, French casualties exceeded 260,000, including 75,000 dead.

The initial German advance in the West was very successful and by the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat. At the same time, the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000, including 27,000 killed on 22 August during the Battle of the Frontiers.[74] German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front; this worked well in 1866 and 1870 but in 1914, von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.[75] The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority.

In 1911, the Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements.[76]

By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems, combined with questionable command decisions, cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war.[77] As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne, Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already."[78]

Asia and the Pacific

Japanese soldiers occupy an abandoned German trench during the Siege of Tsingtao, 1914

On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa, now the independent state of Samoa. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain, then part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate, as well as German Treaty ports on the Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary as well, and the ship was sunk at Tsingtao in November 1914.[79] Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea.[80][81]

African campaigns

Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.[82]

Indian support for the Allies

British Indian Army infantry divisions in France; these troops were withdrawn in December 1915, and served in the Mesopotamian campaign.

Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India, while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity.[83][84] This was largely because leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India.[85]

In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the Government of India and their princely allies supplied large quantities of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.[86]

The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi.[87]

Western Front 1914 to 1916

Trench warfare begins

British Indian soldiers digging trenches in Laventie, France, 1915

Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and the individual rifleman proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult.[88] Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without suffering heavy casualties. In time, however, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and the tank.[89]

After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the "Race to the Sea". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border.[90] Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences.[91] Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war.[92][93]

Continuation of trench warfare

German casualties at the Somme, 1916

In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. The Germans made initial gains before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000[94] to 975,000[95] casualties suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice.[96]

The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army, which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans.[97] Gunfire was not the only cause of death; the diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot, lice, typhus, trench fever, and the 'Spanish flu'.[98]

Naval war

Battleships of the Hochseeflotte, 1917

At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS Emden, part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao, which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, as well as a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra, these too were either destroyed or interned.[99]

Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. This proved effective in cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, though it violated accepted international law.[100] Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of the ocean, even to neutral ships.[101] Since there was limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.[102]

The Battle of Jutland [l] in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received, since thereafter the bulk of the German High Seas Fleet was confined to port.[103]

U-155 exhibited near Tower Bridge in London, after the 1918 Armistice

German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.[104] The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.[104][105] The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet).[106] Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war.[104][107] Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so.[104]

The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.[108] The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at the cost of 199 submarines.[109]

World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol.[110]

Southern theatres

War in the Balkans

Refugee transport from Serbia in Leibnitz, Styria, 1914

Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia.[111] The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia.[112]

Bulgarian soldiers in a trench, preparing to fire against an incoming aeroplane

Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were then evacuated to Greece.[113] After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.[114]

In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived.[115]

The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front.[116]

Austro-Hungarian troops executing captured Serbians, 1917. Serbia lost about 850,000 people during the war, a quarter of its pre-war population.[117]

Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918.[118] The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front.[119]

The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.[120]

Ottoman Empire

Australian troops charging near a Turkish trench during the Gallipoli campaign

The Ottomans threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations, known as the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Sayfo respectively.[121][122][123]

The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.[124]

Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August 1916, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917.[125]

Russian forest trench at the Battle of Sarikamish, 1914–1915

Russian armies generally had success in the Caucasus campaign. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been previously lost to Russia. He was, however, a poor commander.[126] He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.[127]

Kaiser Wilhelm II and Prince Leopold of Bavaria inspecting Turkish troops of the 15th Corps in East Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Poland).

The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914 to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea.[128] Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Lurs, and Khamseh, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, to be cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.[129]

General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories.[127]

The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, started in June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca. The Sharif declared the independence of the Kingdom of Hejaz and, with British assistance, conquered much of Ottoman-held Arabia, resulting finally in the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than 2+12 years during the siege of Medina before surrendering in January 1919.[130]

The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.[131]

Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted to 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded.[132]

Italian Front

Isonzo Offensives 1915–1917

Though Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.[133] This arose from nationalist designs on Austro-Hungarian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Rijeka and Dalmatia, which were considered vital to secure the borders established in 1866.[134] In 1902, Rome secretly had agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance.[135]

When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in 1911 Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions in Libya and the Dodecanese islands.[136] To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered them Tunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.[137] Although they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915 Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and, on 23 May, declared war on Austria-Hungary,[138] followed by Germany fifteen months later.

Austro-Hungarian trench at 3,850 metres in the Ortler Alps, one of the most challenging fronts of the war

The pre-1914 Italian army was short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London.[139] The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place high in the Alps and Dolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics.[140] Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander, Luigi Cadorna, undertook a series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo, which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000.[141]

In the spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in Asiago in the Strafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to Tyrol.[142] Although an Italian corps occupied southern Albania in May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which, after the capture of Gorizia in August 1916, remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory at Caporetto, Cadorna was replaced by Armando Diaz who retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding positions along the Piave River.[143] A second Austrian offensive was repulsed in June 1918 and by October it was clear the Central Powers had lost the war. On 24 October, Diaz launched the Battle of Vittorio Veneto and initially met stubborn resistance,[144] but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy demanded they be sent home.[145] When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners.[146] On 3 November, the Armistice of Villa Giusti ended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupied Trieste and areas along the Adriatic Sea awarded to it in 1915.[147]

Eastern Front

Initial actions

Emperor Nicholas II and Grand Duke Nikolaevich following the Russian capture of Przemyśl, the longest siege of the war.

As previously agreed with France, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance into Austrian Galicia and East Prussia as soon as possible. Although their attack on Galicia was largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses.[148][149] By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915 Gorlice–Tarnów offensive allowed the Central Powers to invade Russian-occupied Poland.[150]

Despite the successful June 1916 Brusilov offensive against the Austrians in eastern Galicia,[151] shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant offensives of the war, diverting German resources from Verdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased disillusion with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions.[152]

Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia as the Tsar remained at the front, with the home front controlled by Empress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite, Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916.[153]

Romanian participation

World War I is located in Romania
Bucharest
Bucharest
Timișoara (Banat)
Timișoara (Banat)
Cluj (Transylvania)
Cluj (Transylvania)
Chișinău (Moldova)
Chișinău (Moldova)
Constanța (Dobruja)
Constanța (Dobruja)
Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Hungary
Hungary
Mărășești
Mărășești
Oituz
Oituz
Romania key locations 1916–1918 (note; using 2022 borders)

Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic Romanian communities in Hungarian-controlled Transylvania,[154] which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population.[155] With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions, Romania remained neutral in 1914, arguing like Italy that because Austria-Hungary had declared war on Serbia, it was under no obligation to join them.[156] They maintained this position for the next two years while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory.[157]

In September 1914, Russia acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania and Banat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support,[155] and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916 Treaty of Bucharest.[157] Under the strategic plan known as Hypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending Southern Dobruja and Giurgiu against a possible Bulgarian counterattack.[158] On 27 August 1916, they attacked Transylvania and occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formed German 9th Army, led by former Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn.[159] A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated to Bucharest, which surrendered to the Central Powers on 6 December 1916.[160]

In the summer of 1917, a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war, resulting in the battles of Oituz, Mărăști and Mărășești where up to 1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22 July to 3 September and eventually, the Romanian army was victorious advancing 500 km2. August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to transfer troops to the Italian Front.[161] Following the Russian revolution, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty over Bessarabia in return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and leasing its oil wells to Germany for 99 years. Although approved by Parliament, King Ferdinand I refused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory in the west.[162] Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918.[163][m]

Central Powers peace overtures

On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies.[165] However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a "duplicitous war ruse".[165]

"They shall not pass", a phrase typically associated with the defence of Verdun

US president Woodrow Wilson attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking for both sides to state their demands and start negotiations. Lloyd George's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions among the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities.[166] This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland".[166] The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement.[167] The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals.[165]

Final years of the war

Russian Revolution and withdrawal

By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress a wave of strikes in Petrograd but the troops refused to fire on the crowds. [168] Revolutionaries set up the Petrograd Soviet and fearing a left-wing takeover, the State Duma forced Nicholas to abdicate and established the Russian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creating competing power centres and causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised and unwilling to fight on.[169]

Following the Tsar's abdication, Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers.[170]

With the Russian Empire out of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers in May 1918, ending the state of war between Romania and the Central Powers. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania had to give territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and lease its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers' recognition of the union of Bessarabia with Romania.[171][172]

United States enters the war

President Wilson asking Congress to declare war on Germany, 2 April 1917

The United States was a major supplier of war material to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition.[173] The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea.[174]

On 6 April 1917, Congress declared war on Germany as an "Associated Power" of the Allies.[175] The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join the Grand Fleet, and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, the United States Army had fewer than 300,000 men, including National Guard units, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. The Selective Service Act of 1917 drafted 2.8 million men, though training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November.[176]

Despite his conviction that Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.[177] He was strongly supported by AEF commander General John J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 "open warfare" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery as misguided and incompatible with American "offensive spirit".[178] Much to the frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops, and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was the Meuse–Argonne offensive in late September 1918.[179]

Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917)

Files of soldiers with rifles slung follow close behind a tank, there is a dead body in the foreground
Canadian Corps troops at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, 1917

In December 1916, Robert Nivelle replaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning a spring attack in Champagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation. Nivelle claimed the capture of his main objective, the Chemin des Dames, would achieve a massive breakthrough and cost no more than 15,000 casualties.[180] Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and, by 25 April, the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days.[181]

Concurrent British attacks at Arras were more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value.[182] Operating as a separate unit for the first time, the Canadian Corps capture of Vimy Ridge is viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.[183][184] Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the 21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating the French Army mutinies; within days, "collective indiscipline" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted.[185] Unrest was almost entirely confined to the infantry, whose demands were largely non-political, including better economic support for families at home, and regular periods of leave, which Nivelle had ended.[186]

Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918)

British artillery battery on Mount Scopus in the Battle of Jerusalem, 1917.

