Микропластик

Микропластик в отложениях четырех рек Германии. Обратите внимание на разнообразные формы, обозначенные белыми стрелками. (Белые полосы соответствуют масштабу 1 мм.)

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Photodegraded Plastic Straw. A light touch breaks larger straw into microplastics.

Микропластик — это фрагменты любого типа пластика длиной менее 5 мм (0,20 дюйма). По данным Национального управления океанических и атмосферных исследований США (NOAA) и Европейское химическое агентство . Они вызывают загрязнение, попадая в природные экосистемы из различных источников, включая косметику , одежду , упаковку пищевых продуктов и промышленные процессы.

Термин «макропластик» используется для того, чтобы отличить микропластик от более крупных пластиковых отходов , таких как пластиковые бутылки или более крупные куски пластика. В настоящее время признаны две классификации микропластика. К первичным микропластикам относятся любые пластиковые фрагменты или частицы , размер которых уже составляет 5,0 мм или меньше до попадания в окружающую среду . К ним относятся микроволокна от одежды, микрошарики , пластиковые блестки. и пластиковые гранулы (также известные как гранулы). Вторичный микропластик возникает в результате деградации (разрушения) более крупных пластиковых изделий в результате естественных процессов выветривания после попадания в окружающую среду. К таким источникам вторичного микропластика относятся бутылки из-под воды и газировки, рыболовные сети, пластиковые пакеты, контейнеры для микроволновой печи , чайные пакетики и изношенные шины. Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution. 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process. Однако микропластик также накапливается в воздухе и наземных экосистемах .

Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years), microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain. In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems and reduce weight of earthworms. The cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment are not fully known, but research is currently underway to investigate the phenomenon. Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys. Likewise, they have been found in high mountains, at great distances from their source.

A study in 2024 found microplastics in every semen sample tested. Microplastics have also been found in human blood, though their effects are largely unknown.

A literature study made in 2022 by geologist student Björn Lycke shows that the amount of microplastics in sediment is increasing worldwide, especially in ports and tourist beaches.

Classification

Microplastic samples

Microplastic fibers identified in the marine environment

Photodegraded green plastic bag adjacent to hiking trail in about 2,000 pieces of 1 to 25 mm size after three months' exposure outdoors

The term "microplastics" was introduced in 2004 by Professor Richard Thompson, a marine biologist at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom.

Microplastics are common in our world today. In 2014, it was estimated that there are between 15 and 51 trillion individual pieces of microplastic in the world's oceans, which was estimated to weigh between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons.

Primary microplastics

Polyethylene based microspherules in toothpaste

a) Artificial turf football field with ground tire rubber (GTR) used for cushioning. b) Microplastics from the same field, washed away by rain, found in nature close to a stream.

Primary microplastics are small pieces of plastic that are purposefully manufactured. They are usually used in facial cleansers and cosmetics, or in air blasting technology. In some cases, their use in medicine as vectors for drugs was reported. Microplastic "scrubbers", used in exfoliating hand cleansers and facial scrubs, have replaced traditionally used natural ingredients, including ground almond shells, oatmeal, and pumice. Primary microplastics have also been produced for use in air-blasting technology. This process involves blasting acrylic, melamine, or polyester microplastic scrubbers at machinery, engines, and boat hulls to remove rust and paint. As these scrubbers are used repeatedly until they diminish in size and their cutting power is lost, they often become contaminated with heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, and lead. Although many companies have committed to reducing the production of microbeads, there are still many bioplastic microbeads that also have a long degradation life cycle, for example in cosmetics.

Secondary microplastics

Secondary plastics are small pieces of plastic derived from the breakdown of larger plastic debris, both at sea and on land. Over time, a culmination of physical, biological, and chemphotodegradation, including photo-oxidation caused by sunlight exposure, can reduce the structural integrity of plastic debris to a size that is eventually undetectable to the naked eye. This process of breaking down large plastic material into much smaller pieces is known as fragmentation. It is considered that microplastics might further degrade to be smaller in size, although the smallest microplastic reportedly detected in the oceans at present is 1.6 micrometres (6.3×10⁻⁵ in) in diameter. The prevalence of microplastics with uneven shapes suggests that fragmentation is a key source. It was observed that more microplastics might be formed from biodegradable polymer than from non-biodegradable polymer in both seawater and fresh water.

