Холокост

Эта статья о спонсируемом государством геноциде европейских евреев во время Второй мировой войны. Чтобы узнать обо всех народах, преследуемых в ту эпоху, см. Жертвы Холокоста .

Сюда перенаправляются «Холокост» и «Шоа». Чтобы узнать о других значениях, см. Холокост (значения) и Шоа (значения) .

Холокост
Часть Второй мировой войны
Евреи прибывают в Освенцим II в оккупированной немцами Польше , май 1944 года. Большинство из них было отобрано для отправки в газовые камеры .
Расположение	Европа, прежде всего оккупированная немцами Польша и Советский Союз.
Дата	1941–1945
Attack type	Genocide, ethnic cleansing, mass murder, mass shooting, death marches, poison gas, hate crime
Deaths	Around 6 million Jews
Perpetrators	Nazi Germany along with its collaborators and allies

Холокост — геноцид европейских евреев во время Второй мировой войны . Между 1941 и 1945 годами нацистская Германия и ее пособники систематически уничтожали около шести миллионов евреев по всей оккупированной немцами Европе , что составляло около двух третей еврейского населения Европы. Убийства совершались в основном посредством массовых расстрелов и применения отравляющего газа в лагерях смерти , в основном в Освенциме-Биркенау , Треблинке , Белжеце , Собиборе и Хелмно в оккупированной Польше . В ходе отдельных нацистских преследований погибло такое же или большее количество нееврейских гражданских лиц и военнопленных; термин «Холокост» иногда используется для обозначения преследования этих других групп .

Нацисты разработали свою идеологию, основанную на расизме и стремлении к «жизненному пространству» , и захватили власть в начале 1933 года. Чтобы заставить всех немецких евреев, независимо от средств, попытаться эмигрировать, режим принял антиеврейские законы, поощрял преследования и организовывал общенациональный погром в ноябре 1938 года. После того, как Германия вторглась в Польшу в сентябре 1939 года, оккупационные власти начали создавать гетто для сегрегации евреев. После вторжения в Советский Союз в июне 1941 года от 1,5 до 2 миллионов евреев были расстреляны немецкими войсками и местными коллаборационистами.

Later in 1941 or early 1942, the highest levels of the German government decided to murder all Jews in Europe. Victims were deported by rail to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were killed with poison gas. Other Jews continued to be employed in forced labor camps where many died from starvation, abuse, exhaustion, or being used as test subjects in deadly medical experiments. Although many Jews tried to escape, surviving in hiding was difficult due to factors such as the lack of money to pay helpers and the risk of denunciation. The property, homes, and jobs belonging to murdered Jews were redistributed to the German occupiers and other non-Jews. Although the majority of Holocaust victims died in 1942, the killing continued at a lower rate until the end of the war in May 1945.

Many Jewish survivors emigrated outside of Europe after the war. A few Holocaust perpetrators faced criminal trials. Billions of dollars in reparations have been paid, although falling short of the Jews' losses. The Holocaust has also been commemorated in museums, memorials, and culture. It has become central to Western historical consciousness as a symbol of the ultimate human evil.

Terminology and scope

Main article: Names of the Holocaust

The term Holocaust, derived from a Greek word meaning "burnt offering", has become the most common word used to describe the Nazi extermination of Jews in English and many other languages.The term Holocaust is sometimes used to refer to the persecution of other groups that the Nazis targeted, especially those targeted on a biological basis, in particular the Roma and Sinti, as well as Soviet prisoners of war and Polish and Soviet civilians. All of these groups, however, were targeted for different reasons. By the 1970s, the adjective Jewish was dropped as redundant and Holocaust, now capitalized, became the default term for the destruction of European Jews. The Hebrew word Shoah ("catastrophic destruction") exclusively refers to Jewish victims. The perpetrators used the phrase "Final Solution" as a euphemism for their genocide of Jews.

Background

View of the Pegnitz River (c. 1900) with the Grand Synagogue of Nuremberg, destroyed in 1938 during the November pogroms

Jews have lived in Europe for more than two thousand years. Throughout the Middle Ages in Europe, Jews were subjected to antisemitism based on Christian theology, which blamed them for killing Jesus. In the nineteenth century many European countries granted full citizenship rights to Jews in hopes that they would assimilate. By the early twentieth century, most Jews in central and western Europe were well integrated into society, while in eastern Europe, where emancipation had arrived later, many Jews still lived in small towns, spoke Yiddish, and practiced Orthodox Judaism. Political antisemitism positing the existence of a Jewish question and usually an international Jewish conspiracy emerged in the eighteenth and nineteenth century due to the rise of nationalism in Europe and industrialization that increased economic conflicts between Jews and non-Jews. Some scientists began to categorize humans into different races and argued that there was a life or death struggle between them. Many racists argued that Jews were a separate racial group alien to Europe.

The turn of the twentieth century saw a major effort to establish a German colonial empire overseas, leading to the Herero and Nama genocide and subsequent racial apartheid regime in South West Africa. World War I (1914–1918) intensified nationalist and racist sentiments in Germany and other European countries. Jews in eastern Europe were targeted by widespread pogroms. Germany had two million war dead and lost a substantial territory; opposition to the postwar settlement united Germans across the political spectrum. The military promoted the untrue but compelling idea that, rather than being defeated on the battlefield, Germany had been stabbed in the back by socialists and Jews.

1919 Austrian postcard showing a Jew stabbing a German Army soldier in the back

The Nazi Party was founded in the wake of the war, and its ideology is often cited as the main factor explaining the Holocaust. From the beginning, the Nazis—not unlike other nation-states in Europe—dreamed of a world without Jews, whom they identified as "the embodiment of everything that was wrong with modernity". The Nazis defined the German nation as a racial community unbounded by Germany's physical borders and sought to purge it of racially foreign and socially deficient elements. The Nazi Party and its leader, Adolf Hitler, were also obsessed with reversing Germany's territorial losses and acquiring additional Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe for colonization. These ideas appealed to many Germans. The Nazis promised to protect European civilization from the Soviet threat. Hitler believed that Jews controlled the Soviet Union, as well as the Western powers, and were plotting to destroy Germany.

Rise of Nazi Germany

Territorial expansion of Germany from 1933 to 1941

Amidst a worldwide economic depression and political fragmentation, the Nazi Party rapidly increased its support, reaching a high of 37 percent in mid-1932 elections, by campaigning on issues such as anticommunism and economic recovery. Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933 in a backroom deal supported by right-wing politicians. Within months, all other political parties were banned, the regime seized control of the media, tens of thousands of political opponents—especially communists—were arrested, and a system of camps for extrajudicial imprisonment was set up. The Nazi regime cracked down on crime and social outsiders—such as Roma and Sinti, homosexual men, and those perceived as workshy—through a variety of measures, including imprisonment in concentration camps. The Nazis forcibly sterilized 400,000 people and subjected others to forced abortions for real or supposed hereditary illnesses.

Although the Nazis sought to control every aspect of public and private life, Nazi repression was directed almost entirely against groups perceived as outside the national community. Most Germans had little to fear provided they did not oppose the new regime. The new regime built popular support through economic growth, which partly occurred through state-led measures such as rearmament. The annexations of Austria (1938), Sudetenland (1938), and Bohemia and Moravia (1939) also increased the Nazis' popular support. Germans were inundated with propaganda both against Jews and other groups targeted by the Nazis.