In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.[187][188] At the end of October 1917, the Sinai and Palestine campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba.[189] Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem had been captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem.[190][191][192] About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.[193][194]

In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918.[195]

German offensive and Allied counter-offensive (March–November 1918)

Between April and November 1918, the Allies increased their front-line rifle strength while German strength fell by half.[196]

In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the West. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success in a final quick offensive.[197] Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near Saint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).[198] The initial offensive was a success; after heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.[199]

Following this, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counter-attack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive on 8 August,[200] led to a marked collapse in German morale.[201][202][203]

Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line

American soldiers firing on German entrenched positions during the Meuse-Argonne offensive, 1918

By September, the Germans had fallen back to the Hindenburg Line. The Allies had advanced to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. German forces launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued falling, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September, the Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.[204]

The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. Two days later the Allied armies (Belgian, French and British) attacked around Ypres, and the day after the British Fourth and French First Army at St Quentin in the centre of the line. The following week, cooperating American and French units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge (3–27 October), forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.[205] On 8 October, the Hindenburg Line was pierced by British and Dominion troops of the First and Third British Armies at the Second Battle of Cambrai.[206]

Breakthrough of Macedonian Front (September 1918)

Bulgarian major Ivanov with white flag surrendering to Serbian 7th Danube regiment near Kumanovo

Allied forces started the Vardar offensive on 15 September at two key points: Dobro Pole and near Dojran Lake. In the Battle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three-day-long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reached Skopje at 29 September, after which Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 30 September.[207][208]

Armistices and capitulations

Italian troops reach Trento during the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, 1918

The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918.[209] German Emperor Wilhelm II in a telegram to Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I described the situation thus: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!".[210][211] On the same day, the German Supreme Army Command informed Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chancellor Count Georg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless.[212]

On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, marking the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and all Tyrol, with over 20,000 soldiers.[213]

On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, and signed the Armistice of Mudros.[209]

German government surrenders

Ferdinand Foch (second from right) pictured outside the carriage in Compiègne after agreeing to the armistice that ended the war there.[214]

With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government on October 3 as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military.[215]

In northern Germany, the German Revolution of 1918–1919 began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost, initiating the uprising. The sailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918, shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and German surrender.[216][217][218][219][220]

Aftermath

In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian.[n] Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead,[221] not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected.[222]

Formal end of the war

The signing of the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919, by Sir William Orpen

A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,[223][224] and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding.[225] For the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 concerning:

  • Germany on 10 January 1920.[226]
  • Austria on 16 July 1920.[227]
  • Bulgaria on 9 August 1920.[228]
  • Hungary on 26 July 1921.[229]
  • Turkey on 6 August 1924.[230]
Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos signing the Treaty of Sèvres

Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918.[231]

Peace treaties and national boundaries

Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923)

After the war, there grew a certain amount of academic focus on the causes of war and on the elements that could make peace flourish. In part, these led to the institutionalization of peace and conflict studies, security studies and International Relations (IR) in general.[232] The Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on Wilson's 14th point, established the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.[233][234]

The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231. This article became known as the "War Guilt Clause", as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.[235] Overall, the Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of Versailles". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated."[236] Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:

Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the "stab in the back" and the wish to revise the "Versailles diktat", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as [Gustav] Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its policies.[237]

Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as a recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours.[238]

Dissolution of Austria-Hungary after war

Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Trianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million, and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnic Hungarians.[239] According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of the Kingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1% Romanians, 10.5% Slovaks, 10.4% Germans, 2.5% Ruthenians, 2.5% Serbs and 8% others.[240] Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.[241]

The Russian Empire, which withdrew from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918.[242]

National identities

After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation" and the country with the most casualties per capita,[243][244][245] became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania would unite all Romanian-speaking people under a single state, leading to Greater Romania.[246]

In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment.[247][248]

In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne.[249] According to various sources,[250] several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek genocide.[251]

Casualties

Men transporting wounded Ottoman at Sirkeci

Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, an estimated 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.[252] France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured.[253] Approximately 15,000 deployed men sustained gruesome injuries to the face, causing social stigma and marginalisation; they were called the gueules cassées. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that had weakened disease resistance. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.[254] Starvation caused by famine killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon.[255]

Emergency military hospital during the Spanish flu pandemic in Camp Funston, Kansas, 1918

Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia.[256] Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known as Spanish flu spread across the world, accelerated by the movement of large numbers of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. The Spanish flu killed at least 17 to 25 million people,[257][258] including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans.[259] Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic of encephalitis lethargica spread across the world affecting nearly five million people.[260][261]

8 million equines mostly horses, donkeys and mules died, three-quarters of them from the extreme conditions they worked in.[262]

War crimes

Chemical weapons in warfare

French soldiers making a gas and flame attack on German trenches in Flanders

The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April – 25 May 1915), after German scientists working under the direction of Fritz Haber at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute developed a method to weaponize chlorine.[o][264] The use of chemical weapons had been sanctioned by the German High Command to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.[264] At the time, chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, of which about 90,000 were fatal.[264] For example, there were an estimated 186,000 causalites from British chemical weapons during the war (80% of which were the result of exposure to the vesicant 'mustard gas', introduced to the battlefield by the Germans in July 1917),[264] and up to one-third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I.[265] The use of chemical weapons in warfare was a direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use.[266][267]

Genocides by the Ottoman Empire

Armenians killed during the Armenian genocide. Image taken from Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, written by Henry Morgenthau Sr. and published in 1918.[268]

The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide.[269] The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination.[270] In early 1915, several Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.[271] While the exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates around 1.5 million.[269][272] The government of Turkey continues to deny the genocide to the present day, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I; these claims are rejected by most historians.[273]

Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.[274][275][276] At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000 Anatolian and Pontic Greeks were killed between 1915 and 1922.[277]

Prisoners of war

British prisoners guarded by Ottoman forces after the First Battle of Gaza in 1917

About 8 million soldiers surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front.[278]

Around 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%; for Italy 26%; for France 12%; for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers, about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians.[279]

Soldiers' experiences

Allied personnel was around 42,928,000, while Central personnel was near 25,248,000.[222][280] British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but were increasingly conscripted. Surviving veterans returning home, often found they could discuss their experiences only among themselves. Grouping, they formed "veterans' associations" or "Legions". A small number of personal accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of Congress Veterans History Project.[281]

Conscription

U.S. Army recruiting poster with Uncle Sam, 1917

Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries.[282] It was especially unpopular among minority ethnicities—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland,[283] Australia,[284][285] and the French Catholics in Canada.[286][287]

In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well-received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.[288] The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of war.[289]

Military attachés and war correspondents

Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war.[290] Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern "embedded" positions within the opposing land and naval forces.[291][292]

Economic effects

Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, the industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women.[293]

Poster showing women workers, 1915

In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily from Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase in US government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion[p] of World War I debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015.[294]

Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.[295]

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies."[296] It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt.[297] In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical" and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the 'total sum was being maintained.'"[298] Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay" and "therefore … represented the total German reparations" figure that had to be paid.[298]

This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost—via the Treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.[299] By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world.[300] In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks in reparations.[301] With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman notes "Refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist." Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds.[q]

The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, David Lloyd George, "You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies." Australia received £5,571,720 in war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947.[306] Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[222]

The war contributed to the evolution of the wristwatch from women's jewellery to a practical everyday item, replacing the pocketwatch, which requires a free hand to operate.[307] Trench watches were designed for use by the military as pocket watches were not as effective for combat. Military funding of advancements in radio contributed to the postwar popularity of the medium.[307]

Support and opposition for the war

Support

Poster urging women to join the British war effort, published by the Young Women's Christian Association, 1915

In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London.[308] In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary.[309]

In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East to achieve independence.[310]

In East Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at war with the British in the Somaliland campaign.[311] Von Syburg, the German envoy in Addis Ababa, said, "now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size." The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World War I on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at the Battle of Segale due to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy.[312] Iyasu was accused of converting to Islam.[313] According to Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde, the evidence used to prove Iyasu's conversion was a doctored photo of Iyasu wearing a turban provided by the Allies.[314] Some historians claim the British spy T. E. Lawrence forged the photo.[315]

Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps First Contingent in Bermuda, winter 1914–1915, before joining 1 Lincolnshire Regiment in France in June 1915. The dozen remaining after Guedecourt on 25 September 1916, merged with a Second Contingent. The two contingents suffered 75% casualties.

