Религиозные евреи рассматривают иудаизм как средство соблюдения Моисеева завета , который был установлен между Богом и израильтянами , их предками. [14] Еврейская религиозная доктрина включает в себя широкий спектр текстов, практик, богословских позиций и форм организации. Среди основных текстов иудаизма — Тора , первые пять книг еврейской Библии , собрание древних еврейских писаний. также называется « Ветхим Заветом Танах, известный на английском языке как Еврейская Библия, в христианстве » . Помимо оригинального письменного писания, дополнительная Устная Тора представлена более поздними текстами, такими как Мидраш и Талмуд . на иврите Слово Тора может означать «учение», «закон» или «наставление». [15] although "Torah" can also be used as a general term that refers to any Jewish text that expands or elaborates on the original Five Books of Moses. Representing the core of the Jewish spiritual and religious tradition, the Torah is a term and a set of teachings that are explicitly self-positioned as encompassing at least seventy, and potentially infinite, facets and interpretations.[16] Judaism's texts, traditions, and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and Islam.[17][18]Hebraism, like Hellenism, played a seminal role in the formation of Western civilization through its impact as a core background element of Early Christianity.[19]
Within Judaism, there are a variety of religious movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism,[20][21][22] which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.[23] Historically, all or part of this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period;[24][21][25] the Karaites during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations.[26] Some modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be considered secular or nontheistic.[27][28][29][30] Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi and Modern Orthodox), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to halakha (Jewish law), the authority of the rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel.[31][32][33][1] Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and halakha are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed.[34][35][36][37] Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism.[38][39][40][41] A typical Reform position is that halakha should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.[42][43][44][45][46] Historically, special courts enforced halakha; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.[47] Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them.
Jews are an ethnoreligious group[48] including those born Jewish (or "ethnic Jews"), in addition to converts to Judaism. In 2021, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, or roughly 0.195% of the total world population, although religious observance varies from strict to none.[49][50] In 2021, about 45.6% of all Jews resided in Israel and another 42.1% resided in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.[51]
The term Judaism derives from Iudaismus, a Latinized form of the Ancient Greek Ioudaismos (Ἰουδαϊσμός) (from the verb ἰουδαΐζειν, "to side with or imitate the [Judeans]").[52] Its ultimate source was the Hebrew יהודה, Yehudah, "Judah",[53][54] which is also the source of the Hebrew term for Judaism: יַהֲדוּת, Yahadut. The term Ἰουδαϊσμός first appears in the Hellenistic Greek book of 2 Maccabees in the 2nd century BCE (i.e. 2 Maccabees 2:21, 8:1 and 14:38) .[55] In the context of the age and period it meant "seeking or forming part of a cultural entity"[56] and it resembled its antonym hellenismos, a word that signified a people's submission to Hellenic (Greek) cultural norms. The conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the Maccabean revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos.[56]
We are tempted, of course, to translate [Ioudaïsmós] as "Judaism," but this translation is too narrow, because in this first occurrence of the term, Ioudaïsmós has not yet been reduced to the designation of a religion. It means rather "the aggregate of all those characteristics that makes Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish)." Among these characteristics, to be sure, are practices and beliefs that we would today call "religious," but these practices and beliefs are not the sole content of the term. Thus Ioudaïsmós should be translated not as "Judaism" but as Judaeanness.[57]
Daniel R. Scwhartz, however, argues that "Judaism", especially in the context of the Book of Maccabees, refers to the religion, as opposed to the culture and politics of the Judean state. He believes it reflected the ideological divide between the Pharisees and Sadducees and implicitly, anti-Hasmonean and pro-Hasmonean factions in Judean society.[55]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary the earliest citation in English where the term was used to mean "the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews" is Robert Fabyan's The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce (1516).[58] "Judaism" as a direct translation of the Latin Iudaismus first occurred in a 1611 English translation of the apocrypha (Deuterocanon in Catholic and Eastern Orthodoxy), 2 Macc. ii. 21: "Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme."[59]
At its core, the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. As a reward for his act of faith in one God, he was promised that Isaac, his second son, would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan). Later, the descendants of Isaac's son Jacob were enslaved in Egypt, and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt. At Mount Sinai, they received the Torah—the five books of Moses. These books, together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim are known as Torah Shebikhtav as opposed to the Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the Talmud. Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel where the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time went on, the spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told Samuel the prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, and Samuel appointed Saul to be their King. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead.
Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Oral Torah or oral law, were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by RabbiJudah HaNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah, redacted circa 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia.[60] Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine.[60]
According to critical scholars, the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.[61][page needed][62][63] Several of these scholars, such as Professor Martin Rose and John Bright, suggest that during the First Temple period the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods.[64][page needed][65][page needed] Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism.[66] In this view, it was only by the Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.[67]John Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh, El, Asherah, and Ba'al, may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the Greek pantheon.[68]
During the early years of the Second Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as the Great Assembly, led by Ezra the Scribe. Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly, the last books of the Bible were written at this time and the canon sealed. Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE, and its creation sparked widespread controversy in Jewish communities, starting "conflicts within Jewish communities about accommodating the cultures of occupying powers."[24][70]
During the Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), the Romanssacked Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. Later, Roman emperor Hadrian built a pagan idol on the Temple Mount and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE), after which the Romans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism was recognized as a religio licita ("legitimate religion") until the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity in the fourth century.
Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and the establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities.[20][21]
Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people he created.[71] Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind.[72] According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation.[73] Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world.[74] He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people.[75]
Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism in Kabbalah, Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as "normal mysticism", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.[76] This is played out through the observance of the halakha, or Jewish law, and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled:
The ordinary, familiar, everyday things and occurrences we have, constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah, holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry, adultery, and the shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience, evil as well as good, for a Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence, although the experience of God is like none other, the occasions for experiencing Him, for having a consciousness of Him, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Berakot.[77]
Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, halakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world.
Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel.[78] In the Greco-Roman era, many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.[79]
Moreover, some have argued that Judaism is a non-creedal religion that does not require one to believe in God.[80][81] For some, observance of halakha is more important than belief in God per se.[82] The debate about whether one can speak of authentic or normative Judaism is not only a debate among religious Jews but also among historians.[83]
I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.
I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.
I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.
I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.
I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.
I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.
I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him.
I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.
I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.
I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalms 33:15).
I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.
I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.
I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.
In the strict sense, in Judaism, unlike Christianity and Islam, there are no fixed universally binding articles of faith, due to their incorporation into the liturgy.[85][86] Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism.[85][33][87] The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in the 12th century.[85][33] According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.[88][89] Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles.[90][91] Thus, within Reform Judaism only the first five principles are endorsed.[1]
In Maimonides' time, his list of tenets was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo. Albo and the Raavad argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith[85][33]
Along these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe halakha and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries.[92] Later, two poetic restatements of these principles ("Ani Ma'amin" and "Yigdal") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies,[85][1][93] leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance.[94][95]
The oldest non-Rabbinic instance of articles of faith were formulated, under Islamic influence, by the 12th century Karaite figure Judah ben Elijah Hadassi:
(1) God is the Creator of all created beings; (2) He is premundane and has no peer or associate; (3) the whole universe is created; (4) God called Moses and the other Prophets of the Biblical canon; (5) the Law of Moses alone is true; (6) to know the language of the Bible is a religious duty; (7) the Temple at Jerusalem is the palace of the world's Ruler; (8) belief in Resurrection contemporaneous with the advent of the Messiah; (9) final judgment; (10) retribution.