Persecution of Jews

Main article: The Holocaust in Germany

Further information: Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany

The roughly 500,000 German Jews made up less than 1 percent of the country's population in 1933. They were wealthier on average than other Germans and largely assimilated, although a minority were recent immigrants from eastern Europe. Various German government agencies, Nazi Party organizations, and local authorities instituted about 1,500 anti-Jewish laws. In 1933, Jews were banned or restricted from several professions and the civil service. After hounding the German Jews out of public life by the end of 1934, the regime passed the Nuremberg Laws in 1935. The laws reserved full citizenship rights for those of "German or related blood", restricted Jews' economic activity, and criminalized new marriages and sexual relationships between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. Jews were defined as those with three or four Jewish grandparents; many of those with partial Jewish descent were classified as Mischlinge, with varying rights. The regime also sought to segregate Jews with a view to their ultimate disappearance from the country. Jewish students were gradually forced out of the school system. Some municipalities enacted restrictions governing where Jews were allowed to live or conduct business. In 1938 and 1939, Jews were barred from additional occupations, and their businesses were expropriated to force them out of the economy.

View of the old synagogue in Aachen after its destruction during Kristallnacht

Anti-Jewish violence, largely locally organized by members of Nazi Party institutions, took primarily non-lethal forms from 1933 to 1939. Jewish stores, especially in rural areas, were often boycotted or vandalized. As a result of local and popular pressure, many small towns became entirely free of Jews and as many as a third of Jewish businesses may have been forced to close. Anti-Jewish violence was even worse in areas annexed by Nazi Germany. On 9–10 November 1938, the Nazis organized Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass), a nationwide pogrom. Over 7,500 Jewish shops (out of 9,000) were looted, more than 1,000 synagogues were damaged or destroyed, at least 90 Jews were murdered, and as many as 30,000 Jewish men were arrested, although many were released within weeks. German Jews were levied a special tax that raised more than 1 billion Reichsmarks (RM).

The Nazi government wanted to force all Jews to leave Germany. By the end of 1939, most Jews who could emigrate had already done so; those who remained behind were disproportionately elderly, poor, or female and could not obtain a visa. The plurality, around 110,000, left for the United States, while smaller numbers emigrated to South America, Shanghai, Mandatory Palestine, and South Africa. Germany collected emigration taxes of nearly 1 billion RM, mostly from Jews. The policy of forced emigration continued into 1940.

Besides Germany, a significant number of other European countries abandoned democracy for some kind of authoritarian or fascist rule. Many countries, including Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia, passed antisemitic legislation in the 1930s and 1940s. In October 1938, Germany deported many Polish Jews in response to a Polish law that enabled the revocation of citizenship for Polish Jews living abroad.

Start of World War II

Danzigers rallying for Hitler, shortly after the free city's annexation into Germany

The German Wehrmacht (armed forces) invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, triggering declarations of war from the United Kingdom and France. During the five weeks of fighting, as many as 16,000 civilians, hostages, and prisoners of war may have been shot by the German invaders; there was also a great deal of looting. Special units known as Einsatzgruppen followed the army to eliminate any possible resistance. Around 50,000 Polish and Polish Jewish leaders and intellectuals were arrested or executed. The Auschwitz concentration camp was established to hold those members of the Polish intelligentsia not killed in the purges. Around 400,000 Poles were expelled from the Wartheland in western Poland to the General Governorate occupation zone from 1939 to 1941, and the area was resettled by ethnic Germans from eastern Europe.

The rest of Poland was occupied by the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland from the east on 17 September pursuant to the German–Soviet pact. The Soviet Union deported hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens to the Soviet interior, including as many as 260,000 Jews who largely survived the war. Although most Jews were not communists, some accepted positions in the Soviet administration, contributing to a pre-existing perception among many non-Jews that Soviet rule was a Jewish conspiracy. In 1940, Germany invaded much of western Europe including the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, and Denmark and Norway. In 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia and Greece. Some of these new holdings were fully or partially annexed into Germany while others were placed under civilian or military rule.

The war provided cover for "Aktion T4", the murder of around 70,000 institutionalized Germans with mental or physical disabilities at specialized killing centers using poison gas. The victims included all 4,000 to 5,000 institutionalized Jews. Despite efforts to maintain secrecy, knowledge of the killings leaked out and Hitler ordered a halt to the centralized killing program in August 1941. Decentralized killings via denial of medical care, starvation, and poisoning caused an additional 120,000 deaths by the end of the war. Many of the same personnel and technologies were later used for the mass murder of Jews.

Ghettoization and resettlement

Further information: The Holocaust in Poland

Unpaved street in the Frysztak Ghetto, Krakow District

A body lying in the street of the Warsaw Ghetto in the General Governorate

Germany gained control of 1.7 million Jews in Poland. The Nazis tried to concentrate Jews in the Lublin District of the General Governorate. 45,000 Jews were deported by November and left to fend for themselves, causing many deaths. Deportations stopped in early 1940 due to the opposition of Hans Frank, the leader of the General Governorate, who did not want his fiefdom to become a dumping ground for unwanted Jews. After the conquest of France, the Nazis considered deporting Jews to French Madagascar, but this proved impossible. The Nazis planned that harsh conditions in these areas would kill many Jews. In September 1939, around 7,000 Jews were killed, alongside thousands of Poles, however, they were not systematically targeted as they would be later, and open mass killings would subside until June of 1941.

During the invasion, synagogues were burned and thousands of Jews fled or were expelled into the Soviet occupation zone. Various anti-Jewish regulations were soon issued. In October 1939, adult Jews in the General Governorate were required to perform forced labor. In November 1939 they were ordered to wear white armbands. Laws decreed the seizure of most Jewish property and the takeover of Jewish-owned businesses. When Jews were forced into ghettos, they lost their homes and belongings.

The first Nazi ghettos were established in the Wartheland and General Governorate in 1939 and 1940 on the initiative of local German administrators. The largest ghettos, such as Warsaw and Łódź, were established in existing residential neighborhoods and closed by fences or walls. In many smaller ghettos, Jews were forced into poor neighborhoods but with no fence. Forced labor programs provided subsistence to many ghetto inhabitants, and in some cases protected them from deportation. Workshops and factories were operated inside some ghettos, while in other cases Jews left the ghetto to work outside it. Because the ghettos were not segregated by sex some family life continued. A Jewish community leadership (Judenrat) exercised some authority and tried to sustain the Jewish community while following German demands. As a survival strategy, many tried to make the ghettos useful to the occupiers as a labor reserve. Jews in western Europe were not forced into ghettos but faced discriminatory laws and confiscation of property.

Rape and sexual exploitation of Jewish and non-Jewish women in eastern Europe was common.

Invasion of the Soviet Union

Germany and its allies Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Italy invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Although the war was launched more for strategic than ideological reasons, what Hitler saw as an apocalyptic battle against the forces of Jewish Bolshevism was to be carried out as a war of extermination with complete disregard for the laws and customs of war. A quick victory was expected and was planned to be followed by a massive demographic engineering project to remove 31 million people and replace them with German settlers. To increase the speed of conquest the Germans planned to feed their army by looting, exporting additional food to Germany, and to terrorize the local inhabitants with preventative killings. The Germans foresaw that the invasion would cause a food shortfall and planned the mass starvation of Soviet cities and some rural areas. Although the starvation policy was less successful than planners hoped, the residents of some cities, particularly in Ukraine, and besieged Leningrad, as well as the Jewish ghettos, endured human-made famine, during which millions of people died of starvation.

By mid-June 1941, about 30,000 Jews had died, 20,000 of whom had starved to death in the ghettos.

Public execution of Masha Bruskina, a Belarusian Jew who helped Soviet prisoners escape

Soviet prisoners of war in the custody of the German Army were intended to die in large numbers. Sixty percent—3.3 million people—died, primarily of starvation, making them the second largest group of victims of Nazi mass killing after European Jews. Jewish prisoners of war and commissars were systematically executed. About a million civilians were killed by the Nazis during anti-partisan warfare, including more than 300,000 in Belarus. From 1942 onwards, the Germans and their allies targeted villages suspected of supporting the partisans, burning them and killing or expelling their inhabitants. During these operations, nearby small ghettos were liquidated and their inhabitants shot. By 1943, anti-partisan operations aimed for the depopulation of large areas of Belarus. Jews and those unfit for work were typically shot on the spot with others deported. Although most of those killed were not Jews, anti-partisan warfare often led to the deaths of Jews.