Several socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914.[309] But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for the war.[316] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war.[317]

Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele D'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war.[318] The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.[319] Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati.[320] However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week.[321] The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.[321] Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism.[322] Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.[323]

Patriotic funds

On both sides, there was large-scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and those injured. The Nail Men were a German example. Around the British Empire, there were many patriotic funds, including the Royal Patriotic Fund Corporation, Canadian Patriotic Fund, Queensland Patriotic Fund and, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand.[324] At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused,[325] but 11 were still functioning in 2002.[326]

Opposition

Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed "disloyal". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,[327] and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.

Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street) after the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin

Several nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists had staunchly opposed taking part.[328] The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.[329] The British government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.[330] However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918.

Other opposition came from conscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.[331] Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service.[332] Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain, many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need to apply".[333]

On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading "Down with the war!" and "all power to the Soviets!". The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for the Russian Provisional Government.[334] In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation.[335] The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people were arrested.[335]

Technology

Royal Air Force Sopwith Camel. In April 1917, the average life expectancy of a British pilot on the Western Front was 93 flying hours.[336]

World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication,[337] armoured cars, tanks (especially with the advent of the prototype tank, Little Willie), and aircraft.[338]

Captain Marcel Courmes, pilot of the French 2nd Bombardment, Group GB 2, in August 1915

Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone.[339]

Fixed-wing aircraft were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well.[340] Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tønder in 1918.[341]

Diplomacy

1917 political cartoon about the Zimmermann Telegram

The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, multiple peace proposals were coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far.[342][343][344]

Legacy and memory

Memorials

The Italian Redipuglia War Memorial, which contains the remains of 100,187 soldiers

Memorials were built in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.[345][346]

In 1915, John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the war. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day.[347][348]

A typical village war memorial to soldiers killed in World War I

National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people.[349]

The British government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum.[350] On 3 August 2014, French President François Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.[351] During the Armistice centenary commemorations, French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to reconciliation.[352]

Historiography

... "Strange, friend," I said, "Here is no cause to mourn."
"None," said the other, "Save the undone years"... 

— Wilfred Owen, Strange Meeting, 1918[353]

The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war; this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities and is still underway more than a century later. Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared with World War II, the First World War is often thought to be "a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons"; it lacks the metanarrative of good versus evil that characterizes retellings of the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking tropes like the wastefulness of war, the folly of generals and the innocence of soldiers. The complexity of the conflict is mostly obscured by these oversimplifications.[354] George Kennan referred to the war as the "seminal catastrophe of the 20th century".[355]

Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by a cultural turn in the 21st century. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalisation of politics, race, medical science, gender and mental health. Among the major subjects that historians have long debated regarding the war include: Why the war began; why the Allies won; whether generals were responsible for high casualty rates; how soldiers endured the poor conditions of trench warfare; and to what extent the civilian home front accepted and endorsed the war effort.[356][357]

Unexploded ordnance

As late as 2007, signs warning visitors to keep off certain paths at battlefield sites like Verdun and Somme remained in place as unexploded ordnance continued to pose a danger. In France and Belgium, locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not recovered from the effects of the war.[354]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Russian Empire during 1914–1917, Russian Republic during 1917. The Bolshevik government signed a separate peace with the Central Powers shortly after their armed seizure of power, resulting in a Central Powers victory on the Eastern Front of the war, and Russian defeat. However, this peace treaty was nullified by an Allied Powers victory on the Western Front, and the end of the war.
  2. ^ The United States did not ratify any of the treaties agreed to at the Paris Peace Conference.
  3. ^ Bulgaria joined the Central Powers on 14 October 1915.
  4. ^ The Ottoman Empire agreed to a secret alliance with Germany on 2 August 1914. It joined the war on the side of the Central Powers on 29 October 1914.
  5. ^ The United States declared war on Austria-Hungary on 7 December 1917.
  6. ^ Austria was considered one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary.
  7. ^ The United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917.
  8. ^ Hungary was considered one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary.
  9. ^ Although the Treaty of Sèvres was intended to end the war between the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire, the Allied Powers and the Republic of Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, agreed to the Treaty of Lausanne.
  10. ^ Often abbreviated as WWI or WW1; also called the Great War.
  11. ^ Only the Triple Alliance was a formal "alliance"; the others listed were informal patterns of support.
  12. ^ German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak"
  13. ^ Bessarabia remained part of Romania until 1940, when it was annexed by Joseph Stalin as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic;[164] following the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, it became the independent Republic of Moldova
  14. ^ Unlike the others, the successor state to the Russian Empire, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, retained similar external borders, via retaining or quickly recovering lost territories.
  15. ^ A German attempt to use chemical weapons on the Russian front in January 1915 failed to cause casualties.[263]
  16. ^ 109 in this context – see Long and short scales
  17. ^ World War I officially ended when Germany paid off the final amount of reparations imposed on it by the Allies.[302][303][304][305]