In modern times, Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma. Because of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.[90] Even so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible or various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash. Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and the Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses, who is considered Judaism's greatest prophet.[90][96][97] In the Mishnah, a core text of Rabbinic Judaism, acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come.[98]
Establishing the core tenets of Judaism in the modern era is even more difficult, given the number and diversity of the contemporary Jewish denominations. Even if to restrict the problem to the most influential intellectual trends of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the matter remains complicated. Thus, for instance, Joseph Soloveitchik's (associated with the Modern Orthodox movement) answer to modernity is constituted upon the identification of Judaism with following the halakha whereas its ultimate goal is to bring the holiness down to the world. Mordecai Kaplan, the founder of the Reconstructionist Judaism, abandons the idea of religion for the sake of identifying Judaism with civilization and by means of the latter term and secular translation of the core ideas, he tries to embrace as many Jewish denominations as possible. In turn, Solomon Schechter's Conservative Judaism was identical with the tradition understood as the interpretation of Torah, in itself being the history of the constant updates and adjustment of the Law performed by means of the creative interpretation. Finally, David Philipson draws the outlines of the Reform movement in Judaism by opposing it to the strict and traditional rabbinical approach and thus comes to the conclusions similar to that of the Conservative movement.[1][99]
The basis of halakha and tradition is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition, there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi), some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and only 369 of these commandments are still applicable today.[101][better source needed]
While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the Sadducees, and the Karaites), most Jews believe in the oral law. These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee school of thought of ancient Judaism and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis.
According to Rabbinical Jewish tradition, God gave both the Written Law (the Torah) and the Oral Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Oral law is the oral tradition as relayed by God to Moses and from him, transmitted and taught to the sages (rabbinic leaders) of each subsequent generation.
For centuries, the Torah appeared only as a written text transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition. Fearing that the oral teachings might be forgotten, Rabbi Judah haNasi undertook the mission of consolidating the various opinions into one body of law which became known as the Mishnah.[102]
The Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying halakha, which are the basis of the Talmud. According to Abraham ben David, the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Judah haNasi after the destruction of Jerusalem, in anno mundi 3949, which corresponds to 189 CE.[103]
Over the next four centuries, the Mishnah underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and Babylonia). The commentaries from each of these communities were eventually compiled into the two Talmuds, the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) and the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli). These have been further expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages.
In the text of the Torah, many words are left undefined, and many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions. Such phenomena are sometimes offered to validate the viewpoint that the Written Law has always been transmitted with a parallel oral tradition, illustrating the assumption that the reader is already familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources.[104]
Halakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition—the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa (Hebrew Sheelot U-Teshuvot). Over time, as practices develop, codes of halakha are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch, largely determines Orthodox religious practice today.
A law that operates under certain conditions will surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form
A law operating in one situation will also be operative in another situation if the text characterizes both situations in identical terms.
A law that clearly expresses the purpose it was meant to serve will also apply to other situations where the identical purpose may be served.
When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars, only those particulars are to be embraced by it.
A law that begins with specifying particular cases, and then proceeds to an all-embracing generalization, is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generalization.
A law that begins with a generalization as to its intended applications, then continues with the specification of particular cases, and then concludes with a restatement of the generalization, can be applied only to the particular cases specified.
The rules about a generalization being followed or preceded by specifying particulars (rules 4 and 5) will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generalization is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language.
A particular case already covered in a generalization that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particularized treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generalization.
A penalty specified for a general category of wrongdoing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited, but without any mention of the penalty.
A general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case, normally included in the generalization, with a modification in the penalty, either toward easing it or making it more severe.
A case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law except in those instances where it is specifically included in them.
Obscurities in Biblical texts may be cleared up from the immediate context or from subsequently occurring passages
Contradictions in Biblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages.
Orthodox and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well. The study of Torah (in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of God's revelation, but an end in itself. According to the Talmud:
These are the things for which a person enjoys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to enjoy in the world to come; they are: honoring parents, loving deeds of kindness, and making peace between one person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a).
In Judaism, "the study of Torah can be a means of experiencing God".[106] Reflecting on the contribution of the Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Neusner observed:
The rabbi's logical and rational inquiry is not mere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of God to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in the workaday world. ... Here is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the alien and remote conviction that the intellect is an instrument not of unbelief and desacralization but of sanctification.[107]
To study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of God.
In the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles. According to David Stern, all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic axioms:
first, the belief in the omni-significance of Scripture, in the meaningfulness of its every word, letter, even (according to one famous report) scribal flourish; second, the claim of the essential unity of Scripture as the expression of the single divine will.[108]
These two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations. According to the Talmud:
A single verse has several meanings, but no two verses hold the same meaning. It was taught in the school of R. Ishmael: 'Behold, My word is like fire—declares the Lord—and like a hammer that shatters rock' (Jer 23:29). Just as this hammer produces many sparks (when it strikes the rock), so a single verse has several meanings." (Talmud Sanhedrin 34a).
Observant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because it contains within it a host of interpretations.[109]
According to Rabbinic tradition, all valid interpretations of the written Torah were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itself). When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by God to Moses at Sinai.[110]
Thus, Hillel called attention to seven commonly used hermeneutical principles in the interpretation of laws (baraita at the beginning of Sifra); R. Ishmael, thirteen (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely an amplification of that of Hillel).[111]Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili listed 32, largely used for the exegesis of narrative elements of Torah. All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and Midrashim have been collected by Malbim in Ayyelet ha-Shachar, the introduction to his commentary on the Sifra. Nevertheless, R. Ishmael's 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely known; they constitute an important, and one of Judaism's earliest, contributions to logic, hermeneutics, and jurisprudence.[112]Judah Hadassi incorporated Ishmael's principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century.[113] Today R. Ishmael's 13 principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis.[114][115][116][117]
Jewish identity
Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism
According to Daniel Boyarin, the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated Hellenistic Judaism.[118] Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism's more than 3,000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is, Europe, particularly medieval and modern Europe). During this time, Jews experienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile. In the Jewish diaspora, they were in contact with, and influenced by, ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Hellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see Haskalah) and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in their ancient homeland, the Land of Israel. Thus, Boyarin has argued that "Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension."[119]
In contrast to this point of view, practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions.
According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with halakha. Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches.[clarification needed] All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.[120] Converts are called "ben Abraham" or "bat Abraham", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.[121]
Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew,[122] and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes.[123] However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism "without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community" and "A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew".[124]
Karaite Judaism believes that Jewish identity can only be transmitted by patrilineal descent. Although a minority of modern Karaites believe that Jewish identity requires that both parents be Jewish, and not only the father. They argue that only patrilineal descent can transmit Jewish identity on the grounds that all descent in the Torah went according to the male line.[26]
The question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when, in the 1950s, David Ben-Gurion requested opinions on mihu Yehudi ("Who is a Jew") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions. This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics.
Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods (i.e., idols) of others."[125] Leviticus 24 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel."[126] This is complemented by Ezra 10, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[127][128][129] A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.[130][131] Since the anti-religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[132]
The total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of "who is a Jew" is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. According to the Jewish Year Book (1901), the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005). In 2002, according to the Jewish Population Survey, there were 13.3 million Jews around the world. The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6 million. It is 0.25% of world population.[1]
Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent, with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001. The overall growth rate of Jews in Israel is 1.7% annually, and is consistently growing through natural population growth and extensive immigration.[133] The diaspora countries, by contrast, have low Jewish birth rates, an increasingly elderly age composition, high rates of interreligious marriage and a negative balance of people leaving Judaism versus those joining.[134]
In 2022, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, the majority live in one of only two countires: Israel and the United States.[135] About 46.6% of all Jews resided in Israel (6.9 million) and another 6 million Jews resided in the United States, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Canada, Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.[136]
Rabbinic Judaism (or in some older sources, Rabbinism;[137] Hebrew: "Yahadut Rabanit" – יהדות רבנית) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law.[20][21][22]
The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Western Jewry (primarily, the Ashkenazi, but also western part of Sephardim and Italian rite Jews, a.k.a. Italkim, and Greek Romaniote Jews—both last groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim) into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different)[138] are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative[33] or solely the Orthodox Jews:[139][1]
Two Haredi Jewish couples at a bus stop in JerusalemHasids at front of Belz Great Synagogue, Jerusalem
Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch (a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of halakha. Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith.
Conservative Judaism (known as Masorti Judaism outside North America and Israel) is characterized by a commitment to traditional halakha and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that halakha is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.[38][39][145][40][41][146][147][148] Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.
Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.[42][43][149][44][45][46]
Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that halakha, as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow. It sometimes recognized as the 4th major stream of Judaism.[150][151][152][153][1][154]
Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of halakha. Men and women participate equally in prayer.[155][156]
Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.[28][157]
Subbotniks (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of Russian ethnic origin in the 18th–20th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism.[158][159] Many settled in the Holy Land as part of the Zionist First Aliyah in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included Alexander Zaïd, Major-General Alik Ron,[160] and the mother of Ariel Sharon.[161]
While traditions and customs vary between discrete communities, it can be said that Sephardi (Iberian, for example, most Jews from France and the Netherlands) and Mizrahi (Oriental) Jewish communities do not generally adhere to the "movement" framework popular in and among Ashkenazi Jewry.[162] Historically, Sephardi and Mizrahi communities have eschewed denominations in favour of a "big tent" approach.[163] This is particularly the case in contemporary Israel, which is home to the largest communities of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in the world. (However, individual Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews or some their communities may be members of or attend synagogues that do adhere to one Ashkenazi-inflected movement or another.)[142] Among the pioneers of Reform Judaism in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina.[164] A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization.[165]
Sephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the traditional (Orthodox) and prayer rites are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception. Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel.[142][166][167]
In Israel, as in the West, Judaism is also divided into major Orthodox, Conservative and Reform traditions.[168][169][170] At the same time, for statistical and practical purposes, a different division of society is used there on the basis of a person's attitude to religion.
Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "secular" (hiloni), "traditional" (masorti), "religious" (dati) or "ultra-religious" (haredi).[170][171] The term "secular" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative).
The term "traditional" (masorti) is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of "eastern" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with Conservative Judaism, which also names itself "Masorti" outside North America. Only a few authors, like Elliot Nelson Dorff, consider the American Conservative (masorti) movement and Israeli masorti sector to be one and the same.[172] There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways "secular" and "traditional" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term "Orthodox" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora. What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati (religious, including religious zionist) or haredi (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel.[170][171] The former term includes what is called "religious Zionism" or the "National Orthodox" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredi-leumi (nationalistharedi), or "Hardal", which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as frum, as opposed to frei (more liberal Jews)).[173]
Karaites and Samaritans
Karaite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period, such as the Sadducees. The Karaites ("Scripturalists") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat ("simple" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do.[26]
The Samaritans, a very small community located entirely around Mount Gerizim in the Nablus/Shechem region of the West Bank and in Holon, near Tel Aviv in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age kingdom of Israel. Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written Torah (Five Books of Moses), which they view as the only authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the Samaritan Book of Joshua).
Haymanot (meaning "religion" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced by Ethiopian Jews. This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic, Karaite, and Samaritan Judaisms, Ethiopian Jews having diverged from their coreligionists earlier. Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written in Ge'ez, not Hebrew, and dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries. Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, like Sigd.
Noahidism is a Jewishreligious movement based on the Seven Laws of Noah and their traditional interpretations within Rabbinic Judaism. According to the halakha, non-Jews (gentiles) are not obligated to convert to Judaism, but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba), the final reward of the righteous. The divinely ordained penalty for violating any of the Laws of Noah is discussed in the Talmud, but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large. Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to as B'nei Noach (Hebrew: בני נח, 'Children of Noah') or Noahides (/ˈnoʊ.ə.haɪdɪs/). Supporting organizations have been established around the world over the past decades by both Noahides and Orthodox Jews.[174]
Historically, the Hebrew term B'nei Noach has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah. However, nowadays it's primarily used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the Seven Laws of Noah.
Jewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions, by other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness (chesed), compassion, humility, and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity (tzedakah) and refraining from negative speech (lashon hara). Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews.
A Yemenite Jew at morning prayers, wearing a kippah skullcap, prayer shawl and tefillin
Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer, Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah (Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad—"Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!"
An Israeli female soldier prays at the Western Wall
Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult Jews, called a minyan. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well.
The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Differences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as reading from the Torah. In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs.
Religious clothing
Jewish boys wearing tzitzit and kippot play soccer in JerusalemMen wearing tallitot pray at the Western Wall
A kippah (Hebrew: כִּפָּה, plural kippot; Yiddish: יאַרמלקע, yarmulke) is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious texts, and at all times by some Jewish men. In Orthodox communities, only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities, some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown.
Tzitzit (Hebrew: צִיציִת) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tzitzis) are special knotted "fringes" or "tassels" found on the four corners of the tallit (Hebrew: טַלִּית) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tallis), or prayer shawl. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. In the Sephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age. In some Ashkenazi communities, it is customary to wear one only after marriage. A tallit katan (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. In some Orthodox circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing.
Tefillin (Hebrew: תְפִלִּין), known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word φυλακτήριον, meaning safeguard or amulet), are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.[175]
A kittel (Yiddish: קיטל), a white knee-length overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the High Holidays. It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the tachrichim (burial garments).
Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption.
Two braided Shabbat challot placed under an embroidered challah cover at the start of the Shabbat meal
Shabbat, the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall on Saturday night, commemorates God's day of rest after six days of creation. It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. At sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the Mohtzi, a blessing recited over the bread. It is customary to have challah, two braided loaves of bread, on the table. During Shabbat, Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under 39 categories of melakhah, translated literally as "work". In fact, the activities banned on the Sabbath are not "work" in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a fire has been extended in the modern era to driving a car, which involves burning fuel and using electricity.[176]
Jewish holy days (chaggim), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called "regalim" (derived from the Hebrew word "regel", or foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple:
A haggadah used by the Jewish community of Cairo in ArabicPassover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the Seder. Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. Matzo is eaten instead of bread.
Shavuot ("Pentecost" or "Feast of Weeks") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity.
A sukkahSukkot ("Tabernacles" or "The Festival of Booths") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot (sing. sukkah) that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah, "Rejoicing of the Torah", a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.
Jews in Mumbai break the Yom Kippur fast with roti and samosas
The High Holidays (Yamim Noraim or "Days of Awe") revolve around judgment and forgiveness:
Rosh Hashanah, (also Yom Ha-Zikkaron or "Day of Remembrance", and Yom Teruah, or "Day of the Sounding of the Shofar"). Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year (literally, "head of the year"), although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar, Tishri. Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement leading up to Yom Kippur, during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year. Holiday customs include blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates.
Yom Kippur, ("Day of Atonement") is the holiest day of the Jewish year. It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one's sins. Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a "Machzor". Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur. On the eve of Yom Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the "seuda mafseket", is eaten. Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer. It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur, especially for Kol Nidre, and leather shoes are not worn. The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening. The final prayer service, called "Ne'ilah", ends with a long blast of the shofar.
Purim street scene in JerusalemJewish personnel of the US Navy light candles on Hanukkah
Purim (Hebrew: פוריםⓘPûrîm "lots") is a joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of the evil Haman, who sought to exterminate them, as recorded in the biblical Book of Esther. It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther, mutual gifts of food and drink, charity to the poor, and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22). Other customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries called hamantashen, dressing up in masks and costumes, and organizing carnivals and parties.
Purim has celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew month of Adar, which occurs in February or March of the Gregorian calendar.
Hanukkah (Hebrew: חֲנֻכָּה, "dedication") also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev (Hebrew calendar). The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on.
The holiday was called Hanukkah (meaning "dedication") because it marks the re-dedication of the Temple after its desecration by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the "Miracle of the Oil". According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem following the victory of the Maccabees over the Seleucid Empire, there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days—which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil.
Hanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never considered a major holiday in Judaism, but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times, mainly because it falls around the same time as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel.
There are three more minor Jewish fast days that commemorate various stages of the destruction of the Temples. They are the 17th Tamuz, the 10th of Tevet and Tzom Gedaliah (the 3rd of Tishrei).
The modern holidays of Yom Ha-shoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day), Yom Hazikaron (Israeli Memorial Day) and Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) commemorate the horrors of the Holocaust, the fallen soldiers of Israel and victims of terrorism, and Israeli independence, respectively.