Mass shootings of Jews

Further information: The Holocaust in the Soviet Union and The Holocaust in Romania

At least 3,000 Jews were killed during the 1941 Lviv pogroms, mainly by local Ukrainians.

The systematic murder of Jews began in the Soviet Union in 1941. During the invasion, many Jews were conscripted into the Red Army. Out of 10 or 15 million Soviet civilians who fled eastwards to the Soviet interior, 1.6 million were Jews. Local inhabitants killed as many as 50,000 Jews in pogroms in Latvia, Lithuania, eastern Poland, Ukraine, and the Romanian borderlands. Although German forces tried to incite pogroms, their role in causing violence is controversial. Romanian soldiers killed tens of thousands of Jews from Odessa by April 1942.

Prior to the invasion, the Einsatzgruppen were reorganized in preparation for mass killings and instructed to shoot Soviet officials and Jewish state and party employees. The shootings were justified on the basis of Jews' supposed central role in supporting the communist system, but it was not initially envisioned to kill all Soviet Jews. The occupiers relied on locals to identify Jews to be targeted. The first German mass killings targeted adult male Jews who had worked as civil servants or in jobs requiring education. Tens of thousands were shot by the end of July. The vast majority of civilian victims were Jews. In July and August Heinrich Himmler, the leader of the SS (Schutzstaffel), made several visits to the death squads' zones of operation, relaying orders to kill more Jews. At this time, the killers began to murder Jewish women and children too. Executions peaked at 40,000 a month in Lithuania in August and September and in October and November reached their height in Belarus.

Original Nazi propaganda caption: "Too bad even for a bullet... The Jews shown here were shot at once." 28 June 1941 in Rozhanka, Belarus

Shooting from behind became popular because killers did not have to look at their victims' faces and the dead were likely to fall into the grave.

The executions often took place a few kilometers from a town. Victims were rounded up and marched to the execution site, forced to undress, and shot into previously dug pits. The favored technique was a shot in the back of the neck with a single bullet. In the chaos, many victims were not killed by the gunfire but instead buried alive. Typically, the pits would be guarded after the execution but sometimes a few victims managed to escape afterwards. Executions were public spectacles and the victims' property was looted both by the occupiers and local inhabitants. Around 200 ghettos were established in the occupied Soviet Union, with many existing only briefly before their inhabitants were executed. A few large ghettos such as Vilna, Kovno, Riga, Białystok, and Lwów lasted into 1943 because they became centers of production.

Victims of mass shootings included Jews deported from elsewhere. Besides Germany, Romania killed the largest number of Jews. Romania deported about 154,000–170,000 Jews from Bessarabia and Bukovina to ghettos in Transnistria from 1941 to 1943. Jews from Transnistria were also imprisoned in these ghettos, where the total death toll may have reached 160,000. Hungary expelled thousands of Carpathian Ruthenian and foreign Jews in 1941, who were shortly thereafter shot in Ukraine. At the beginning of September, all German Jews were required to wear a yellow star, and in October, Hitler decided to deport them to the east and ban emigration. Between mid-October and the end of 1941, 42,000 Jews from Germany and its annexed territories and 5,000 Romani people from Austria were deported to Łódź, Kovno, Riga, and Minsk. In late November, 5,000 German Jews were shot outside of Kovno and another 1,000 near Riga, but Himmler ordered an end to such massacres and some in the senior Nazi leadership voiced doubts about killing German Jews. Executions of German Jews in the Baltics resumed in early 1942.

After the expansion of killings to target the entire Soviet Jewish population, the 3,000 men of the Einsatzgruppen proved insufficient and Himmler mobilized 21 battalions of Order Police to assist them. In addition, Wehrmacht soldiers, Waffen-SS brigades, and local auxiliaries shot many Jews. By the end of 1941, more than 80 percent of the Jews in central Ukraine, eastern Belarus, Russia, Latvia, and Lithuania had been shot, but less than 25 percent of those living farther west where 900,000 remained alive. By the end of the war, around 1.5 to 2 million Jews were shot and as many as 225,000 Roma. The murderers found the executions distressing and logistically inconvenient, which influenced the decision to switch to other methods of killing.

Systematic deportations across Europe

Most historians agree that Hitler issued an explicit order to kill all Jews across Europe, but there is disagreement when. Some historians cite inflammatory statements by Hitler and other Nazi leaders as well as the concurrent mass shootings of Serbian Jews, plans for extermination camps in Poland, and the beginning of the deportation of German Jews as indicative of the final decision having been made before December 1941. Others argue that these policies were initiatives by local leaders and that the final decision was made later. On 5 December 1941, the Soviet Union launched its first major counteroffensive. On 11 December, Hitler declared war on the United States after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. The next day, he told leading Nazi party officials, referring to his 1939 prophecy, "The world war is here; the annihilation of the Jews must be the necessary consequence."

It took the Nazis several months after this to organize a continent-wide genocide. Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA), convened the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942. This high-level meeting was intended to coordinate anti-Jewish policy. The majority of Holocaust killings were carried out in 1942, with it being the peak of the genocide, as over 3 million Jews were murdered, with 20 or 25 percent of Holocaust victims dying before early 1942 and the same number surviving by the end of the year.

Extermination camps

Main article: Extermination camp

Deportation to Chełmno

Gas vans developed from those used to kill mental patients since 1939 were assigned to the Einsatzgruppen and first used in November 1941; victims were forced into the van and killed with engine exhaust. The first extermination camp was Chełmno in the Wartheland, established on the initiative of the local civil administrator Arthur Greiser with Himmler's approval; it began operations in December 1941 using gas vans. In October 1941, Higher SS and Police Leader of Lublin Odilo Globocnik began work planning Belzec—the first purpose-built extermination camp to feature stationary gas chambers using carbon monoxide based on the previous Aktion T4 programme—amid increasing talk among German administrators in Poland of large-scale murder of Jews in the General Governorate. In late 1941 in East Upper Silesia, Jews in forced-labor camps operated by the Schmelt Organization deemed "unfit for work" began to be sent in groups to Auschwitz where they were murdered. In early 1942, Zyklon B became the preferred killing method in extermination camps after gassing experiments were conducted on Russian POWs in late August 1941.

The camps were located on rail lines to make it easier to transport Jews to their deaths, but in remote places to avoid notice. The stench caused by mass killing operations was noticeable to anyone nearby. Except in the deportations from western and central Europe, people were typically deported to the camps in overcrowded cattle cars. As many as 150 people were forced into a single boxcar. Many died en route, partly because of the low priority accorded to these transports. Shortage of rail transport sometimes led to postponement or cancellation of deportations. Upon arrival, the victims were robbed of their remaining possessions, forced to undress, had their hair cut, and were chased into the gas chamber. Death from the gas was agonizing and could take as long as 30 minutes. The gas chambers were primitive and sometimes malfunctioned. Some prisoners were shot because the gas chambers were not functioning. At other extermination camps, nearly everyone on a transport was killed on arrival, but at Auschwitz around 20–25 percent were separated out for labor, although many of these prisoners died later on through starvation, mass shooting, torture, and medical experiments.

Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka reported a combined revenue of RM 178.7 million from belongings stolen from their victims, far exceeding costs. Combined, the camps required the labor of less than 3,000 Jewish prisoners, 1,000 Trawniki men (largely Ukrainian auxiliaries), and very few German guards. About half of the Jews killed in the Holocaust died by poison gas. Thousands of Romani people were also murdered in the extermination camps. Prisoner uprisings at Treblinka and Sobibor meant that these camps were shut down earlier than envisioned.

Major extermination camps

Camp	Location	Number of Jews killed	Killing technology	Planning began	Mass gassing duration
Chełmno	Wartheland	150,000	Gas vans	July 1941	8 December 1941 – April 1943 and April–July 1944
Belzec	Lublin District	440,823–596,200	Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust	October 1941	17 March 1942 – December 1942
Sobibor	Lublin District	170,618–238,900	Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust	Late 1941 or March 1942	May 1942 – October 1942
Treblinka	Warsaw District	780,863–951,800	Stationary gas chamber, engine exhaust	April 1942	23 July 1942 – October 1943
Auschwitz II–Birkenau	East Upper Silesia	900,000–1,000,000	Stationary gas chamber, hydrogen cyanide	September 1941 (built as POW camp)	February 1942 – October 1944

Liquidation of the ghettos in Poland

Further information: Operation Reinhard

Cumulative murders of Jews from the General Governorate at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka from January 1942 to February 1943

Plans to kill most of the Jews in the General Governorate were affected by various goals of the SS, military, and civil administration to reduce the amount of food consumed by Jews, enable a slight increase in rations to non-Jewish Poles, and combat the black market. In March 1942, killings began in Belzec, targeting Jews from Lublin who were not capable of work. This action reportedly reduced the black market and was deemed a success to be replicated elsewhere. By mid-1942, Nazi leaders decided to allow only 300,000 Jews to survive in the General Governorate by the end of the year for forced labor; for the most part, only those working in armaments production were spared. The majority of ghettos were liquidated in mass executions nearby, especially if they were not near a train station. Larger ghettos were more commonly liquidated during multiple deportations to extermination camps. During this campaign, 1.5 million Polish Jews were murdered in the largest killing operation of the Holocaust.

In order to reduce resistance, the ghetto would be raided without warning, usually in the early morning, and the extent of the operation would be concealed as long as possible. Trawniki men would cordon off the ghetto while the Order Police and Security Police carried out the action. In addition to local non-Jewish collaborators, the Jewish councils and Jewish ghetto police were often ordered to assist with liquidation actions, although these Jews were in most cases murdered later. Chaotic, capriciously executed selections determined who would be loaded onto the trains. Many Jews were shot during the action, often leaving ghettos strewn with corpses. Jewish forced laborers had to clean it up and collect any valuables from the victims.

The Warsaw Ghetto uprising became significant as a symbol of Jewish resistance against the Nazis.

The Warsaw Ghetto was cleared between 22 July and 12 September. Of the original population of 350,000 Jews, 250,000 were killed at Treblinka, 11,000 were deported to labor camps, 10,000 were shot in the ghetto, 35,000 were allowed to remain in the ghetto after a final selection, and around 20,000 or 25,000 managed to hide in the ghetto. Misdirection efforts convinced many Jews that they could avoid deportation until it was too late. During a six-week period beginning in August, 300,000 Jews from the Radom District were sent to Treblinka.

At the same time as the mass killing of Jews in the General Governorate, Jews who were in ghettos to the west and east were targeted. Tens of thousands of Jews were deported from ghettos in the Warthegau and East Upper Silesia to Chełmno and Auschwitz. 300,000 Jews—largely skilled laborers—were shot in Volhynia, Podolia, and southwestern Belarus. Deportations and mass executions in the Bialystok District and Galicia killed many Jews. Although there was practically no resistance in the General Governorate in 1942, some Soviet Jews improvised weapons, attacked those attempting to liquidate the ghetto, and set it on fire. These ghetto uprisings were only undertaken when the inhabitants began to believe that their death was certain. In 1943, larger uprisings in Warsaw, Białystok, and Glubokoje necessitated the use of heavy weapons. The uprising in Warsaw prompted the Nazi leadership to liquidate additional ghettos and labor camps in German-occupied Poland with their inhabitants massacred, such as the Wola Massacre, or deported to extermination camps for fear of additional Jewish resistance developing. Nevertheless, in early 1944, more than 70,000 Jews were performing forced labor in the General Governorate.

Deportations from elsewhere

Jews are deported from Würzburg, Germany to the Lublin District of the General Governorate, 25 April 1942.

Unlike the killing areas in the east, the deportation from elsewhere in Europe was centrally organized from Berlin, although it depended on the outcome of negotiations with allied governments and popular responses to deportation. Beginning in late 1941, local administrators responded to the deportation of Jews to their area by massacring local Jews in order to free up space in ghettos for the deportees. If the deported Jews did not die of harsh conditions, they were killed later in extermination camps. Jews deported to Auschwitz were initially entered into the camp; the practice of conducting selections and murdering many prisoners upon arrival began in July 1942. In May and June, German and Slovak Jews deported to Lublin began to be sent directly to extermination camps.

In Western Europe, almost all Jewish deaths occurred after deportation. The occupiers often relied on local policemen to arrest Jews, limiting the number who were deported. In 1942, nearly 100,000 Jews were deported from Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Only 25 percent of the Jews in France were killed; most of them were either non-citizens or recent immigrants. Si Kaddour Benghabrit and Abdelkader Mesli saved hundreds of Jews by hiding them in the basements of the Grand Mosque of Paris and other resistance efforts in France. The death rate in the Netherlands was higher than neighboring countries, which scholars have attributed to difficulty in hiding or increased collaboration of the Dutch police.

The German government sought the deportation of Jews from allied countries. The first to hand over its Jewish population was Slovakia, which arrested and deported about 58,000 Jews to Poland from March to October 1942. The Independent State of Croatia had already shot or killed in concentration camps the majority of its Jewish population (along with a larger number of Serbs), and later deported several thousand Jews in 1942 and 1943. Bulgaria deported 11,000 Jews from Bulgarian-occupied Greece and Yugoslavia, who were murdered at Treblinka, but declined to allow the deportation of Jews from its prewar territory. Romania and Hungary did not send any Jews, which were the largest surviving populations after 1942. Prior to the German occupation of Italy in September 1943, there were no serious attempt to deport Italian Jews, and Italy refused to allow the deportation of Jews in many Italian-occupied areas. Nazi Germany did not attempt the destruction of the Finnish Jews and the North African Jews living under French or Italian rule.

Perpetrators and beneficiaries

Further information: Responsibility for the Holocaust

Auschwitz SS guards and female staff auxiliaries enjoying themselves on vacation in Solahütte

An estimated 200,000 to 250,000 Germans were directly involved in killing Jews, and if one includes all those involved in the organization of extermination, the number rises to 500,000. Genocide required the active and tacit consent of millions of Germans and non-Germans. The motivation of Holocaust perpetrators varied and has led to historiographical debate. Studies of the SS officials who organized the Holocaust have found that most had strong ideological commitment to Nazism. In addition to ideological factors, many perpetrators were motivated by the prospect of material gain and social advancement. German SS, police, and regular army units rarely had trouble finding enough men to shoot Jewish civilians, even though punishment for refusal was absent or light.

Non-German perpetrators and collaborators included Dutch, French, and Polish policemen, Romanian soldiers, foreign SS and police auxiliaries, Ukrainian Insurgent Army partisans, and some civilians. Some were coerced into committing violence against Jews, but others killed for entertainment, material rewards, the possibility of better treatment from the occupiers, or ideological motivations such as nationalism and anti-communism. According to historian Christian Gerlach, non-Germans "not under German command" caused 5 to 6 percent of the Jewish deaths, and their involvement was crucial in other ways.