Ссылки

  1. ^ Шапиро и Эпштейн 2006 , с. 329.
  2. ^ Колетес Бланко, Агустин (14 марта 2016 г.). «Военные истории: британские и американские писатели на итальянском фронте (1915–18)» . Журнал современных итальянских исследований . 21 (2): 206–219. дои : 10.1080/1354571X.2015.1134177 . ISSN   1354-571X . Архивировано из оригинала 10 июня 2024 года . Проверено 10 июня 2024 г.
  3. ^ Брейбон 2004 , с. 8.
  4. ^ «Великая война» . Независимый . 17 августа 1914 г. с. 228 . Проверено 17 мая 2022 г.
  5. ^ «отличный, прил., наречие и н» . Оксфордский словарь английского языка . Архивировано из оригинала 14 мая 2019 года . Проверено 19 марта 2012 г.
  6. ^ «Война, которая положит конец всем войнам» . Новости Би-би-си . 10 ноября 1998 года. Архивировано из оригинала 19 июня 2015 года . Проверено 15 декабря 2015 г.
  7. ^ Кларк 2013 , стр. 121–152.
  8. ^ Зельдин 1977 , с. 117.
  9. ^ Бертран Жоли, «Франция и месть (1871–1914)», Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine . 1999, вып. 46-2, с. 325–347 [1] Архивировано 27 января 2024 г. в Wayback Machine.
  10. ^ Киган 1998 , с. 52.
  11. ^ Медликотт 1945 , стр. 66–70.
  12. ^ Кинан 1986 , с. 20.
  13. ^ Уиллмотт 2003 , с. 15.
  14. ^ Фэй 1930 , стр. 290–293.
  15. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Уиллмотт 2003 , с. 21.
  16. ^ Хервиг 1988 , стр. 72–73.
  17. ^ Молл и Любберт 1980 , стр. 111-1. 153–185.
  18. ^ Стивенсон 2016 , с. 45.
  19. ^ Крисп 1976 , стр. 174–196.
  20. ^ Стивенсон 2016 , с. 42.
  21. ^ МакМикин 2015 , стр. 66–67.
  22. ^ Кларк 2013 , с. 86.
  23. ^ Кларк 2013 , стр. 251–252.
  24. ^ МакМикин 2015 , стр. 69.
  25. ^ МакМикин 2015 , стр. 73.
  26. ^ Уиллмотт 2003 , стр. 2–23.
  27. ^ Кларк 2013 , с. 288.
  28. ^ Киган 1998 , стр. 48–49.
  29. ^ Беннетт, Г.Х. (1995), Беннет, Г.Х. (ред.), «Восточная Европа: санитарный кордон или пороховая бочка?» , Британская внешняя политика в период Керзона, 1919–24 , Лондон: Palgrave Macmillan UK, стр. 41–59, doi : 10.1057/9780230377356_3 , ISBN  978-0-230-37735-6 , заархивировано из оригинала 10 июня 2024 года , получено 10 июня 2024 года.
  30. ^ Стефанова, Радослава (2001), «Балканский беспорядок: американское и европейское обращение с пороховой бочкой» , Возрождение: Новая трансатлантическая повестка дня (2001) , Routledge, doi : 10.4324/9781315186405-8/balkan-clutter-american-european-handling -пороховая бочка-радослава-стефанова (неактивна 11 июня 2024 г.), ISBN  978-1-315-18640-5 , заархивировано из оригинала 10 июня 2024 года , получено 10 июня 2024 года. {{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI неактивен по состоянию на июнь 2024 г. ( ссылка )
  31. ^ Нельсон, Дэниел Н. (1984). «Юго-Восточная Европа после Тито: пороховая бочка для 1980-х годов? Под редакцией Дэвида Карлтона и Карло Шерфа. Нью-Йорк: St. Martin's Press, 1983. xviii, 211 стр. Карта. 22,50 доллара» . Славянское обозрение . 43 (4): 717–718. дои : 10.2307/2499359 . ISSN   0037-6779 . JSTOR   2499359 . Архивировано из оригинала 10 июня 2024 года . Проверено 10 июня 2024 г.
  32. ^ Finestone & Massie 1981 , с. 247.
  33. ^ Смит 2010 .
  34. ^ Роджер Л. Рэнсом (2018). Азартные игры на войне: уверенность, страх и трагедия Первой мировой войны . Издательство Кембриджского университета. п. 51. ИСБН  9781108485029 .
  35. ^ Мясник 2014 , с. 103.
  36. ^ Мясник 2014 , стр. 188–189.
  37. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 16.
  38. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 17.
  39. ^ Уиллмотт 2003 , с. 26.
  40. ^ Кларк, Кристофер (25 июня 2014 г.). Месяц безумия . BBC Radio 4. Архивировано из оригинала 20 апреля 2017 года . Проверено 14 марта 2017 г.
  41. ^ Джорджевич, Дмитрий ; Спенс, Ричард Б. (1992). Ученый, патриот, наставник: исторические очерки в честь Димитрия Джорджевича . Восточноевропейские монографии. п. 313. ИСБН  978-0-88033-217-0 . Архивировано из оригинала 17 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 12 ноября 2018 г. После убийства Франца Фердинанда в июне 1914 года хорваты и мусульмане Сараево объединили свои силы в антисербском погроме.
  42. ^ Служба репортажей: Серия «Юго-Восточная Европа» . Полевой персонал американских университетов. 1964. с. 44. Архивировано из оригинала 6 сентября 2023 года . Проверено 7 декабря 2013 г. ...за убийством последовали официально поощряемые антисербские беспорядки в Сараево...
  43. ^ Крёлль, Герберт (2008). Австрийско-греческие встречи на протяжении веков: история, дипломатия, политика, искусство, экономика . Штудиенверлаг. п. 55. ИСБН  978-3-7065-4526-6 . Архивировано из оригинала 17 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 1 сентября 2013 г. ... арестовано и интернировано около 5500 видных сербов и приговорено к смертной казни около 460 человек, новый Шуцкорпс, вспомогательное ополчение, расширил антисербские репрессии.
  44. ^ Томасевич 2001 , с. 485.
  45. ^ Шиндлер, Джон Р. (2007). Нечестивый террор: Босния, Аль-Каида и рост глобального джихада . Зенит Отпечаток. п. 29. ISBN  978-1-61673-964-5 . Архивировано из оригинала 17 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 12 ноября 2018 г.
  46. ^ Великоня 2003 , с. 141.
  47. ^ Стивенсон 1996 , с. 12.
  48. ^ Макмиллан 2013 , с. 532.
  49. ^ Уиллмотт 2003 , с. 27.
  50. ^ Фромкин 2004 , стр. 196–197.
  51. ^ Макмиллан 2013 , с. 536.
  52. ^ Ливен 2016 , с. 326.
  53. ^ Кларк 2013 , стр. 526–527.
  54. ^ Мартель 2014 , с. 335.
  55. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 27.
  56. ^ Клейтон 2003 , с. 45.
  57. ^ Кларк 2013 , стр. 539–541.
  58. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 29.
  59. ^ Куган 2009 , с. 48.
  60. ^ МакМикин 2014 , стр. 342, 349.
  61. ^ Макмиллан 2013 , стр. 579–580, 585.
  62. ^ Кроу 2001 , стр. 4–5.
  63. ^ Уиллмотт 2003 , с. 29.
  64. ^ Кларк 2013 , стр. 550–551.
  65. ^ Страчан 2003 , стр. 292–296, 343–354.
  66. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 172.
  67. ^ Шиндлер 2002 , стр. 159–195.
  68. ^ «Великие крысы – Авиация» . rts.rs. ​РТС, Radio televizija Srbije, Радио Телевидение Сербии. Архивировано из оригинала 10 июля 2017 года . Проверено 16 июля 2019 г.
  69. ^ «Как был сбит первый военный самолет» . Нэшнл Географик . Архивировано из оригинала 31 августа 2015 года . Проверено 5 августа 2015 г.
  70. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Стивенсон 2004 , с. 22.
  71. ^ Хорн 1964 , с. 22.
  72. ^ Стивенсон 2004 , с. 23.
  73. ^ Холмс 2014 , стр. 194, 211.
  74. ^ Стивенсон 2012 , с. 54.
  75. ^ Джексон 2018 , с. 55.
  76. ^ Ливен 2016 , с. 327.
  77. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , стр. 376–378.
  78. ^ Хорн 1964 , с. 221.
  79. ^ Донко 2012 , с. 79.
  80. ^ Киган 1998 , стр. 224–232.
  81. Falls 1960 , стр. 79–80.
  82. ^ Фарвелл 1989 , с. 353.
  83. ^ Браун 1994 , стр. 197–198.
  84. ^ Браун 1994 , стр. 201–203.
  85. ^ Кант, Ведика (24 сентября 2014 г.). «Индия и Первая мировая война: объединение последствий Великой войны на субконтиненте» . ЛСЭ . Архивировано из оригинала 28 сентября 2022 года . Проверено 28 сентября 2022 г.
  86. ^ «Участники Индийского субконтинента в Первой мировой войне» . Мемориальный фонд ворот. Архивировано из оригинала 1 июля 2019 года . Проверено 12 декабря 2008 г.
  87. ^ Хорниман, Бенджамин Гай (1984). Британская администрация и резня в Амритсаре . Публикации Миттала. п. 45.
  88. ^ Раузен 1990 , с. 424.
  89. ^ Раузенс 1990 , стр. 421–423.
  90. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 99.
  91. ^ Гудспид 1985 , с. 199.
  92. ^ Даффи, Майкл (22 августа 2009 г.). «Оружие войны: ядовитый газ» . Firstworldwar.com. Архивировано из оригинала 21 августа 2007 года . Проверено 5 июля 2012 г.
  93. ^ Любовь 1996 .
  94. ^ Дюпюи 1993 , с. 1042.
  95. ^ Грант 2005 , с. 276.
  96. ^ Личфилд, Джон (21 февраля 2006 г.). «Верден: мифы и воспоминания о «затерянных деревнях» Франции» . Независимый . Архивировано из оригинала 22 октября 2017 года . Проверено 23 июля 2013 г.
  97. ^ Харрис 2008 , с. 271.
  98. ^ Чорба, Теренс (ноябрь 2018 г.). «Окопный конфликт с комбатантами и инфекционные заболевания» . Новые инфекционные заболевания . 24 (11). Центры по контролю и профилактике заболеваний: 2136–2137. дои : 10.3201/eid2411.ac2411 . Архивировано из оригинала 10 июня 2024 года . Проверено 29 февраля 2024 г.
  99. ^ Тейлор 2007 , стр. 39–47.
  100. ^ Кин 2006 , с. 5.
  101. ^ Халперн 1995 , с. 293.
  102. ^ Зигер 2001 , с. 50.
  103. ^ Джереми Блэк (июнь 2016 г.). «Место Ютландии в истории». Военно-морская история . 30 (3): 16–21.
  104. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б с д Шеффилд, Гарри . «Первая битва за Атлантику» . Мировые войны в глубине . Би-би-си. Архивировано из оригинала 3 июня 2019 года . Проверено 11 ноября 2009 г.
  105. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 306.
  106. ^ фон дер Портен 1969 .
  107. ^ Джонс 2001 , с. 80.
  108. ^ Комитет Палаты собрания Новой Шотландии по делам ветеранов (9 ноября 2006 г.). «Комитет Хансард» . Хансард . Архивировано из оригинала 23 ноября 2011 года . Проверено 12 марта 2013 г.
  109. ^ Чикеринг, Роджер ; Фёрстер, Стиг; Грейнер, Бернд (2005). Мир в тотальной войне: глобальный конфликт и политика разрушения, 1937–1945 гг . Публикации Немецкого исторического института. Вашингтон, округ Колумбия: Издательство Кембриджского университета . ISBN  978-0-521-83432-2 . Архивировано из оригинала 17 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 12 ноября 2018 г.
  110. ^ Цена 1980 г.