There are some who prefer to commemorate those who were killed in the Holocaust on the 10th of Tevet.
The core of festival and Shabbat prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh, called Haftarah. Over the course of a year, the whole Torah is read, with the cycle starting over in the autumn, on Simchat Torah.
Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. The Reform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. Some traditional features of a synagogue are:
The ark (called aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim and hekhal by Sephardim) where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (parochet) outside or inside the ark doors);
The elevated reader's platform (called bimah by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim), where the Torah is read (and services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues);
The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where the hazzan or prayer leader stands while praying.
In addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include yeshivas, or institutions of Jewish learning, and mikvahs, which are ritual baths.
The Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be "keeping kosher".[177][178]
Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal.[179] Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether.[177]
In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as shechitah. Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.[177]
Halakha also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community and can extend for up to six hours. Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother's milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah, the Talmud and Rabbinic law. Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of kashrut, but the prohibition is rabbinic, not biblical.[180]
The use of dishes, serving utensils, and ovens may make food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that have been used to prepare non-kosher food, or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food treif under certain conditions.[177]
Furthermore, all Orthodox and some Conservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed grape products made by non-Jews, due to ancient pagan practices of using wine in rituals. Some Conservative authorities permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic supervision.[181]
The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of kashrut. However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.[177] The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained. In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because "they are unclean".[182] The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.[177]
Survival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut, as they do for most halakhot.[183][184]
The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. Some of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves, seminal flux, vaginal flux, menstruation, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.[185][186] In Rabbinic Judaism, Kohanim, members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.[187] During the Temple period, such priests (Kohanim) were required to eat their bread offering (Terumah) in a state of ritual purity, which laws eventually led to more rigid laws being enacted, such as hand-washing which became a requisite of all Jews before consuming ordinary bread.[188][189][190]
An important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women. These laws are also known as niddah, literally "separation", or family purity. Vital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.[191]
Especially in Orthodox Judaism, the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions. For example, the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from sexual intercourse for seven days. A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.[185] The Rabbis conflated ordinary niddah with this extended menstrual period, known in the Torah as zavah, and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends. In addition, Rabbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Afterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikveh[191]
Traditional Ethiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a temple's special sanctity. Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.[192][193]
Two boys wearing tallit at a bar mitzvah. The torah is visible in the foreground.
Life-cycle events
Life-cycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a Jew's life that serves to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community:
Brit milah – Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named zeved habat or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity.
Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah – This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a "portion" of the Torah.
Marriage – Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event and an ideal human state.[194] A wedding takes place under a chuppah, or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people. An intermarriage is prohibited, except as within Reform Judaism:[195]
Divorce – Divorce is allowed in accordance with Halakha. The divorce ceremony involves the husband giving the short get document written in Aramaic into the hand of the wife in rabbinical court, that is all. But, since the 11th century among the Ashkenazim and many Sephardim a divorce became prohibited against will of a wife, than a man had way for polygamy.[196] The get contains declaration: "You are hereby permitted to all men."
The Bereavement (Yahrtzeit) Hasidic tish, Bnei Brak, Israel
Death and Mourning (Avelut) – The Torah requires burial as soon as possible, even for executed criminals.[197] Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice. The first stage is called the shiva (literally "seven", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the shloshim (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, avelut yud bet chodesh, which is observed for eleven months.[198] A cremation within Orthodox Judaism permited only by some leading rabbis in West Europe.[199]
The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty:
Kohen (priest) – patrilineal descendant of Aaron, brother of Moses. In the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.
Levi (Levite) – Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob. In the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.
From the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities—reading the Torah and haftarah (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals—require a minyan, the presence of ten Jews.
The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:
Rabbi of a congregation – Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below).
Hassidic Rebbe – rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty.
Hazzan (note: the "h" denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) – a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.
Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis:
Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leader—literally "agent" or "representative"—of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz's prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function.
The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.
Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:
Gabbai (sexton) – Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the shatz for each prayer session if there is no standard shatz, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.
The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the Enlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah, and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still.
Dayan (judge) – An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a beth din (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.
Mohel (circumciser) – An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified mohel and performs the brit milah (circumcision).
Shochet (ritual slaughterer) – In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet.
Sofer (scribe) – Torah scrolls, tefillin (phylacteries), mezuzot (scrolls put on doorposts), and gittin (bills of divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.
Mashgiach/Mashgicha of a yeshiva – Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics).
Mashgiach/Mashgicha – Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself or herself.
Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)
Around the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Essenes, and Christians. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished.[21][200] Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as "Judaism").[21] The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The Samaritans practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.)
Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the Isunians, the Yudganites, the Malikites,[clarification needed] and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.
Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas—amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardi Jews (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the Malabari and Cochin Jews from Kerala . Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.
This was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times. Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups. With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.[201] During the Middle Ages, Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration,[202] but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like Almohad's persecutions.[203]
Hasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer (1700–1760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. Its adherents favored small and informal gatherings called Shtiebel, which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing.[204] Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to Tzadiks, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement. Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle.[205] Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. As some have put it: "they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost". Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim, (lit. "opponents"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.
In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the "Jewish Enlightenment", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe halakha and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend.
In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of halakha. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that halakha should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.
Spectrum of observance
Judaism is practiced around the world. This is an 1889 siddur published in Hebrew and Marathi for use by the Bene Israel community
Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey, in the United States' Jewish community—the world's second largest—4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion.[206] Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.[207]
Christianity was originally a sect of Second Temple Judaism, but the two religions diverged in the first century. The differences between Christianity and Judaism originally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah but eventually became irreconcilable. Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, of atonement and sin, the status of God's commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly of the nature of God himself. Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as Shituf or worship of the God of Israel which is not monotheistic. Christianity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with the invention of Christianity and Jews as a people replaced by the Church, though a Christian belief in dual-covenant theology emerged as a phenomenon following Christian reflection on how their theology influenced the Nazi Holocaust.[208]
We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse.…Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live."[209]
Until their emancipation in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations. They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the Jewish hat and the yellow badge, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns (ghettos), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (for example selling new clothes in medieval Sweden). Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship. Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews, for example, England in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and Spain in 1492 (readmitted in 1868). The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue. When the colony was seized by the British in 1664 Jewish rights remained unchanged, but by 1671 Asser Levy was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America.[210] In 1791, Revolutionary France was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by Prussia in 1848. Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by Isaac Lyon Goldsmid[211] with the ability of Jews to sit in parliament with the passing of the Jews Relief Act 1858. The newly created German Empire in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the Nuremberg Laws in 1935.
Jewish life in Christian lands was marked by frequent blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. Religious prejudice was an underlying source against Jews in Europe. Christian rhetoric and antipathy towards Jews developed in the early years of Christianity and was reinforced by ever increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries. The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence, and murder culminating in the Holocaust.[212]: 21 [213]: 169 [214] These attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, in art and popular teaching for two millennia which expressed contempt for Jews,[215] as well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews. The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church,[216] as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the antireligious régime.[217]
The attitude of Christians and Christian Churches toward the Jewish people and Judaism have changed in a mostly positive direction since World War II. Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews.[218] In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.[219]
Both Judaism and Islam track their origins from the patriarch Abraham, and they are therefore considered Abrahamic religions. In both Jewish and Muslim tradition, the Jewish and Arab peoples are descended from the two sons of Abraham—Isaac and Ishmael, respectively. While both religions are monotheistic and share many commonalities, they differ based on the fact that Jews do not consider Jesus or Muhammad to be prophets. The religions' adherents have interacted with each other since the 7th century when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian peninsula. Indeed, the years 712 to 1066 CE under the Ummayad and the Abbasid rulers have been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their own religions and administer their own internal affairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.[220] For example, they had to pay the jizya, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males,[220] and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims.[221] Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the Qur'an or the hadiths but invented in early medievalBaghdad and inconsistently enforced.[222] Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution—for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia, and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus,[223] as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see: Mawza Exile). At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence—in Morocco, for example, Jews were confined to walled quarters (mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.[224]
In the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries.[225][226] Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.[227]
Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism
There are some movements in other religions that include elements of Judaism. Among Christianity these are a number of denominations of ancient and contemporary Judaizers. The most well-known of these is Messianic Judaism, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s,[228][229][230][231] In this, elements of the messianic traditions in Judaism,[232][233] are incorporated in, and melded with the tenets of Christianity.[231][234][235][236][237] The movement generally states that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah, that he is one of the Three Divine Persons,[238][239] and that salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior.[240] Some members of Messianic Judaism argue that it is a sect of Judaism.[241] Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, because it teaches creeds which are identical to those of Pauline Christianity, and because the conditions for Messiah to have come accordingly within traditional Jewish thought have not yet been met.[242][243] Another religious movement is the Black Hebrew Israelite group, which not to be confused with less syncretic Black Judaism (a constellation of movements which, depending on their adherence to normative Jewish tradition, receive varying degrees of recognition by the broader Jewish community).