Millions of Germans and others benefited from the genocide. Corruption was rampant in the SS despite the proceeds of the Holocaust being designated as state property. Different German state agencies vied to receive property stolen from Jews murdered at the death camps. Many workers were able to obtain better jobs vacated by murdered Jews. Businessmen benefitted from eliminating their Jewish competitors or taking over Jewish-owned businesses. Others took over housing and possessions that had belonged to Jews. Some Poles living near the extermination camps later dug up human remains in search of valuables. The property of deported Jews was also appropriated by Germany's allies and collaborating governments. Even puppet states such as Vichy France and Norway were able to successfully lay claim to Jewish property. In the decades after the war, Swiss banks became notorious for harboring gold deposited by Nazis who had stolen it during the Holocaust, as well as profiting from unclaimed deposits made by Holocaust victims.

Forced labor

Further information: Forced labor in Nazi Germany

Jews of Mogilev, Belarus, forced to clean a street, July 1941

Woman with Ostarbeiter badge at work at IG-Farbenwerke in Auschwitz

Beginning in 1938—especially in Germany and its annexed territories—many Jews were drafted into forced-labor camps and segregated work details. These camps were often of a temporary nature and typically overseen by civilian authorities. Initially, mortality did not increase dramatically. After mid-1941, conditions for Jewish forced laborers drastically worsened and death rates increased; even private companies deliberately subjected workers to murderous conditions. Beginning in 1941 and increasingly as time went on, Jews capable of employment were separated from others—who were usually killed. They were typically employed in non-skilled jobs and could be replaced easily if non-Jewish workers were available, but those in skilled positions had a higher chance of survival. Although conditions varied widely between camps, Jewish forced laborers were typically treated worse than non-Jewish prisoners and suffered much higher mortality rates.

In mid-1943, Himmler sought to bring surviving Jewish forced laborers under the control of the SS in the concentration camp system. Some of the forced-labor camps for Jews and some ghettos, such as Kovno, were designated concentration camps, while others were dissolved and surviving prisoners sent to a concentration camp. Despite many deaths, as many as 200,000 Jews survived the war inside the concentration camps. Although most Holocaust victims were never imprisoned in a concentration camp, the image of these camps is a popular symbol of the Holocaust.

Including the Soviet prisoners of war, 13 million people were brought to Germany for forced labor. The largest nationalities were Soviet and Polish and they were the worst-treated groups except for Roma and Jews. Soviet and Polish forced laborers endured inadequate food and medical treatment, long hours, and abuse by employers. Hundreds of thousands died. Many others were forced to work for the occupiers without leaving their country of residence. Some of Germany's allies, including Slovakia and Hungary, agreed to deport Jews to protect non-Jews from German demands for forced labor. East European women were also kidnapped, via lapanka, to serve as sex slaves of German soldiers in military and camp brothels despite the prohibition of relationships, including fraternization, between German and foreign workers, which imposed the penalty of imprisonment and death.

Escape and hiding

A bunker where Jews attempted to hide during the Warsaw Ghetto uprising

Further information: Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust

Gerlach estimates that 200,000 Jews survived in hiding across Europe. Knowledge of German intentions was essential to take action, but many struggled to believe the news. Many attempted to jump from trains or flee ghettos and camps, but successfully escaping and living in hiding was extremely difficult and often unsuccessful.

The support, or at least absence of active opposition, of the local population was essential but often lacking in Eastern Europe. Those in hiding depended on the assistance of non-Jews. Having money, social connections with non-Jews, a non-Jewish appearance, perfect command of the local language, determination, and luck played a major role in determining survival. Jews in hiding were hunted down with the assistance of local collaborators and rewards offered for their denunciation. The death penalty was sometimes enforced on people hiding them, especially in eastern Europe. Rescuers' motivations varied on a spectrum from altruism to expecting sex or material gain; it was not uncommon for helpers to betray or murder Jews if their money ran out. Gerlach argues that hundreds of thousands of Jews may have died because of rumors or denunciations, and many others never attempted to escape because of a belief it was hopeless.

Jews participated in resistance movements in most European countries, and often were overrepresented. Jews were not always welcome, particularly in nationalist resistance groups—some of which killed Jews. Particularly in Belarus, with its favorable geography of dense forests, many Jews joined the Soviet partisans—an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 across the Soviet Union. An additional 10,000 to 13,000 Jewish non-combatants lived in family camps in Eastern European forests, of which the most well known was the Bielski partisans.

International reactions

Main article: International response to the Holocaust

The Nazi leaders knew that their actions would bring international condemnation. On 26 June 1942, BBC services in all languages publicized a report by the Jewish Social-Democratic Bund and other resistance groups and transmitted by the Polish government-in-exile, documenting the killing of 700,000 Jews in Poland. In December 1942, the Allies, then known as the United Nations, adopted a joint declaration condemning the systematic murder of Jews. Most neutral countries in Europe maintained a pro-German foreign policy during the war. Nevertheless, some Jews were able to escape to neutral countries, whose policies ranged from rescue to non-action.

During the war the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) raised $70 million and in the years after the war it raised $300 million. This money was spent aiding emigrants and providing direct relief in the form of parcels and other assistance to Jews living under German occupation, and after the war to Holocaust survivors. The United States banned sending relief into German-occupied Europe after entering the war, but the JDC continued to do so. From 1939 to 1944, 81,000 European Jews emigrated with the JDC's assistance.

Throughout the war, no detailed photo intelligence study was carried out on any of the major concentration or extermination camps. Appeals from Jewish representatives to the American and British governments to bomb rail lines leading to the camps or crematoriums was rejected, with little to no input from the War Departments of the United States or United Kingdom. However, debate exists on whether a military response would have impacted on the Holocaust.

Second half of the war

Continuing killings

Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia, annexed by Hungary in 1938, on the selection ramp at Auschwitz II in May or June 1944. Men are lined up to the right, women and children to the left. About 25 percent were selected for work and the rest gassed.

After German military defeats in 1943, it became increasingly evident that Germany would lose the war. In early 1943, 45,000 Jews were deported from German-occupied northern Greece, primarily Salonica, to Auschwitz, where nearly all were killed. After Italy switched sides in late 1943, Germany deported several thousand Jews from Italy and the former Italian occupation zones of France, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greece, with limited success. Attempts to continue deportations in Western Europe after 1942 often failed because of Jews going into hiding and the increasing recalcitrance of local authorities. Most Danish Jews escaped to Sweden with the help of the Danish resistance in the face of a half-hearted German deportation effort in late 1943. Additional killings in 1943 and 1944 eliminated all remaining ghettos and most surviving Jews in Eastern Europe. Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka were shut down and destroyed.

The largest murder action after 1942 was that against the Hungarian Jews. After the German invasion of Hungary in 1944, the Hungarian government cooperated closely in the deportation of 437,000 Jews in eight weeks, mostly to Auschwitz. The expropriation of Jewish property was useful to achieve Hungarian economic goals and sending the Jews as forced laborers avoided the need to send non-Jewish Hungarians. Those who survived the selection were forced to provide construction and manufacturing labor as part of a last-ditch effort to increase the production of fighter aircraft. Although the Nazis' goal of eliminating any Jewish population from Germany had largely been achieved in 1943, it was reversed in 1944 as a result of the importation of these Jews for labor.

Марши смерти и освобождения

Братская могила в Берген-Бельзене после освобождения лагеря, апрель 1945 г.