  111. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 241– .
  112. ^ Нейберг 2005 , стр. 54–55.
  113. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , стр. 1075–1076.
  114. ^ ДиНардо 2015 , с. 102.
  115. ^ Нейберг 2005 , стр. 108–110.
  116. ^ Холл, Ричард (2010). Балканский прорыв: битва на Добро Поле 1918 года . Издательство Университета Индианы. п. 11. ISBN  978-0-253-35452-5 .
  117. ^ « Балканские войны и Первая мировая война ». п. 28. Страноведение Библиотеки Конгресса США .
  118. ^ Такер, Вуд и Мерфи 1999 , стр. 150–152.
  119. ^ Корсун Н. «Балканский фронт мировой войны» . militera.lib.ru. Архивировано из оригинала 9 августа 2013 года . Проверено 27 сентября 2010 г.
  120. ^ Даути 2005 , с. 491.
  121. ^ Геттлман, Марвин ; Шаар, Стюарт, ред. (2003). Читатель Ближнего Востока и исламского мира (4-е изд.). Нью-Йорк: Гроув Пресс. стр. 119–120. ISBN  978-0-8021-3936-8 .
  122. ^ Январь, Брендан (2007). Геноцид: современные преступления против человечества . Миннеаполис, Миннесота: Книги двадцать первого века. п. 14. ISBN  978-0-7613-3421-7 .
  123. ^ Либерман, Бенджамин (2013). Холокост и геноциды в Европе . Нью-Йорк: Издательская корпорация Continuum. стр. 80–81. ISBN  978-1-4411-9478-7 .
  124. ^ Артур Дж. Баркер, Забытая война: Месопотамия, 1914–1918 (Лондон: Фабер, 1967)
  125. ^ Кроуфорд, Джон; МакГиббон, Ян (2007). Великая война Новой Зеландии: Новая Зеландия, союзники и Первая мировая война . Издательство Эксисл. стр. 219–220.
  126. ^ Фромкин 2004 , с. 119.
  127. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Хинтерхофф 1984 , стр. 499–503.
  128. ^ Американская энциклопедия, 1920, т. 28, с. 403
  129. ^ Норткот, Дадли С. (1922). «Спасение сорока тысяч армян» . Текущая история . New York Times Co. Архивировано из оригинала 9 сентября 2021 года . Проверено 9 сентября 2021 г.
  130. ^ Сачар 1970 , с. 122–138.
  131. ^ Гилберт 1994 .
  132. ^ Ханиоглу, М. Шукру (2010). Краткая история поздней Османской империи . Издательство Принстонского университета. стр. 180–181. ISBN  978-0-691-13452-9 .
  133. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 13.
  134. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 9–10.
  135. ^ Гарднер 2015 , с. 120.
  136. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 14.
  137. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 30–31.
  138. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 166.
  139. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 57.
  140. ^ Маршалл и Джозефи 1982 , с. 108.
  141. ^ Форнассен 2017 , стр. 39–62.
  142. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 163.
  143. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 317.
  144. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 482.
  145. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 484.
  146. ^ Томпсон 2009 , стр. 364.
  147. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 491.
  148. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 715.
  149. ^ Мейер 2006 , стр. 152–154, 161, 163, 175, 182.
  150. ^ Дерзкий
  151. ^ Шиндлер 2003 , с. ?.
  152. ^ Такер 2002 , с. 119.
  153. ^ Лоуренс Гудрич (2011). Культурологические исследования . Джонс и Бартлетт Обучение . п. 376. ИСБН  9781449637286 . Архивировано из оригинала 20 августа 2023 года . Проверено 30 июля 2023 г.
  154. ^ Елавич 1992 , стр. 441–442.
  155. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Дмитрий 2012 , стр. 171.
  156. ^ Думитру 2012 , стр. 170.
  157. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Гилберт 1994 , с. 282.
  158. ^ Торри 1978 , стр. 7–8.
  159. ^ Барретт 2013 , стр. 96–98.
  160. ^ Румыния во время Первой мировой войны, том 2, стр. 831.
  161. ^ Кейт Хитчинс, Clarendon Press, 1994, Румыния 1866–1947, стр. 269
  162. ^ Крэмптон 1994 , стр. 24–25.
  163. ^ Бела 1998 , с. 429.
  164. ^ Ротшильд 1975 , с. 314.
  165. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б с Александр Ланошка; Майкл А. Ханзекер (11 ноября 2018 г.). «Почему Первая война длилась так долго» . Вашингтон Пост . Архивировано из оригинала 12 апреля 2022 года . Проверено 11 ноября 2018 г.
  166. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Киган 1998 , с. 345.
  167. ^ Кернек 1970 , стр. 721–766.
  168. ^ Беккет 2007 , с. 523.
  169. ^ Зима 2014 г. , стр. 110–132.
  170. ^ Уилер-Беннетт 1938 , стр. 36–41.
  171. Бухарестский договор с центральными державами в мае 1918 г.
  172. ^ Р. Дж. Крэмптон, Восточная Европа в двадцатом веке , Routledge, 1994, ISBN   978-0-415-05346-4 , стр. 24–25
  173. ^ Стивенсон 2012 , стр. 315–316.
  174. ^ Стивенсон 2012 , с. 317.
  175. ^ Гилберт 1994 , с. 318.
  176. ^ Grotelueschen 2006 , стр. 14–15.
  177. ^ Стивенсон 2012 , с. 318.
  178. ^ Grotelueschen 2006 , стр. 44–46.
  179. ^ Стивенсон 2012 , с. 403.
  180. ^ Клейтон 2003 , с. 124.
  181. ^ Клейтон 2003 , с. 129.
  182. ^ Страчан 2003 , с. 244.
  183. ^ Инглис 1995 , с. 2.
  184. ^ Хамфрис 2007 , с. 66.
  185. ^ Хорн 1964 , с. 323.
  186. ^ Клейтон 2003 , с. 131.
  187. ^ Эриксон 2001 , с. 163.
  188. ^ Мур, А. Бриско (1920). Конные стрелки на Синае и в Палестине: история новозеландских крестоносцев . Крайстчерч: Уиткомб и Гробницы. п. 67. OCLC   156767391 .
  189. ^ Фолс, Сирил (1930). Военные операции. Часть I Египет и Палестина: Том 2 С июня 1917 года до конца войны . Официальная история Великой войны на основе официальных документов руководства Исторического отдела Комитета имперской обороны. Карты составлены А. Ф. Беке. Лондон: Канцелярский офис Ее Величества. п. 59. OCLC   1113542987 .
  190. ^ Уэйвелл, Эрл (1968) [1933]. «Палестинские кампании». В Шеппарде, Эрик Уильям (ред.). Краткая история британской армии (4-е изд.). Лондон: Констебль и компания, стр. 153–155. OCLC   35621223 .
  191. ^ «Текст Указа о сдаче Иерусалима под британский контроль» . Первая мировая война.com. Архивировано из оригинала 14 июня 2011 года . Проверено 13 мая 2015 г.
  192. ^ Брюс, Энтони (2002). Последний крестовый поход: Палестинская кампания в Первой мировой войне . Лондон: Джон Мюррей. п. 162. ИСБН  978-0-7195-5432-2 .
  193. ^ «Кто есть кто – Кресс фон Крессенштейн» . Первая мировая война.com. Архивировано из оригинала 20 ноября 2015 года . Проверено 13 мая 2015 г.
  194. ^ «Кто есть кто – Отто Лиман фон Сандерс» . Первая мировая война.com. Архивировано из оригинала 27 декабря 2007 года . Проверено 13 мая 2015 г.
  195. ^ Эриксон 2001 , с. 195.
  196. ^ Айерс 1919 , с. 104.
  197. ^ Хейман 1997 , стр. 146–147.
  198. ^ Вествелл 2004 .
  199. ^ Грей 1991 , с. 86.
  200. ^ Рикард 2007 .
  201. ^ Шрайбер, Шейн Б. (2004) [1977]. Ударная армия Британской империи: канадский корпус в последние 100 дней Великой войны . Сент-Катаринс, Онтарио: Ванвелл. п. 50. ISBN  978-1-55125-096-0 . OCLC   57063659 .
  202. ^ Рикард 2001 .
  203. ^ Браун, Малькольм (1999) [1998]. 1918: Год Победы . Лондон: Пан. п. 190. ИСБН  978-0-330-37672-3 .
  204. ^ Грей и Аргайл 1990
  205. ^ Маклеллан , с. 49.
  206. ^ Кристи 1997 , с. ?.
  207. ^ «Битва при Добро Поле – забытая балканская стычка, завершившая Первую мировую войну» . Militaryhistorynow.com . Архивировано из оригинала 23 сентября 2017 года . Проверено 21 ноября 2019 г.
  208. ^ «Немцы больше не могли продолжать борьбу» . Historycollection.co . 22 февраля 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 23 декабря 2019 года . Проверено 21 ноября 2019 г.
  209. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б «Хронология 1918 года» . Фотоархив Лиги Наций . Архивировано из оригинала 5 мая 2016 года . Проверено 20 ноября 2009 г.
  210. ^ «Битва при Добро Поле – забытая балканская стычка, завершившая Первую мировую войну» . Militaryhistorynow.com . 21 сентября 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 23 сентября 2017 года . Проверено 21 ноября 2019 г.
  211. ^ «Немцы больше не могли продолжать борьбу» . HistoryCollection.com . 22 февраля 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 23 декабря 2019 года . Проверено 21 ноября 2019 г.
  212. ^ Аксельрод 2018 , с. 260.
  213. ^ Андреа ди Микеле (2014). «Тренто, Больцано и Инсбрук: итальянская военная оккупация Тироля (1918–1920)» ( PDF) . Тренто и Триест. Пути итальянцев Австрии от 48 г. до аннексии (на итальянском языке): 436–437. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 2 октября 2018 года. Численный состав итальянского контингента менялся с течением месяцев и на пике достигал 20–22 000 человек. [Численность итальянского контингента менялась с течением месяцев и на пике достигала 20–22 000 человек.]
  214. ^ «Клерьер де перемирия» (на французском языке). Виль де Компьень . Архивировано из оригинала 27 августа 2007 года.
  215. ^ Стивенсон 2004 , с. 385.
  216. ^ К. Куль. "Die 14 Kieler Punkte" [Киль 14 очков] (PDF) . Архивировано (PDF) из оригинала 12 апреля 2019 г. Проверено 23 ноября 2018 г.
  217. ^ Дэнхардт, Д. (1978). Революция в Киле . Ноймюнстер: Карл Вахгольц Верлаг. п. 91. ИСБН  978-3-529-02636-2 .
  218. ^ Бет, Вольфрам (2006). «Ноябрьская революция – Киль 1918». В Флейшхауэре; Туровский (ред.). Памятные места Киля . Бойенс.
  219. ^ Стивенсон 2004 , с. 383.
  220. ^ Стивенсон 2004 , Глава 17.
  221. ^ «Умер старейший ветеран Первой мировой войны во Франции». Архивировано 28 октября 2016 года в Wayback Machine , BBC News , 20 января 2008 года.
  222. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б с Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 273
  223. ^ Хастедт, Гленн П. (2009). Энциклопедия американской внешней политики . Издательство информационной базы. п. 483. ИСБН  978-1-4381-0989-3 .