On the other hand, proponents of classical Orthodox Judaism such as Neturei Karta and similar groups strongly oppose the growing accommodation to political Zionism by Haredi Jewish groups such as Agudat Yisrael; a previously anti-Zionist proponent of Orthodox Haredi Judaism whom the Neturei Karta see as betrayal by the Agudat Yisrael against the Orthodoxy, in the belief that Judaism should not be conflated with the politics of Zionism.[250][251][252]
^Fried, Yerachmiel (18 August 2011). "What is Torah?". Aish. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
^"Bamidbar Rabah". sefaria.org. sefaria. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
^Heribert Busse (1998). Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Theological and Historical Affiliations. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 63–112. ISBN978-1-55876-144-5.
^Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
^See, for example, Deborah Dash Moore, American Jewish Identity Politics, University of Michigan Press, 2008, p. 303; Ewa Morawska, Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890–1940, Princeton University Press, 1999. p. 217; Peter Y. Medding, Values, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 64; Ezra Mendelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 55; Louis Sandy Maisel, Ira N. Forman, Donald Altschiller, Charles Walker Bassett, Jews in American politics: essays, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, p. 158; Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword, W.W. Norton & Company, 1997, p. 169.
^Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties University of California Press. 105–106
^"He anon renouncyd his Iudaisme or Moysen Lawe, And was cristenyd, and lyued after as a Cristen Man." (Robert Fabian, New Chronicles of England and France, reprint London 1811, p. 334.)
^Neusner, Jacob (2003). "Defining Judaism". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan (eds.). The Blackwell companion to Judaism. Blackwell. p. 3. ISBN978-1-57718-059-3. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
^Gen. 17:3–8Genesis 17: 3–8: Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, "As for me, this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;" Gen. 22:17–18 Genesis 22: 17–18: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring, all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me."
^Exodus 20:3 "You shall have no other gods before me; Deut. 6:5Deuteronomy 6:5 "Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength."
^Lev. 19:18Leviticus 19:18: "'Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord"
^Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p. 194
^Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p. 203
^The Books of Melachim (Kings) and Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah) in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel's population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon's "wives turned away his heart after other gods…[and he] did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD" (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4–10); King Ahab "went and served Baal, and worshiped him…And Ahab made the Asherah [a pagan place of worship]; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel that were before him" (1 Melachim 16:31–33); the prophet Isaiah condemns the people who "prepare a table for [the idol] Fortune, and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto [the idol] Destiny" (Yeshaiahu 65:11–12). Translation: JPS (Jewish Publication Society) edition of the Tanakh, from 1917, available at Mechon MamreArchived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Королева II, Эдвард Л.; Протеро, Стивен Р .; Шаттак младший, Гардинер Х. (1996). Энциклопедия американской религиозной истории . Том. 2. Нью-Йорк: Прозаические произведения. п. 485. ИСБН 0-8160-3545-8 .
^ Раввин С. из Монтпилиера, Яд Рама, Ю. Альфахер, Рош Амана.
^ «13 основ иудаизма Маймонида» . Месора. Архивировано из оригинала 23 апреля 2016 года . Проверено 13 апреля 2009 г. Однако если он отвергает одну из этих основ, он покидает нацию и становится отрицателем основ, и его называют еретиком, отрицателем и т. д.
^ Раввин Мордехай Блюменфельд (9 мая 2009 г.). «Маймонид, 13 принципов веры» . Айш ха-Тора. Архивировано из оригинала 27 сентября 2019 года . Проверено 13 августа 2009 г. По мнению Рамбама, их принятие определяет минимальные требования, необходимые для того, чтобы человек мог относиться к Всевышнему и Его Торе как член народа Израиля.
^ «Во что верят евреи?» . Мехон Мамре. Архивировано из оригинала 6 апреля 2009 года . Проверено 13 апреля 2009 г. Ближе всего к созданию общепризнанного списка еврейских верований оказались тринадцать принципов веры Маймонида.
^ Путеводитель JPS по еврейским традициям, с. 510: «Тринадцать принципов веры, которые в конечном итоге обеспечили почти всеобщее признание»
^ Риетти, раввин Джонатан. «Откуда вы знаете, что исход действительно произошел?» . Архивировано из оригинала 18 сентября 2004 года. Слово « эмуна » было неправильно переведено в Библии короля Иакова как просто «вера» или «вера», хотя на самом деле оно означает убеждение , что представляет собой гораздо более решительное познание Бога. на основе опыта.
^ Нойснер, Джейкоб, 2003 г. Приглашение к Талмуду Стипф и сын, Орегон xvii – xxii
^ Стерн, Дэвид «Мидраш и неопределенность» в Critical Inquiry , Vol. 15, № 1 (Осень, 1988), с. 151.
^ Нойснер, Джейкоб, 2003 г. Приглашение к Талмуду Стипф и сын, Орегон xvii-vix; Штейнзальц, Адин, 1976. Основной Талмуд, Нью-Йорк: Основные книги. 3–9; Страк, Герман 1980. Введение в Мидраш и Талмуд. Нью-Йорк: Атенеум. 95; Стерн, Дэвид «Мидраш и неопределенность» в журнале Critical Inquiry , Vol. 15, № 1 (осень 1988 г.), стр. 132–161.
^ Стерн, Дэвид «Мидраш и неопределенность» в Critical Inquiry , Vol. 15, № 1 (Осень, 1988), с. 147.
^ Коэн, Авраам, Талмуд обывателя , 1949 г. , Нью-Йорк: EP Dutton & Co. xxiv; Страк, Герман 1980. Введение в Мидраш и Талмуд. Нью-Йорк: Атенеум. 95
^ Коэн, Авраам, Талмуд обывателя , 1949 г. , Нью-Йорк: EP Dutton & Co. xxiv; Штейнзальц, Адин, 1976. Основной Талмуд, Нью-Йорк: основные книги. 222; Страк, Герман 1980. Введение в Мидраш и Талмуд. Нью-Йорк: Атенеум. 95
^ Страк, Герман, 1980. Введение в Мидраш и Талмуд, Нью-Йорк: Атенеум. п. 95
^ Носсон Шерман, 2003 г., Полное издание Artscroll Siddur, третье издание, Бруклин, Нью-Йорк: Mesorah Publications, стр. 49–53.
^ Раввин Шнеур Залман из Лиади, Ниссен Мангель, 2003 Сидур Техиллат Хашем Издательское общество Кехот. стр. 24–25
^ Боярин, Даниил (1994). "Введение" . Радикальный еврей: Павел и политика идентичности . Беркли: Издательство Калифорнийского университета. стр. 13–38. ISBN 978-0-520-08592-3 . LCCN 93036269 . Архивировано из оригинала 10 февраля 2023 года . Проверено 15 июня 2006 г. Павлом двигало эллинистическое стремление к Единому, которое, среди прочего, порождало идеал универсальной человеческой сущности, лежащей за пределами различий и иерархии. Эта универсальная человечность, однако, была основана (и до сих пор существует) на дуализме плоти и духа, так что, хотя тело является особенным, отмеченным в практике как еврейское или греческое, а также в анатомии как мужское или женское, дух универсальный. Павел, однако, не отвергал тело, как это делали, например, гностики, а, скорее, продвигал систему, в которой тело имело свое место, хотя и подчиненное духу. Антропологическому дуализму Павла соответствовал и герменевтический дуализм. Как человек делится на телесную и духовную составляющую, так и сам язык. Он состоит из внешних, материальных знаков и внутренних, духовных значений. Когда это применяется к религиозной системе, унаследованной Павлом, физические, плотские знаки Торы, исторического иудаизма переосмысливаются как символы того, что Павел считает универсальными требованиями и возможностями человечества.