После наступления союзников эсэсовцы, начиная с середины 1944 года, депортировали узников концлагерей в лагеря в Германии и Австрии, начиная с середины 1944 года из стран Балтии. Слабых и больных заключенных часто убивали в лагере, а других заставляли путешествовать по железной дороге или пешком, обычно без еды или с недостаточным питанием. Тех, кто не успевал, расстреливали. Эвакуация была отдана частично для того, чтобы сохранить заключенных в качестве принудительных работ, а частично для того, чтобы не допустить попадания заключенных в руки врага. В октябре и ноябре 1944 года 90 000 евреев были депортированы из Будапешта к австрийской границе. Пересылка узников Освенцима началась в середине 1944 года, газовые камеры были закрыты и уничтожены после октября, а в январе большая часть из оставшихся 67 000 узников Освенцима была отправлена ​​маршем смерти на запад.

В январе 1945 года в системе концентрационных лагерей было заключено более 700 000 человек, из которых треть умерла до конца войны. В то время большинство узников концлагерей были советскими и польскими гражданскими лицами, арестованными либо за реальное или предполагаемое сопротивление, либо за попытку избежать принудительных работ. Марши смерти привели к нарушению снабжения продолжавших существовать лагерей, что привело к дополнительным смертям. Хотя систематических убийств евреев во время маршей смерти не было, от 70 000 до 100 000 евреев погибли в последние месяцы войны. Многие из выживших в марше смерти оказались в других концентрационных лагерях, которые были освобождены в 1945 году во время вторжения западных союзников в Германию . Освободители нашли груды трупов, которые пришлось сгребать бульдозерами в братские могилы. Некоторые выжившие были освобождены там а другие были освобождены Красной Армией во время ее марша на запад.

Число погибших

Основная статья: Жертвы Холокоста

Число смертей в результате Холокоста в приблизительном проценте от еврейского населения 1939 года:

  90

  80

  70

  60

  50

  40

  30

  20

  Низкий

Около шести миллионов евреев были убиты. Из шести миллионов жертв большинство убитых были выходцами из Восточной Европы, а половина - только из Польши. Около 1,3 миллиона евреев, которые когда-то жили под властью нацистов или у одного из союзников Германии, пережили войну. Одна треть еврейского населения во всем мире и две трети европейских евреев были уничтожены. Уровень смертности сильно различался из-за множества факторов и в некоторых районах приближался к 100 процентам. Одной из причин, по которым шансы на выживание различались, была доступность эмиграции. и защита от союзников Германии, что спасло около 600 000 евреев. Еврейские дети и пожилые люди столкнулись с еще более низкими показателями выживаемости, чем взрослые. Это считается крупнейшим геноцидом в истории человечества.

Самой смертоносной фазой Холокоста была операция «Рейнхард» , ознаменовавшаяся созданием лагерей смерти. Примерно два миллиона евреев были убиты с марта 1942 года по ноябрь 1943 года. Около 1,47 миллиона евреев были убиты всего за 100 дней с конца июля до начала ноября 1942 года, что примерно на 83% выше, чем обычно предполагаемая цифра геноцида в Руанде . В период с июля по октябрь 1942 года два миллиона евреев были убиты, включая операцию «Рейнхард» и другие убийства, причем, как заявил историк Кристиан Герлах , только в 1942 году было убито более трех миллионов евреев . С другой стороны, историк Алекс Дж. Кей утверждает, что с конца июля до середины ноября было убито более двух миллионов евреев, заявляя, что «эти три с половиной месяца были самыми напряженными и самыми смертоносными из всего Холокоста». . Это был самый быстрый уровень геноцида в истории.

3 ноября 1943 года около 18 400 евреев были убиты в Майданеке в течение девяти часов, что стало самым большим числом, когда-либо убитым в лагере смерти за один день. Это было частью операции «Праздник урожая» — убийства около 43 000 евреев, крупнейшей массовой резни евреев немецкими войсками, произошедшей с 3 по 4 ноября 1943 года.

В ходе отдельных нацистских преследований погибло такое же или большее количество нееврейских гражданских лиц и военнопленных; оценивается Герлахом в 6–8 миллионов, Гилбертом - более 10 миллионов. и более 11 миллионов – у Мемориального музея Холокоста США . В некоторых странах, таких как Венгрия, евреи составляли большинство погибших среди мирного населения; в Польше они составляли либо большинство или около половины. В других странах, таких как Советский Союз, Франция, Греция и Югославия, потери среди нееврейского гражданского населения превысили число смертей евреев.

Последствия и наследие

Основная статья: Последствия Холокоста

Возвращение домой и эмиграция

После освобождения многие евреи попытались вернуться домой. Ограниченный успех в поиске родственников, отказ многих неевреев вернуть имущество, а жестокие нападения, такие как погром в Кельце, убедили многих выживших покинуть Восточную Европу. Сообщалось, что после войны в нескольких странах усилился антисемитизм, отчасти из-за конфликтов по поводу реституции собственности. Когда война закончилась, в Германии проживало менее 28 000 немецких евреев и 60 000 евреев ненемецкого происхождения. К 1947 году число евреев в Германии увеличилось до 250 000 из-за эмиграции из Восточной Европы, разрешенной коммунистическими властями; Евреи составляли около 25 процентов населения лагерей для перемещенных лиц . Хотя у многих выживших было слабое здоровье, они попытались организовать в этих лагерях самоуправление, включая обучение и реабилитацию. Из-за нежелания других стран разрешить им иммиграцию, многие выжившие оставались в Германии до образования Израиля в 1948 году. Другие переехали в Соединенные Штаты примерно в 1950 году из-за ослабления иммиграционных ограничений.

Уголовные процессы

Дополнительная информация: Категория: Судебные процессы по Холокосту.

Подсудимые на скамье подсудимых в Международном военном трибунале , ноябрь 1945 года.

Большинство виновников Холокоста так и не предстали перед судом за свои преступления. Во время и после Второй мировой войны многие европейские страны начали массовые чистки реальных и предполагаемых коллаборационистов , которые затронули, возможно, целых 2–3 процента населения Европы, хотя в большинстве последовавших судебных процессов не уделялось особого внимания преступлениям против евреев. ООН Зверства нацистов привели к принятию Конвенции о геноциде в 1948 году, но она не использовалась в судебных процессах по Холокосту из-за отсутствия обратной силы уголовных законов.

В 1945 и 1946 годах Международный военный трибунал судил 23 нацистских лидера, главным образом, за ведение агрессивных войн , которые, по мнению обвинения, были корнем нацистской преступности; тем не менее, систематические убийства евреев оказались в центре внимания. Этот и другие судебные процессы, проведенные союзниками в оккупированной Германии: только армия Соединенных Штатов предъявила обвинения 1676 обвиняемым в 462 судебных процессах по военным преступлениям. — были широко восприняты немецким обществом как несправедливая форма политической мести. Позже Западная Германия расследовала 100 000 человек и предстала перед судом более 6 000 обвиняемых, в основном преступников низкого уровня. Высокопоставленный организатор Адольф Эйхман был похищен и предан суду в Израиле в 1961 году. Вместо того, чтобы осудить Эйхмана на основании документальных доказательств, израильские прокуроры попросили многих людей, переживших Холокост, дать показания. Эта стратегия увеличила огласку, но оказалась противоречивой.

Репарации

По оценкам историков, имущественный ущерб евреев Германии, Австрии, Нидерландов, Франции, Польши и Венгрии составил около 10 миллиардов долларов в 1944 году. или $170 млрд в 2023 году. Эта оценка не включает стоимость затраченного труда. В целом количество еврейского имущества, разграбленного нацистами, составило около 10 процентов от общего количества украденного из оккупированных стран. Попытки выживших получить репарации за свои потери начались сразу после Второй мировой войны. В 1990-е годы произошла дополнительная волна усилий по реституции, связанная с падением коммунизма в Восточной Европе.