  224. ^ Мюррин, Джон; Джонсон, Пол; Макферсон, Джеймс; Герстл, Гэри; Фас, Алиса (2010). Свобода, равенство, власть: история американского народа . Том. II. Cengage Обучение. п. 622. ИСБН  978-0-495-90383-3 .
  225. ^ «Хардинг заканчивает войну; подписывает указ о мире в доме сенатора. Тридцать человек стали свидетелями важного акта в гостиной Фрелингхейзена в Раритане» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . 3 июля 1921 года. Архивировано из оригинала 4 декабря 2013 года . Проверено 18 сентября 2017 г.
  226. ^ «№31773» . Лондонская газета . 10 февраля 1920 г. с. 1671.
  227. ^ «№31991» . Лондонская газета . 23 июля 1920 г., стр. 7765–7766.
  228. ^ «№13627» . Лондонская газета . 27 августа 1920 г. с. 1924 год.
  229. ^ «№32421» . Лондонская газета . 12 августа 1921 г., стр. 6371–6372.
  230. ^ «№32964» . Лондонская газета . 12 августа 1924 г., стр. 6030–6031.
  231. ^ «Даты на военных мемориалах» (PDF) . Фонд военных мемориалов. Архивировано (PDF) из оригинала 12 января 2021 года . Проверено 4 января 2021 г.
  232. ^ Иде, Тобиас; Брух, Карл; Кариус, Александр; Конка, Кен; Дабелко, Джеффри Д.; Мэтью, Ричард; Вайнталь, Эрика (2021). «Прошлое и будущее экологического миростроительства» . Международные дела . 97 : 1–16. дои : 10.1093/ia/iiaa177 . Архивировано из оригинала 29 января 2021 года . Проверено 31 марта 2021 г.
  233. ^ Магливерас 1999 , стр. 8–12.
  234. ^ Нортедж 1986 , стр. 35–36.
  235. ^ Морроу, Джон Х. (2005). Великая война: имперская история . Лондон: Рутледж. п. 290. ИСБН  978-0-415-20440-8 .
  236. ^ Шульце, Хаген (1998). Германия: Новая история . Гарвардский университет, с. 204.
  237. ^ Иперсель, Лоуренс Ван (2012). «Траур и память, 1919–45». В Хорне, Джон (ред.). Спутник Первой мировой войны . Уайли. п. 584.
  238. ^ «Суррогатный гегемон в польском постколониальном дискурсе Ева Томпсон, Университет Райса» (PDF) . Архивировано (PDF) из оригинала 29 октября 2013 года . Проверено 27 октября 2013 г.
  239. ^ «Открытый сайт: Венгрия» . Архивировано из оригинала 3 января 2022 года . Проверено 11 января 2022 г.
  240. ^ Фрукты, с. 356.
  241. ^ Кочиш, Карой; Ходоси, Эстер Кочисне (1998). Этническая география венгерских меньшинств в Карпатском бассейне . Институт географических исследований, Научно-исследовательский центр и наук о Земле. п. 19. ISBN  978-963-7395-84-0 .
  242. ^ Кларк 1927 .
  243. ^ «Призывы к американцам молиться за сербов» (PDF) . Нью-Йорк Таймс . 27 июля 1918 года. Архивировано (PDF) из оригинала 16 сентября 2018 года . Проверено 12 июня 2018 г.
  244. ^ «Сербия восстановлена» (PDF) . Нью-Йорк Таймс . 5 ноября 1918 года. Архивировано (PDF) из оригинала 16 сентября 2018 года . Проверено 12 июня 2018 г.
  245. ^ Симпсон, Мэтт (22 августа 2009 г.). «Малые державы во время Первой мировой войны – Сербия» . firstworldwar.com. Архивировано из оригинала 27 апреля 2010 года . Проверено 27 мая 2010 г.
  246. ^ Кас Мудде. Расистский экстремизм в Центральной и Восточной Европе. Архивировано 15 мая 2016 года в Wayback Machine.
  247. ^ « День АНЗАК» в Лондоне; король, королева и генерал Бердвуд на службе в аббатстве» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . 26 апреля 1916 года. Архивировано из оригинала 15 июля 2016 года . Проверено 25 июля 2018 г.
  248. ^ Австралийский военный мемориал. «Традиция Дня АНЗАК» . Австралийский военный мемориал . Архивировано из оригинала 1 мая 2008 года . Проверено 2 мая 2008 г.
  249. ^ «Диаспора приветствует Папу» . Архивировано 4 июня 2012 года в Wayback Machine , Der Spiegel Online. 28 ноября 2006 г.
  250. ^ Раммель, Р.Дж. (1998). «Холокост в сравнительной и исторической перспективе». Идея журнала социальных проблем . 3 (2).
  251. ^ Хеджес, Крис (17 сентября 2000 г.). «Несколько слов по-гречески о потерянной родине» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . Архивировано из оригинала 25 ноября 2018 года . Проверено 23 февраля 2017 г.
  252. ^ Кухня 2000 , с. 22.
  253. ^ Севилья, Жан, Страстная история Франции, 2013, с. 395
  254. ^ Ховард 1993 , с. 166.
  255. ^ Получено в 2009 году .
  256. ^ Чанц .
  257. ^ Шпреувенберг 2018 , стр. 2561–2567.
  258. ^ Кноблер и др. 2005 .
  259. ^ Ансарт, Северин; Пелат, Камилла; Боэль, Пьер-Ив; Каррат, Фабрис; Флао, Антуан; Валлерон, Ален-Жак (май 2009 г.). «Бремя смертности от пандемии гриппа 1918–1919 годов в Европе» . Грипп и другие респираторные вирусы . 3 (3). Уайли : 99–106. дои : 10.1111/j.1750-2659.2009.00080.x . ПМЦ   4634693 . ПМИД   19453486 .
  260. ^ К. из Economo. Венский клинический еженедельник , 10 мая 1917 г., 30: 581–585. Летаргический энцефалит. Лейпциг и Вена, Франц Дойтике, 1918 год.
  261. ^ Рид, АХ; МакКолл, С.; Генри, Дж. М.; Таубенбергер, Дж. К. (2001). «Эксперименты над прошлым: загадка летаргического энцефалита фон Экономо» . Дж. Нейропатол. Эксп. Нейрол . 60 (7): 663–670. дои : 10.1093/jnen/60.7.663 . ПМИД   11444794 . S2CID   40754090 .
  262. ^ «Боевой конь – Правдивая история» . Источник здоровья животных Альберты . 10 ноября 2020 года. Архивировано из оригинала 8 января 2024 года . Проверено 8 января 2024 г.
  263. ^ «История участия США в химической войне» . www.denix.osd.mil . Архивировано из оригинала 1 марта 2024 года . Проверено 1 марта 2024 г.
  264. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б с д Фицджеральд, Джерард (апрель 2008 г.). «Химическая война и медицинское реагирование во время Первой мировой войны» . Американский журнал общественного здравоохранения . 98 (4): 611–625. дои : 10.2105/AJPH.2007.11930 . ПМК   2376985 . ПМИД   18356568 .
  265. ^ Шнайдер, Барри Р. (28 февраля 1999 г.). Будущая война и контрраспространение: военные ответы США на NBC . Прегер. п. 84. ИСБН  978-0-275-96278-4 .
  266. ^ Тейлор, Телфорд (1993). Анатомия Нюрнбергского процесса: личные воспоминания . Литтл, Браун и компания . п. 34 . ISBN  978-0-316-83400-1 . Проверено 20 июня 2013 г. - из Интернет-архива.
  267. ^ Грэм, Томас; Лавера, Дэмиен Дж. (2003). Краеугольные камни безопасности: договоры о контроле над вооружениями в ядерную эпоху . Вашингтонский университет Пресс . стр. 7–9. ISBN  978-0-295-98296-0 . Проверено 5 июля 2013 г.
  268. ^ Генри Моргентау (1918). «XXV: Талаат рассказывает, почему он «депортирует» армян» . История посла Могентау . Университет Бригама Янга. Архивировано из оригинала 12 июня 2012 года . Проверено 6 июня 2012 года .
  269. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Международная ассоциация исследователей геноцида (13 июня 2005 г.). «Открытое письмо премьер-министру Турции Реджепу Тайипу Эрдогану» . Архивировано из оригинала 6 октября 2007 года.
  270. ^ Вартпаронян, Пауль Леверкуэн; Кайзер (2008). Немецкий офицер во время геноцида армян: биография Макса фон Шойбнер-Рихтера . перевод Аласдера Лина; с предисловием Хорхе и историческим введением Хильмара. Лондон: Taderon Press для Института Гомидаса. ISBN  978-1-903656-81-5 . Архивировано из оригинала 26 марта 2017 года . Проверено 14 мая 2016 г. .
  271. ^ Фергюсон 2006 , с. 177.
  272. ^ «Международная ассоциация исследователей геноцида» (PDF) . Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 10 октября 2017 года . Проверено 12 марта 2013 г.
  273. ^ Фромкин 1989 , стр. 212–215.
  274. ^ Международная ассоциация исследователей геноцида. «Резолюция о геноциде, совершенном Османской империей» (PDF) . Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 22 апреля 2008 года.
  275. ^ Гонт, Дэвид (2006). Резня, сопротивление, защитники: мусульманско-христианские отношения в Восточной Анатолии во время Первой мировой войны . Пискатауэй, Нью-Джерси: Gorgias Press. [ постоянная мертвая ссылка ]
  276. ^ Шаллер, Доминик Дж.; Циммерер, Юрген (2008). «Поздние османские геноциды: распад Османской империи и младотурецкое население и политика истребления – введение». Журнал исследований геноцида . 10 (1): 7–14. дои : 10.1080/14623520801950820 . S2CID   71515470 .
  277. ^ Уайтхорн, Алан (2015). Геноцид армян: Основной справочный справочник: Основной справочный справочник . АВС-КЛИО. стр. 83, 218. ISBN.  978-1-61069-688-3 . Архивировано из оригинала 1 августа 2020 года . Проверено 11 ноября 2018 г.
  278. ^ Филлимор и Белло 1919 , стр. 4–64.
  279. ^ Фергюсон 1999 , стр. 368–369.
  280. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 2733.
  281. ^ «Результаты поиска (+(war:»worldwari»)): Проект истории ветеранов» . Библиотека Конгресса . Американский центр фольклора, Библиотека Конгресса. Архивировано из оригинала 11 июля 2017 года . Проверено 23 мая 2017 г.
  282. ^ Хэвигхерст 1985 , с. 131.
  283. ^ Уорд, Алан Дж. (1974). «Ллойд Джордж и кризис призыва в армию в Ирландии в 1918 году». Исторический журнал . 17 (1): 107–129. дои : 10.1017/S0018246X00005689 . S2CID   162360809 .
  284. Дж. Мейн, Призыв: австралийские дебаты, 1901–1970 (1970), аннотация. Архивировано 7 июля 2015 г. на archive.today.
  285. ^ «Парламент Содружества с 1901 года до Первой мировой войны» . Парламент Австралии. 4 мая 2015 г. Архивировано из оригинала 15 декабря 2018 г. . Проверено 15 декабря 2018 г.
  286. ^ «Кризис призыва» . ЦБК. 2001. Архивировано из оригинала 13 июля 2014 года . Проверено 14 августа 2014 г.
  287. ^ Челмсфорд, Дж. Э. «Духовенство и рабочая сила», The Times, 15 апреля 1918 г., стр. 12
  288. ^ Чемберс, Джон Уайтклей (1987). Собрать армию: призыв приходит в современную Америку . Нью-Йорк: Свободная пресса. ISBN  978-0-02-905820-6 .
  289. ^ Зинн, Ховард (2003). Народная история Соединенных Штатов . Харпер Коллинз. п. 134. ИСБН  9780060528423 .