^ Боярин, Даниил (1994). «Ответ на почту» . Радикальный еврей: Павел и политика идентичности . Беркли: Издательство Калифорнийского университета. ISBN 978-0-520-08592-3 . Архивировано из оригинала 10 февраля 2023 года . Проверено 16 июня 2006 г. Еврейство разрушает сами категории идентичности, потому что оно не национальное, не генеалогическое, не религиозное, а все это находится в диалектическом напряжении друг с другом.
^ ДеллаПергола, Серджио (2016), «Еврейское население мира, 2015», в Дашефски, Арнольд; Шескин, Ира М. (ред.), Американский еврейский ежегодник 2015 , том. 115, Springer International Publishing, стр. 273–364, номер doi : 10.1007/978-3-319-24505-8_7 , ISBN. 978-3-319-24503-4
^ «РАВВИ» . www.jewishencyclepedia.com . Архивировано из оригинала 10 октября 2023 года . Проверено 4 октября 2023 г. После того, как Леопольд Цунц и его сотрудники заложили основу научного подхода к еврейской истории и религии, ряд молодых раввинов-энтузиастов, боровшихся с самой яростной оппозицией, стремились добиться примирения раввинизма с современным научным духом.
^ Роберт Гордис. «Тора МиСинай: консервативные взгляды» . Современный подход к живой Галахе . Мир Масорти. Архивировано из оригинала 13 июля 2007 года. Тора — это эманация Бога… Эта концепция не означает для нас, что процесс откровения состоял из диктовки Бога.
^ «Консервативный иудаизм» . Еврейский. 16 июня 2005 г. Архивировано из оригинала 3 декабря 2016 г. . Проверено 13 апреля 2009 г. Поэтому мы понимаем этот термин как метафору, означающую, что Тора божественна и отражает волю Бога.
^ Хая Шучат (25 июня 2015 г.). «Кошерная свинья?» . Архивировано из оригинала 23 марта 2010 года . Проверено 1 ноября 2009 г. Это также наиболее типичный «трейф» животных, чье название почти синоним слова «некошерный». Хотя свинья далеко не единственная в списке некошерных животных, она, кажется, стоит в отдельном классе.
↑ Еврейская жизнь в Англии во время Второй мировой войны. Архивировано 2 февраля 2010 года в Wayback Machine : «было… особое разрешение… которое позволяло евреям, служащим в вооруженных силах, есть «некошерную», когда еврейская еда не была доступна; это отклонение от галахи было разрешено «для того, чтобы спасти человеческую жизнь, в том числе и вашу собственную».
^ Ю. Лихтенштейн М.А. "Еженедельный бюллетень №805" . Университет Бар-Илан , факультет иудаики, раввинское отделение. Архивировано из оригинала 14 мая 2011 года . Проверено 3 ноября 2009 г. …определенные запреты, несомненно, становятся допустимыми из-за опасных для жизни обстоятельств, например, употребления некошерной пищи
^ Сара Э. Кареш; Митчелл М. Гурвиц (2005). Энциклопедия иудаизма . Издательство информационной базы. стр. 444–. ISBN 978-0-8160-6982-8 . Архивировано из оригинала 10 февраля 2023 года . Проверено 5 апреля 2018 г. Саддукеи исчезли, когда Второй Храм был разрушен в 70 году нашей эры, и фарисейский иудаизм стал ведущей еврейской сектой.
^ Ленгмюр, Гэвин (1993). История, религия и антисемитизм . Издательство Калифорнийского университета. ISBN 978-0-520-07728-7 .
^ Р. Кендалл Соулен, Бог Израиля и христианское богословие (Миннеаполис: Крепость, 1996) ISBN 978-0-8006-2883-3
^ Баскин, Джудит Р.; Сискин, Кеннет (2010). Кембриджский путеводитель по еврейской истории, религии и культуре . Издательство Кембриджского университета. п. 120. ИСБН 978-0-521-86960-7 .
^ Гилл, Антон (1994). Почетное поражение; История немецкого сопротивления Гитлеру. Хайнеман Мандарин. 1995 г., мягкая обложка ISBN 978-0-434-29276-9 ; п. 57
^ Готфрид, Тед (2001). Герои Холокоста . Книги двадцать первого века. стр. 24–25 . ISBN 978-0-7613-1717-3 . Проверено 14 января 2017 г. Некоторые группы, которые, как известно, помогали евреям, носили религиозный характер. Одной из них была Исповедующая церковь, протестантская деноминация, образованная в мае 1934 года, через год после того, как Гитлер стал канцлером Германии. Одной из его целей была отмена нацистского закона, «который требовал, чтобы на государственной службе были очищены все те, кто был либо евреем, либо частично еврейским происхождением». Другая цель заключалась в помощи тем, «кто пострадал от репрессивных законов или насилия». Около 7000 из 17000 протестантского духовенства в Германии присоединились к Исповедующей церкви. Большая часть их работ осталась незамеченной, но двое из них никогда их не забудут — Макс Кракауэр и его жена. Укрывшись в шестидесяти шести домах и получив помощь более чем восьмидесяти человек, принадлежащих к Исповедующей церкви, они обязаны им своей жизнью. Немецкие католические церкви приложили все усилия, чтобы защитить католиков еврейского происхождения. Более инклюзивной была принципиальная позиция католического епископа Клеменса, графа фон Галена из Мюнстера. Он публично осудил резню евреев нацистами и фактически сумел на короткое время остановить эту проблему.… Члены Общества Друзей — немецкие квакеры, работающие с организациями Друзей из других стран, — были особенно успешны в спасении евреев… Свидетели Иеговы , сами отправленные в концентрационные лагеря, также оказывали помощь евреям.
^ Фехер, Шошана. Проходя через Пасху: построение границ мессианского иудаизма , Роуман Альтамира, 1998, ISBN 978-0-7619-8953-0 , с. 140 . «Такой интерес к развитию еврейской этнической идентичности, возможно, не удивителен, если принять во внимание 1960-е годы, когда возник мессианский иудаизм».
^ Ариэль, Яаков (2006). «Иудаизм и христианство объединяются! Уникальная культура мессианского иудаизма» . В Галлахере, Юджин В.; Эшкрафт, В. Майкл (ред.). Еврейские и христианские традиции . Введение в новые и альтернативные религии в Америке. Том. 2. Вестпорт, Китай: Издательская группа Greenwood . п. 194. ИСБН 978-0-275-98714-5 . LCCN 2006022954 . OCLC 315689134 . Расцвет мессианского иудаизма. На первом этапе движения, в начале и середине 1970-х годов, евреи, принявшие христианство, по собственной инициативе основали несколько общин. В отличие от предыдущих общин еврейских христиан, мессианские еврейские общины были в значительной степени независимы от контроля со стороны миссионерских обществ или христианских конфессий, хотя они все еще хотели признания со стороны более крупного евангелического сообщества.
^ Ариэль, Яаков (2006). «Иудаизм и христианство объединяются! Уникальная культура мессианского иудаизма» . В Галлахере, Юджин В.; Эшкрафт, В. Майкл (ред.). Еврейские и христианские традиции . Введение в новые и альтернативные религии в Америке. Том. 2. Вестпорт, Китай: Издательская группа Greenwood . п. 191. ИСБН 978-0-275-98714-5 . LCCN 2006022954 . OCLC 315689134 . Хотя христианство зародилось в первом веке нашей эры как еврейская группа, оно быстро отделилось от иудаизма и заявило о своей замене его; с тех пор отношения между двумя традициями часто были натянутыми. Но в двадцатом веке группы молодых евреев утверждали, что они преодолели исторические различия между двумя религиями и объединили еврейскую идентичность и обычаи с христианской верой.