В период с 1945 по 2018 год Германия выплатила 86,8 миллиарда долларов в качестве реституции и компенсации пережившим Холокост и наследникам. В 1952 году Западная Германия заключила соглашение о выплате 3 миллиардов немецких марок (около 714 миллионов долларов США) Израилю и 450 миллионов немецких марок (около 107 миллионов долларов США) Клеймс Конференс . Германия выплатила пенсии и другие компенсации за вред, причиненный некоторым пережившим Холокост. Другие страны выплатили компенсацию за активы, украденные у евреев из этих стран. Большинство западноевропейских стран вернули евреям некоторую собственность после войны, в то время как коммунистические страны национализировали многие бывшие еврейские активы, а это означает, что общая сумма, возвращенная евреям, была ниже в этих странах. Польша является единственным членом Европейского Союза , который никогда не принимал никаких законов о реституции. Многие программы реституции не смогли восстановить довоенные активы, и, в частности, большие объемы недвижимого имущества так и не были возвращены выжившим или их наследникам.

Память и историография

Мемориал убитым евреям Европы в Берлине, 2016 г.

В течение десятилетий после войны память о Холокосте в основном ограничивалась выжившими и их общинами. Популярность памяти о Холокосте достигла своего пика в 1990-е годы после падения коммунизма и стала центральной в историческом сознании Запада. как символ высшего человеческого зла. Исследователь геноцида А. Дирк Мозес утверждал, что «Холокост постепенно вытеснил геноцид как символ зла современности». в то время как политолог Скотт Штраус заявил, что «Холокост, возможно, больше, чем любое другое событие прошлого века, представляет собой вершину зла». Холокост был описан как «возможно, самое жестокое и значительное преступление в зарегистрированной истории», а из самых варварских событий двадцатого века «Холокост, вероятно, считается самым ужасным». Известный немецкий историк Вольфганг Бенц назвал это «самым чудовищным преступлением, совершенным в истории человечества». В то же время широкое распространение получило просвещение о Холокосте , которое, как утверждают его сторонники, способствует развитию гражданственности и уменьшению предрассудков в целом. Международный день памяти жертв Холокоста отмечается каждый год 27 января, хотя в некоторых других странах установлен другой день памяти . Его память отмечена в мемориалах , музеях и речах, а также в произведениях культуры, таких как романы, стихи, фильмы и пьесы . Отрицание Холокоста является уголовным преступлением ; в некоторых странах в то время как отрицание Холокоста пропагандируется различными правительствами, деятелями и средствами массовой информации Ближнего Востока.

Хотя многие убеждены, что уроки или какой-то искупительный смысл , вопрос о том, так ли это и в чем заключаются эти уроки, остается спорным. из Холокоста можно извлечь Коммунистические государства маргинализировали тему антисемитских преследований, одновременно скрывая сотрудничество своих граждан с нацизмом, и эта тенденция продолжалась и в посткоммунистическую эпоху. В Западной Германии самокритичная память о Холокосте развилась в 1970-х и 1980-х годах и распространилась на некоторые другие западноевропейские страны. Национальная память о Холокосте распространилась на Европейский Союз в целом, в котором память о Холокосте обеспечила как общую историю, так и эмоциональное обоснование приверженности правам человека . Участие в этой памяти требуется от стран, претендующих на въезд . В отличие от Европы, в Соединенных Штатах память о Холокосте имеет тенденцию быть более абстрактной и универсальной. Вопрос о том, действительно ли память о Холокосте способствует защите прав человека, остается спорным. В Израиле память о Холокосте время от времени использовалась для оправдания применения силы и нарушения международных норм прав человека, в частности, в рамках израильско-палестинского конфликта .

считается самым позорным случаем геноцида в европейской истории . Холокост является самым известным геноцидом в истории, а также Это самый документированный и изученный геноцид в истории. Его также считают архетипом геноцида и эталоном в исследованиях геноцида .

Научная литература по Холокосту огромна и включает тысячи книг. Тенденция рассматривать Холокост как уникальное или непостижимое событие продолжает оставаться популярной среди широкой общественности, хотя историки ее в значительной степени отвергают. Ученый Омер Бартов указывает на то, что Холокост был уникален тем, что это было «промышленное убийство миллионов людей на фабриках смерти, организованное по приказу современного государства, организованное сознательной бюрократией и поддержанное законопослушными патриотами». цивилизованное «общество». Другая дискуссия касается того, возник ли Холокост в результате западной цивилизации или был ее отклонением.

Ссылки

Цитируемые работы

Книги

• Бартроп, Пол Р. (2019). Холокост: основы . Рутледж . ISBN  978-1-351-32989-7 .
• Бартов, Омер (2023a). Геноцид, Холокост и Израиль-Палестина: история от первого лица во времена кризиса . Издательство Блумсбери . ISBN  978-1-350-33234-8 .
• Бэзилер, Майкл Дж .; Бойд, Кэтрин Ли; Нельсон, Кристен Л. (2019). В поисках справедливости после Холокоста: выполнение Терезинской декларации и реституция недвижимого имущества . Издательство Оксфордского университета . ISBN  978-0-19-092306-8 .
• Беорн, Уэйтман Уэйд (2018). Холокост в Восточной Европе: в эпицентре окончательного решения . Академик Блумсбери . ISBN  978-1-4742-3219-7 .
• Берген, Дорис (2016). Война и геноцид: краткая история Холокоста . Роуман и Литтлфилд . ISBN  978-1-4422-4228-9 .
• Блоксэм, Дональд (2009). Окончательное решение: геноцид . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-19-955034-0 .
• Калимани, Анна Вера Саллам (2018). Имена истребления: определения трагедии . Мариетти 1820. ISBN  978-8-821-19615-7 .
• Браунинг, Кристофер Р. (2004). Истоки окончательного решения: эволюция нацистской еврейской политики, сентябрь 1939 г. – март 1942 г. Университет Небраски Пресс и Яд Вашем . ISBN  978-0-8032-0392-1 .
• Чесарани, Дэвид (2016). Окончательное решение: судьба евреев 1933–1949 гг . Пресса Святого Мартина . ISBN  978-0-230-76891-8 .
• Энгель, Дэвид (2021). Холокост: Третий Рейх и евреи . Рутледж . ISBN  978-0-429-77837-7 .
• Комиссия по урегулированию иностранных претензий (1968 год). Комиссия США по урегулированию иностранных претензий: решения и аннотации . Вашингтон, округ Колумбия: Типография правительства США . OCLC   1041397012 .
• Гилберт, Мартин (2015) [2000]. Никогда больше: История Холокоста . РозеттаКниги. ISBN  978-0-7953-4674-3 .
• Герлах, Кристиан (2016). Уничтожение европейских евреев . Издательство Кембриджского университета . ISBN  978-0-521-70689-6 .
• Хейс, Питер (2017). Почему? Объяснение Холокоста . Нью-Йорк: WW Norton & Company.
• Хейс, Питер (2015). Как это было возможно?: Читатель Холокоста . Издательство Университета Небраски . ISBN  978-0-8032-7491-4 .
• Джексон, Тимоти П. (2021). Мордехай не склонился: антисемитизм, Холокост и христианский суперсессионизм . Издательство Оксфордского университета . ISBN  978-0-19-753807-4 .
• Кей, Алекс Дж. (2021). Империя разрушения: история массовых убийств нацистов . Издательство Йельского университета . ISBN  978-0-300-26253-7 .
• Лонгерих, Питер (2010). Холокост: нацистское преследование и убийство евреев . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-19-280436-5 .
• Нойфельд, Майкл; Беренбаум, Майкл (2000). Бомбардировка Освенцима: стоило ли союзникам предпринимать такую ​​попытку? . Нью-Йорк: Университетское издательство Канзаса. ISBN  0-7006-1280-7 .
• Невик, Дональд Л.; Никосия, Фрэнсис Р. (2000). Колумбийский путеводитель по Холокосту . Издательство Колумбийского университета. ISBN  978-0-231-52878-8 .
• Пек, Авраам Дж.; Беренбаум, Майкл , ред. (2002). Холокост и история: известное, неизвестное, спорное и пересмотренное . Издательство Университета Индианы. ISBN  978-0-253-21529-1 .
• Розенфельд, Гавриэль Д. (2015). Привет, Гитлер! Как нацистское прошлое нормализуется в современной культуре . Издательство Кембриджского университета. ISBN  978-1-107-07399-9 .
• Рассел, Нестар (2018). Понимание желающих участников . Том. Часть 2: Эксперименты Милгрэма по послушанию и Холокост. Спрингер. дои : 10.1007/978-3-319-97999-1 . ISBN  978-3-319-97999-1 . S2CID   151138604 .
• Смит, Стивен Д. (2023). Траектория памяти о Холокосте: кризис свидетельств в теории и практике . Тейлор и Фрэнсис . ISBN  978-1-000-83062-0 .
• Стоун, Дэн (2010). Истории Холокоста . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-19-956679-2 .
• Стоун, Дэн (2023). Холокост: незаконченная история . Издательская группа «Пингвин». ISBN  978-0-241-38870-9 .
• Ваксманн, Николаус (2015). КЛ: История нацистских концентрационных лагерей . Фаррар, Штраус и Жиру . ISBN  978-0-374-11825-9 .