  290. ^ Педерсен, Сара (1 мая 2002 г.). «Избыток носков? Влияние Первой мировой войны на женщин-корреспондентов ежедневных газет» . Журнал шотландских исторических исследований . 22 (1): 50–72. дои : 10.3366/jshs.2002.22.1.50 . hdl : 10059/294 . ISSN   1748-538X . ПМИД   19489175 . Архивировано из оригинала 10 июня 2024 года . Проверено 10 июня 2024 г.
  291. ^ Трампенер, Ульрих (4 ноября 1987 г.). «Служебные атташе и военные полномочные представители императорской Германии, 1871–1918» . Обзор международной истории . 9 (4): 621–638. дои : 10.1080/07075332.1987.9640462 . ISSN   0707-5332 . Архивировано из оригинала 1 июля 2022 года . Проверено 10 июня 2024 г.
  292. ^ Крейг, Гордон А. (1949). «Военные дипломаты на прусской и немецкой службе: атташе, 1816–1914» . Политология ежеквартально . 64 (1): 65–94. дои : 10.2307/2144182 . ISSN   0032-3195 . JSTOR   2144182 . Архивировано из оригинала 1 июля 2022 года . Проверено 10 июня 2024 г.
  293. ^ Ноукс, Люси (2006). Женщины в британской армии: война и нежный секс, 1907–1948 гг . Абингдон, Англия: Рутледж. п. 48. ИСБН  978-0-415-39056-9 .
  294. ^ Косгрейв, Дженни (10 марта 2015 г.). «Великобритания наконец-то закончила платить за Первую мировую войну» . CNBC . Архивировано из оригинала 20 марта 2023 года . Проверено 20 марта 2023 г.
  295. ^ Грин 1938 , с. cxxxvi
  296. ^ Антон Каес; Мартин Джей; Эдвард Димендберг, ред. (1994). «Версальский договор: положения о репарациях» . Справочник по Веймарской республике . Издательство Калифорнийского университета. п. 8. ISBN  978-0-520-90960-1 . Архивировано из оригинала 15 января 2016 года . Проверено 11 декабря 2015 г.
  297. ^ Маркс 1978 , стр. 231–232.
  298. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Маркс 1978 , с. 237
  299. ^ Маркс 1978 , стр. 223–234.
  300. ^ Стоун, Норман (2008). Первая мировая война: Краткая история . Лондон: Пингвин. ISBN  978-0-14-103156-9 .
  301. ^ Маркс 1978 , с. 233
  302. ^ Холл, Аллан (28 сентября 2010 г.). «Первая мировая война официально заканчивается» . Телеграф . Берлин. Архивировано из оригинала 10 января 2022 года . Проверено 15 марта 2017 г.
  303. ^ Суддат, Клэр (4 октября 2010 г.). «Почему только что закончилась Первая мировая война?» . Время . Архивировано из оригинала 5 октября 2010 года . Проверено 1 июля 2013 г.
  304. ^ «Первая мировая война для Германии окончательно закончится в эти выходные» . CNN . 30 сентября 2010 г. Архивировано из оригинала 16 марта 2017 г. Проверено 15 марта 2017 г.
  305. ^ Макмиллан, Маргарет (25 декабря 2010 г.). «Окончание войны положит конец всем войнам» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . Архивировано из оригинала 16 марта 2017 года . Проверено 15 марта 2017 г.
  306. ^ Саутер 2000 , с. 354.
  307. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б «От наручных часов до радио: как Первая мировая война открыла современный мир» . ЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ РЕАКТОР. Архивировано из оригинала 30 апреля 2018 года . Проверено 5 апреля 2018 г.
  308. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 1189.
  309. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 1001
  310. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 117.
  311. ^ Мухтар, Мохаммед (2003). Исторический словарь Сомали . Пугало Пресс. п. 126. ИСБН  978-0-8108-6604-1 . Архивировано из оригинала 13 апреля 2021 года . Проверено 28 февраля 2017 г.
  312. ^ «Как эфиопский принц сорвал планы Германии по поводу Первой мировой войны» . Новости Би-би-си. 25 сентября 2016 г. Архивировано из оригинала 13 апреля 2020 г. . Проверено 28 февраля 2017 г.
  313. ^ Фике, Элои (2014). Жизнь и времена Лиджа Иясу из Эфиопии: новые идеи Издательство ЛИТ Мюнстер. п. 185. ИСБН  978-3-643-90476-8 . Архивировано из оригинала 13 апреля 2021 года . Проверено 22 ноября 2020 г.
  314. ^ Зевде, Бахру. История . п. 126.
  315. ^ Фике, Элои (2014). Жизнь и времена Лиджа Иясу из Эфиопии: новые идеи Издательство ЛИТ Мюнстер. п. 62. ИСБН  978-3-643-90476-8 . Архивировано из оригинала 14 апреля 2021 года . Проверено 22 ноября 2020 г.
  316. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 1069.
  317. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 884.
  318. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 335.
  319. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 219.
  320. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 209.
  321. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 596
  322. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 826.
  323. ^ Денис Мак Смит . 1997. Современная Италия: политическая история . Анн-Арбор: Издательство Мичиганского университета. п. 284.
  324. ^ «Нет срочной необходимости. Курьер Те Авамуту» . paperspast.natlib.govt.nz . 22 сентября 1939 года. Архивировано из оригинала 16 июня 2022 года . Проверено 16 июня 2022 г.
  325. ^ «Глава 4 – Ответ из тыла» . nzetc.victoria.ac.nz . 1986. Архивировано из оригинала 6 августа 2022 года . Проверено 16 июня 2022 г.
  326. ^ «5.2: Губернские патриотические советы» . Управление Генерального аудитора Новой Зеландии . 2005. Архивировано из оригинала 19 мая 2022 года . Проверено 16 июня 2022 г.
  327. ^ Карп 1979
  328. ^ Пеннелл, Катриона (2012). Объединенное королевство: народные реакции на начало Первой мировой войны в Великобритании и Ирландии . Оксфорд: Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-19-959058-2 .
  329. ^ Такер и Робертс 2005 , с. 584.
  330. ^ О'Халпин, Юнан, Упадок Союза: британское правительство в Ирландии, 1892–1920 (Дублин, 1987)
  331. ^ Леманн и ван дер Веер 1999 , с. 62.
  332. ^ Брок, Питер, Эти странные преступники: антология тюремных мемуаров лиц, отказывающихся от военной службы по соображениям совести, от Великой войны до холодной войны , с. 14, Торонто: University of Toronto Press, 2004, ISBN   978-0-8020-8707-2
  333. ^ «Winchester Whisperer: секретная газета, созданная заключенными в тюрьму пацифистами» . Новости Би-би-си . 24 февраля 2014 г. Архивировано из оригинала 7 февраля 2022 г. Проверено 7 февраля 2022 г.
  334. ^ Ричард Пайпс (1990). Русская революция . Кнопф Даблдэй. п. 407. ИСБН  978-0-307-78857-3 . Архивировано из оригинала 1 августа 2020 года . Проверено 30 июля 2019 г.
  335. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Сетон-Уотсон, Кристофер. 1967. Италия от либерализма к фашизму: 1870–1925 гг . Лондон: Methuen & Co. Ltd., с. 471
  336. ^ Лоусон, Эрик; Лоусон, Джейн (2002). Первая воздушная кампания: август 1914 г. — ноябрь 1918 г. Да Капо Пресс. п. 123. ИСБН  978-0-306-81213-2 . [ постоянная мертвая ссылка ]
  337. ^ Харткап 1988 , с. 154.
  338. ^ Hartcup 1988 , стр. 82–86.
  339. ^ Стерлинг, Кристофер Х. (2008). Военная связь: от древности до XXI века . Санта-Барбара: ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-1-85109-732-6 стр. 444.
  340. ^ Кросс 1991 г.
  341. ^ Кросс 1991 , стр. 56–57.
  342. ^ Стивенсон 1988 , с. [ нужна страница ] .
  343. ^ Земан, ЗАБ (1971). Дипломатическая история Первой мировой войны . Лондон: Вайденфельд и Николсон. ISBN  978-0-297-00300-7 .
  344. ^ См. Фонд Карнеги за международный мир (1921 г.). Скотт, Джеймс Браун (ред.). Официальные заявления о целях войны и мирных предложениях: декабрь 1916 г. - ноябрь 1918 г. Вашингтон, округ Колумбия, Фонд.
  345. ^ «Мемориалы пропавшим без вести в Первой и Второй мировых войнах» . Отдел по делам ветеранов . Содружество Австралии. 10 октября 2023 года. Архивировано из оригинала 1 марта 2024 года . Проверено 1 марта 2024 г.
  346. ^ «Англо-французское кладбище Тьепваль» . Комиссия Содружества по военным захоронениям . Архивировано из оригинала 14 октября 2023 года . Проверено 1 марта 2024 г.
  347. ^ «Джон МакКрэй» . Природа . 100 (2521). Историка: 487–488. 1918. Бибкод : 1918Natur.100..487. . дои : 10.1038/100487b0 . S2CID   4275807 .
  348. ^ Дэвид, Эванс (1918). «Джон МакКрэй» . Природа . 100 (2521): 487–488. Бибкод : 1918Natur.100..487. . дои : 10.1038/100487b0 . S2CID   4275807 . Архивировано из оригинала 4 марта 2016 года . Проверено 8 июня 2014 г.
  349. ^ «Монументальное предприятие» . kclibrary.org . 21 сентября 2015 года. Архивировано из оригинала 29 мая 2015 года . Проверено 23 мая 2015 г.
  350. ^ «Сайт памяти» . 1914.орг. Архивировано из оригинала 8 февраля 2014 года . Проверено 28 февраля 2014 г.
  351. ^ «Президенты Франции и Германии отмечают годовщину Первой мировой войны» . Франция News.Net. Архивировано из оригинала 3 апреля 2017 года . Проверено 3 августа 2014 г.
  352. ^ «День перемирия: Макрон и Меркель отмечают окончание Первой мировой войны» . Новости Би-би-си. 10 ноября 2018 г. Архивировано из оригинала 10 декабря 2020 г. Проверено 30 марта 2021 г.
  353. ^ Уилфред Оуэн: стихи , 1917, (Фабер и Фабер, 2004)
  354. ^ Jump up to: Перейти обратно: а б Найберг, Майкл (2007). Читатель времен Первой мировой войны . п. 1.
  355. ^ «Вступление к началу Первой мировой войны» . Кембриджский блог . 2014. Архивировано из оригинала 17 ноября 2022 года . Проверено 17 ноября 2022 г.
  356. ^ Джонс, Хизер (2013). «По мере приближения столетия: возрождение историографии Первой мировой войны» . Исторический журнал . 56 (3): 857–878 [858]. дои : 10.1017/S0018246X13000216 .
  357. ^ см. Кристофа Корнелиссена и Арндта Вайнриха, ред. Написание Великой войны - Историография Первой мировой войны с 1918 года по настоящее время (2020 г.) , скачать бесплатно. Архивировано 29 ноября 2020 г. на Wayback Machine ; полное покрытие крупнейших стран.