^ Ариэль, Яаков (2006). «Иудаизм и христианство объединяются! Уникальная культура мессианского иудаизма» . В Галлахере, Юджин В.; Эшкрафт, В. Майкл (ред.). Еврейские и христианские традиции . Введение в новые и альтернативные религии в Америке. Том. 2. Вестпорт, Китай: Издательская группа Greenwood . стр. 194–195. ISBN 978-0-275-98714-5 . LCCN 2006022954 . OCLC 315689134 . Когда этот термин вновь появился в Израиле в 1940-х и 1950-х годах, он обозначал всех евреев, принявших христианство в его протестантской евангелической форме. Миссионеры, такие как южный баптист Роберт Линдси, отмечали, что для израильских евреев термин нозрим , «христиане» на иврите, почти автоматически означает чужую, враждебную религию. Поскольку такой термин делал почти невозможным убедить евреев в том, что христианство является их религией, миссионеры искали более нейтральный термин, который не вызывал бы негативных чувств. Они выбрали Мешичиим , Мессианский, чтобы преодолеть подозрительность и антагонизм термина нозрим . Мешичиим как термин также имел то преимущество, что подчеркивал мессианизм как основной компонент христианской евангелической веры, которую пропагандировали миссии и общины евреев, обращенных в христианство. Это передавало смысл новой, инновационной религии, а не [ sic ] старой, неблагоприятной религии. Этот термин использовался по отношению к тем евреям, которые приняли Иисуса как своего личного спасителя, и не применялся к евреям, принявшим католицизм, которые в Израиле называли себя евреями-христианами. Термин «мессианский иудаизм» был принят в Соединенных Штатах в начале 1970-х годов теми, кто обратился в евангелическое христианство, которые выступали за более настойчивое отношение со стороны обращенных к своим еврейским корням и наследию.
^ Ариэль, Яаков С. (2000). «Глава 20: Расцвет мессианского иудаизма» . Евангелизация избранных людей: миссии среди евреев в Америке, 1880–2000 гг . Чапел-Хилл: Издательство Университета Северной Каролины. п. 223. ИСБН 978-0-8078-4880-7 . OCLC 43708450 . Проверено 10 августа 2010 г. Мессианский иудаизм, хотя и отстаивал идею независимого движения новообращенных евреев, оставался порождением миссионерского движения, и эти связи никогда не были разорваны. Возникновение мессианского иудаизма во многих отношениях было логическим результатом идеологии и риторики движения по евангелизации евреев, а также его ранней поддержки различных форм еврейско-христианского выражения. Миссии продвигали идею о том, что евреи, принявшие христианство, не предали свое наследие или даже свою веру, а фактически реализовали свою истинную еврейскую сущность, став христианами. Миссии также продвигали диспенсационалистскую идею о том, что Церковь равна телу истинных христианских верующих и что христиане определяются принятием Иисуса как своего личного Спасителя, а не принадлежностью к конкретным конфессиям и определенным литургиям или способам молитвы. Миссии использовали еврейские символы в своих зданиях и литературе и называли свои центры еврейскими именами, такими как Эмануэль или Бет Сар Шалом. Аналогичным образом, в публикациях миссий были представлены еврейские религиозные символы и обычаи, такие как зажжение меноры. Хотя миссионеры среди евреев были встревожены, когда впервые столкнулись с более напористым и независимым движением мессианского иудаизма, именно они были ответственны за его зарождение и косвенно за его рождение. Идеология, риторика и символы, которые они продвигали на протяжении поколений, послужили основой для возникновения нового движения, которое миссионеры сначала отвергли как заходящее слишком далеко, но позже приняли и даже приняли.
^ «Каковы стандарты UMJC?» . Союз мессианских еврейских общин . Июнь 1998 года. Архивировано из оригинала 20 октября 2015 года . Проверено 3 мая 2015 г. 1. Мы верим, что Библия — вдохновленное, единственное непогрешимое и авторитетное Слово Божия. 2. Мы верим, что есть один Б-г, вечно существующий в трёх лицах: Отец, Сын и Святой Дух. 3. Мы верим в божественность Л-РД Йешуа, Мессии, в Его непорочное зачатие, в Его безгрешную жизнь, в Его чудеса, в Его заместительную и искупительную смерть через Его пролитую кровь, в Его телесное воскресение, в Его вознесение. по правую руку Отца и в Его личном возвращении в силе и славе.
^ Израиль б. Бецалель (2009). «Тринитаризм» . Иерусалимский совет.org. Архивировано из оригинала 27 апреля 2009 года . Проверено 3 июля 2009 г. Вот кем является Иешуа: Он не просто человек, и как человек он не от Адама, но от Бога. Он — Слово ХаШема, Мемры, Давара, Праведника, он не стал праведником, он праведник. Его называют Сыном Божьим, он агент ХаШема по имени ХаШем, и он «ХаШем», с которым мы взаимодействуем и не умираем.
^ «Нужно ли мне быть обрезанным?» . Иерусалимский совет.org. 10 февраля 2009 года. Архивировано из оригинала 6 августа 2010 года . Проверено 18 августа 2010 г. Чтобы перейти в еврейскую секту Ха-Дерех, принятие Иешуа своим Царем является первым действием после того, как сердце человека обращается к ХаШему и Его Торе, поскольку человек не может подчиняться заповедям Бога, если он сначала не любит Бога, а мы любим Бога через следуя за своим Мессией. Если вы сначала не примете Иешуа как Царя и, таким образом, не подчинитесь Ему, то обрезание с целью обращения евреев только даст вам доступ к еврейской общине. Это ничего не значит, когда дело доходит до наследования места в Будущем Мире... Обрезание, если не считать желания быть послушным ХаШему и принятия Иешуа своим Царем, является не чем иным, как хирургической процедурой или, что еще хуже, может приведет к тому, что вы поверите, что еврейская идентичность дает вам долю в мире грядущем – и в этот момент какая польза для вас от Мессии Йешуа, Слова ХаШема? Он бы умер ни за что!... Как обращенный из других народов, часть ваших обязанностей по соблюдению Завета, если вы мужчина, состоит в том, чтобы пройти обрезание во исполнение заповеди об обрезании. Обрезание не является абсолютным требованием для того, чтобы стать членом Завета (то есть стать праведным перед Всевышним и, таким образом, обрести вечную жизнь), но это требование послушания заповедям Божьим, поскольку обрезание заповедано тем, кто от семени. Авраама, рожденного в семье, усыновленного или обращенного... Если после прочтения всего этого вы поймете, что такое обрезание, и что это акт послушания, а не акт завоевания благосклонности перед ХаШемом с целью получив вечную жизнь, тогда, если вы мужчина, верующий в Мессию Йешуа для искупления от смерти, последствий вашего греха восстания против Него, тогда проводите обрезание и, таким образом, обращение в иудаизм как акт послушания Мессии.
^ «Обращение в иудеи – Гиюр» . Иерусалимский совет.org . 2009 . Проверено 5 февраля 2009 г. Мы признаем желание людей из других стран обратиться в иудаизм через ХаДерех (Путь) (мессианский иудаизм), секту иудаизма.
Симмонс, Шрага (9 мая 2009 г.). «Почему евреи не верят в Иисуса» . Айш ха-Тора . Архивировано из оригинала 27 сентября 2016 года . Проверено 28 июля 2010 г. Евреи не принимают Иисуса как мессию, потому что: #Иисус не исполнил мессианские пророчества. #Иисус не воплощал личные качества Мессии. #Библейские стихи, «относящиеся» к Иисусу, являются неправильным переводом. #Еврейская вера основана на национальном откровении.