Главы книги

• Ассманн, Алейда (2010). «Холокост – глобальная память? Расширения и ограничения сообщества новой памяти». Память в глобальную эпоху: дискурсы, практики и траектории . Пэлгрейв Макмиллан, Великобритания . стр. 97–117. ISBN  978-0-230-28336-7 .
• Бартов, Омер (2023b). «Холокост». Оксфордская история Третьего рейха . Издательство Оксфордского университета. стр. 190–216. ISBN  978-0-19-288683-5 .
• Беорн, Уэйтман Уэйд (2020). «Все остальные соседи: общинный геноцид в Восточной Европе». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли . стр. 153–172. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Дин, Мартин С. (2020). «Пережившие Холокост в нацистской вселенной лагерей». Спутник Холокоста . Джон Уайли и сыновья. стр. 263–277. ISBN  978-1-118-97049-2 .
• Энгель, Дэвид (2020). «Постоянная гражданская борьба: переосмысление реакции евреев на нацистский режим». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли. стр. 233–245. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Эванс, Ричард Дж . (2019). «Решение об уничтожении евреев Европы». Евреи, Холокост и общественность: наследие Давида Чезарани . Международное издательство Спрингер . стр. 117–143. ISBN  978-3-030-28675-0 .
• Гошлер, Константин; Там, Филипп (2007). «Введение: история без границ: ограбление и реституция еврейской собственности в Европе». Ограбление и реституция: конфликт из-за еврейской собственности в Европе . Книги Бергана . стр. 1–18. ISBN  978-0-85745-564-2 .
• Хейс, Питер ; Рот, Джон К. (2010). "Введение". Оксфордский справочник по изучению Холокоста . Издательство Оксфордского университета. стр. 1–20. ISBN  978-0-19-921186-9 .
• Хейс, Питер (2010). «Грабеж и реституция». Оксфордский справочник по изучению Холокоста . Издательство Оксфордского университета. стр. 540–559. ISBN  978-0-19-921186-9 .
• Канштайнер, Вульф (2017). «Транснациональная память о Холокосте, цифровая культура и исследования конца рецепции». Двадцатый век в европейской памяти: транскультурная медиация и рецепция . Брилл. стр. 305–343. ISBN  978-90-04-35235-3 .
• Кинг, Чарльз (2023). «Может ли – или должна ли – существовать политическая наука о Холокосте?». В Копштейне, Джеффри С. (ред.). Политика, насилие, память: новая социальная наука о Холокосте . Издательство Корнелльского университета . ISBN  978-1-5017-6676-3 .
• Кохави, Арье Дж. (2010). «Освобождение и рассеяние». Оксфордский справочник по изучению Холокоста . Издательство Оксфордского университета. стр. 509–523. ISBN  978-0-19-921186-9 .
• Копштейн, Джеффри С. (2023). «Общая история насилия?: Погромы лета 1941 года в сравнительной перспективе». Политика, насилие, память: новая социальная наука о Холокосте . Издательство Корнелльского университета . стр. 104–123. ISBN  978-1-5017-6676-3 .
• Мессенджер, Дэвид А. (2020). «Геополитика нейтралитета: дипломатия, убежище и спасение во время Холокоста». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли. стр. 381–396. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Мирон, Гай (2020). «Гетто и геттоизация - история и историография». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли. стр. 247–261. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Примель, Ким Кристиан (2020). «Суды по делам о военных преступлениях, Холокосте и историографии, 1943–2011». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли. стр. 173–189. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Сальстрем, Джулия (2021). «Признание, справедливость и память: шведско-еврейская реакция на Холокост и основные судебные процессы» . В Хоймане, Йоханнес; Рудберг, Понтус (ред.). Ранняя память о Холокосте в Швеции: архивы, свидетельства и размышления . Холокост и его контексты. Международное издательство Спрингер . стр. 287–313. дои : 10.1007/978-3-030-55532-0_11 . ISBN  978-3-030-55532-0 . S2CID   229432191 . Проверено 28 января 2024 г.
• Шперер, Марк (2020). «Нацистская военная экономика, система принудительного труда и убийства рабочих-евреев и неевреев». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли. стр. 135–151. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Стоун, Дэн (2020). «Идеологии расы: создание и подавление инаковости в нацистской Германии». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли: 59–74. дои : 10.1002/9781118970492.ch3 .
• Вайц, Эрик Д. (2010). "Национализм". Оксфордский справочник по изучению Холокоста . Издательство Оксфордского университета. стр. 54–67. ISBN  978-0-19-921186-9 .
• Вестерманн, Эдвард Б. (2020). «Старые нацисты, обычные люди и новые убийцы: синтетические и различные истории преступников». Спутник Холокоста . Уайли. стр. 117–133. ISBN  978-1-118-97052-2 .
• Виттманн, Ребекка (2010). "Наказание". Оксфордский справочник по изучению Холокоста . Издательство Оксфордского университета. стр. 524–539. ISBN  978-0-19-921186-9 .

Журнальные статьи

• Бурцлафф, Январь (2020). «Противостояние братской могиле: переоценка социальных отношений во время Холокоста в Восточной Европе». Исторический журнал . 63 (4): 1054–1077. дои : 10.1017/S0018246X19000566 .
• Ланичек, Ян (2012). «Правительства в изгнании и евреи во время и после Второй мировой войны». Исследования Холокоста . 18 (2–3): 73–94. дои : 10.1080/17504902.2012.11087307 .
• Ленштадт, Стефан (2021). «Акция Рейнхардта - Источники, исследования и память за последние 30 лет» . Дайте показания. Между историей и памятью. Многопрофильный журнал Фонда Освенцима (132): 62–70. дои : 10.4000/temoigner.9886 . ISSN   2031-4183 . S2CID   256347577 .
• Сатклифф, Адам (2022). «Чьи чувства имеют значение? Память о Холокосте, сочувствие и искупительный антиантисемитизм» . Журнал исследований геноцида . 26 (2): 222–242. дои : 10.1080/14623528.2022.2160533 .
• Уэлч, Сьюзен (2020). «Гендер и отбор во время Холокоста: транспортировка западноевропейских евреев на Восток» . Журнал исследований геноцида . 22 (4): 459–478. дои : 10.1080/14623528.2020.1764743 .