Библиография

Внешние ссылки

Послушайте эту статью
(3 части, 59 минут )
  1. Продолжительность: 25 минут 30 секунд.
  2. Продолжительность: 28 минут и 6 секунд.
  3. Продолжительность: 5 минут 13 секунд.
Разговорная иконка Википедии
Эти аудиофайлы были созданы на основе редакции этой статьи от 24 июня 2006 г. ( 24 июня 2006 г. ) и не отражают последующие изменения.

Путеводители по библиотекам

Arc.Ask3.Ru: конец переведенного документа.
Arc.Ask3.Ru
Номер скриншота №: 7757012f76792a812e7e059248de10e3__1718593920
URL1:https://arc.ask3.ru/arc/aa/77/e3/7757012f76792a812e7e059248de10e3.html
Заголовок, (Title) документа по адресу, URL1:
World War I - Wikipedia
Данный printscreen веб страницы (снимок веб страницы, скриншот веб страницы), визуально-программная копия документа расположенного по адресу URL1 и сохраненная в файл, имеет: квалифицированную, усовершенствованную (подтверждены: метки времени, валидность сертификата), открепленную ЭЦП (приложена к данному файлу), что может быть использовано для подтверждения содержания и факта существования документа в этот момент времени. Права на данный скриншот принадлежат администрации Ask3.ru, использование в качестве доказательства только с письменного разрешения правообладателя скриншота. Администрация Ask3.ru не несет ответственности за информацию размещенную на данном скриншоте. Права на прочие зарегистрированные элементы любого права, изображенные на снимках принадлежат их владельцам. Качество перевода предоставляется как есть. Любые претензии, иски не могут быть предъявлены. Если вы не согласны с любым пунктом перечисленным выше, вы не можете использовать данный сайт и информация размещенную на нем (сайте/странице), немедленно покиньте данный сайт. В случае нарушения любого пункта перечисленного выше, штраф 55! (Пятьдесят пять факториал, Денежную единицу (имеющую самостоятельную стоимость) можете выбрать самостоятельно, выплаичвается товарами в течение 7 дней с момента нарушения.)