Ваксман, Джонатан (2006). «Мессианские евреи не евреи» . Объединенная синагога консервативного иудаизма . Архивировано из оригинала 28 июня 2006 года . Проверено 14 февраля 2007 г. Еврей-христианин, еврей-христианин, еврей за Иисуса, мессианский еврей, состоявшийся еврей. Имя, возможно, менялось с течением времени, но все имена отражают одно и то же явление: тот, кто утверждает, что он / она находится по обе стороны теологической ограды между христианством и иудаизмом, но на самом деле твердо стоит на христианской стороне. должны подтвердить, как это сделал Верховный суд Израиля в известном деле брата Даниила, что принять христианство — значит пересечь черту, выходящую за пределы еврейской общины.
«Миссионер невыполним» . Еврейский союзный колледж . 9 августа 1999 года. Архивировано из оригинала 28 сентября 2006 года . Проверено 14 февраля 2007 г. «Миссионер невозможен», творческое видео и учебное пособие для учителей, педагогов и раввинов, призванное научить еврейскую молодежь тому, как распознавать «евреев за Иисуса», «мессианских евреев» и других христианских прозелитистов и реагировать на них, было создано шестью раввинами студенты Еврейского союза колледжа и школы Цинциннати Еврейского института религии. Студенты создали это видео как инструмент, объясняющий, почему еврейская молодежь колледжей и старших классов, а также евреи в смешанных парах являются основными целями христианских миссионеров.
«Часто задаваемые вопросы о еврейском обновлении» . Алеф.орг. 2007. Архивировано из оригинала 23 октября 2014 года . Проверено 20 декабря 2007 г. Какова позиция АЛЕФ в отношении так называемого мессианского иудаизма? АЛЕФ придерживается политики уважения к другим духовным традициям, но возражает против обманных практик и не будет сотрудничать с конфессиями, которые активно преследуют евреев с целью вербовки. Наша позиция в отношении так называемого «мессианского иудаизма» заключается в том, что это христианство, и его сторонникам было бы честнее называть его именно так.
^ Симан, Исадор. «Реконструктивистский иудаизм» . Вашингтон Пост . Архивировано из оригинала 24 апреля 2024 года . Проверено 23 апреля 2024 г. В 1930-х годах раввин Мордехай Каплан признал, что многие евреи теряют интерес к соблюдению религиозных обрядов, за исключением, возможно, больших праздников. Будучи убедительным философом и лидером общины в Нью-Йорке, раввин Каплан начал развивать новый подход к еврейской вере и практике... Суть реконструкционизма заключается в том, что иудаизм - это не просто религия, а развивающаяся религиозная цивилизация. Реконструктивисты верят в важность музыки, искусства, танца, иврита, преданности государству Израиль и чувства еврейской народности...
^ «Нетурей Карта» . www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org . Проверено 8 апреля 2024 г. Нетурей Карта (арамейское: «Стражи города») — группа ортодоксальных евреев, отвергающая сионизм и создание государства Израиль. Они верят, что истинный Израиль может быть восстановлен только с приходом Мессии.
^ Харб, Али. « Антисионизм — это антисемитизм», — утверждает Палата представителей США в «опасной» резолюции» . Аль Джазира . Проверено 8 апреля 2024 г. В США сторонники прав палестинцев уже давно отвергают смешение сионизма с иудаизмом, отмечая, что многие американские евреи идентифицируют себя как антисионисты. «Противостояние политике правительства Израиля и экстремизму Нетаньяху не является антисемитизмом. Выступления в защиту прав человека и прекращение огня ради спасения жизней никогда не должны осуждаться», — заявила во вторник палестино-американская конгрессмен Рашида Тлайб в сообщении в социальной сети, объясняя свой голос. против резолюции.
^ Сантос, Фернанда (15 января 2007 г.). «Нью-йоркский раввин находит друзей в Иране и врагов дома» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . ISSN 0362-4331 . Проверено 8 апреля 2024 г. ... Раввин Исроэль Довид Вайс, представитель и помощник директора небольшой антисионистской группы, обосновавшейся в этом городе в округе Рокленд, где проживает одна из крупнейших в стране общин евреев-хасидов... «мы должны были позволить миру Знайте, особенно арабский мир и мусульманский мир, что мы не их враги», — сказал он в интервью, к лацкану которого был прикреплен палестинский флаг с фразой «Еврей, а не сионист», написанной на иврите, английском и арабском языках. своего пальто...
^ Гринберг, Джоэл (19 августа 1994 г.). «Йешаягу Лейбовиц, 91 год, израильский мыслитель-иконоборец» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . ISSN 0362-4331 . Проверено 13 мая 2024 г. Убежденный сторонник отделения государства от религии, он утверждал, что смешение религии и политики в Израиле испортило веру... Он преподавал в Еврейском университете в Иерусалиме в течение 36 лет, читая лекции по биохимии, нейрофизиологии, философии и истории. науки... Том его работы был опубликован на английском языке под названием «Иудаизм, человеческие ценности и еврейское государство» издательством Гарвардского университета в 1992 году.
^ «Йешаягу Лейбовиц: сокрушитель идолов или создатель идолов?» . «Джерузалем Пост» | JPost.com . 22 июня 2019 г. Проверено 13 мая 2024 г. Разрушение идолов было миссией Лейбовица. И нужно было разбить множество идолов: реформистский иудаизм, еврейский национализм, каббала, мистические и мессианские идеи Авраама Исаака Кука из религиозного сионизма, представление о том, что мицвот основаны на моральных принципах.
Финкельштейн, Израиль (1996). «Этническая принадлежность и происхождение поселенцев Железного I в высокогорьях Ханаана: может ли настоящий Израиль встать?» Библейский археолог , 59 (4).
Гительман, Цви , изд. (2009). Религия или этническая принадлежность? Еврейские идентичности в эволюции . Нью-Брансуик, Нью-Джерси: Издательство Университета Рутгерса. ISBN 978-0-8135-4450-2 .
Гольденберг, Роберт (2007). Истоки иудаизма: от Ханаана до возникновения ислама . Кембридж: Издательство Кембриджского университета. ISBN 978-0-521-84453-6 .
Майер, Эгон ; Космин, Барри; Кейсар, Ариэла. «Опрос американской еврейской идентичности», часть исследования американской религиозной идентичности , Центр аспирантуры Городского университета Нью-Йорка. Статья об этом опросе напечатана в The New York Jewish Week от 2 ноября 2001 года.
Надлер, Аллан (1997). Вера Мифнагдим: ответы раввинов на хасидское восхищение . Еврейские исследования Университета Джонса Хопкинса. Балтимор, Мэриленд: Издательство Университета Джонса Хопкинса. ISBN 978-0-8018-6182-6 .
Нойснер, Джейкоб (1993). Чистота в раввинистическом иудаизме. Систематический отчет об источниках, средствах массовой информации, последствиях и удалении нечистоты . Исследования Южной Флориды по истории иудаизма, 95. Атланта, Джорджия: Scholars Press. ISBN 1-55540-929-6 .
Саймон, Рива; Ласкиер, Майкл; Регер, Сара (ред.) (2002). Евреи Ближнего Востока и Северной Африки в наше время , Нью-Йорк: Издательство Колумбийского университета.
Ярон, Ю.; Песса, Джо; Канай, Авраам ; Эль-Гамиль, Йосеф (2003). Введение в караимский иудаизм: история, теология, практика и культура . Олбани, Нью-Йорк: Христианский центр. ISBN 978-0-9700775-4-7 .
Нойснер, Джейкоб (2000). Галаха: Энциклопедия закона иудаизма . Справочная библиотека по иудаизму Брилла. Том. 1–5. Лейден: Брилл. ISBN 90-04-11617-6 .
Torah.org (также известный как Project Genesis ) – содержит комментарии Торы и исследования Танаха, а также еврейскую этику, философию, праздники и другие занятия.
Полный форматированный онлайн Талмуд – аудиофайлы лекций для каждой страницы с православной точки зрения предоставляются на французском, английском, идиш и иврите. Обновите страницу, чтобы получить изображение страницы Талмуда.
См. также базу данных Торы , где можно найти ссылки на другие электронные тексты по иудаизму.
Проекты по изучению Торы Викимедиа
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kohler, Kaufmann (1901–1906). "Judaism". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
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