Other sources: as a by-product/dust emission during wear and tear

There are countless sources of both primary and secondary microplastics. Microplastic fibers enter the environment from the washing of synthetic clothing. Tires, composed partly of synthetic styrene-butadiene rubber, will erode into tiny plastic and rubber particles as they are used. Furthermore, 2.0-5.0 mm plastic pellets, used to create other plastic products, often enter ecosystems due to spillages and other accidents.A Norwegian Environment Agency review report about microplastics published in early 2015 states it would be beneficial to classify these sources as primary, as long as microplastics from these sources are added from human society since the "start of the pipe", and their emissions are inherently a result of human material and product use and not secondary defragmentation in the nature.

Nanoplastics

Depending on the definition used, nanoplastics are less than 1 μm (i.e. 1000 nm) or less than 100 nm in size. Speculations over nanoplastics in the environment range from it being a temporary byproduct during the fragmentation of microplastics to it being an invisible environmental threat at potentially high and continuously rising concentrations. The presence of nanoplastics in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre has been confirmed and recent developments in Raman spectroscopy coupled with optical tweezers (Raman Tweezers) as well as nano-fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (nano-FTIR) or atomic force infrared (AFM-IR) are promising answers in the near future regarding the nanoplastic quantity in the environment. Fluorescence could represent a unique tool for the identification and quantification of nanoplastics, since it allows the development of fast, easy, cheap, and sensitive methods. However, the nanoplastic problem is complex and nanoscale properties as well as interaction with biomolecules need to be explored at the fundamental level with high spatial and temporal resolution.

Nanoplastics are thought to be a risk to environmental and human health. Due to their small size, nanoplastics can cross cellular membranes and affect the functioning of cells. Nanoplastics are lipophilic and models show that polyethylene nanoplastics can be incorporated into the hydrophobic core of lipid bilayers. Nanoplastics are also shown to cross the epithelial membrane of fish accumulating in various organs including the gallbladder, pancreas, and the brain. Little is known on adverse health effects of nanoplastics in organisms including humans. In zebrafish (Danio rerio), polystyrene nanoplastics can induce a stress response pathway altering glucose and cortisol levels, which is potentially tied to behavioral changes in stress phases. In Daphnia, polystyrene nanoplastic can be ingested by the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia pulex and affect its growth and reproduction as well as induce stress defense, including the ROS production and MAPK-HIF-1/NF-κB-mediated antioxidant system. Nanoplastics can also adsorb toxic chemical pollutants, such as antibiotics, which enable the selective association with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resulting in the dissemination of nanoplastics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria by bacterivorous nematode Caenorhabditis elegans across the soil.

Sources

Most microplastic pollution comes from textiles, tires and city dust which account for over 80% of all microplastic in the environment. The existence of microplastics in the environment is often established through aquatic studies. These include taking plankton samples, analyzing sandy and muddy sediments, observing vertebrate and invertebrate consumption, and evaluating chemical pollutant interactions. Through such methods, it has been shown that there are microplastics from multiple sources in the environment.

Microplastics could contribute up to 30% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch polluting the world's oceans and, in many developed countries, are a bigger source of marine plastic pollution than the visible larger pieces of marine litter, according to a 2017 IUCN report.

Clothing

Studies have shown that many synthetic fibers, such as polyester, nylon, acrylics, and spandex, can be shed from clothing and persist in the environment. Each garment in a load of laundry can shed more than 1,900 fibers of microplastics, with fleeces releasing the highest percentage of fibers, over 170% more than other garments. For an average wash load of 6 kilograms (13 lb), over 700,000 fibers could be released per wash.

Washing machine manufacturers have also reviewed research into whether washing machine filters can reduce the amount of microfiber fibers that need to be treated by sewage treatment facilities.

These microfibers have been found to persist throughout the food chain from zooplankton to larger animals such as whales. The primary fiber that persist throughout the textile industry is polyester which is a cheap cotton alternative that can be easily manufactured. However, these types of fibers contribute greatly to the persistence to microplastics in terrestrial, aerial, and marine ecosystems. The process of washing clothes causes garments to lose an average of over 100 fibers per liter of water. This has been linked with health effects possibly caused by the release of monomers, dispersive dyes, mordants, and plasticizers from manufacturing. The occurrence of these types of fibers in households has been shown to represent 33% of all fibers in indoor environments.

Textile fibers have been studied in both indoor and outdoor environments to determine the average human exposure. The indoor concentration was found to be 1.0–60.0 fibers/m³, whereas the outdoor concentration was much lower at 0.3–1.5 fibers/m³. The deposition rate indoors was 1586–11,130 fibers per day/m³ which accumulates to around 190-670 fibers/mg of dust. The largest concern with these concentrations is that it increases exposure to children and the elderly, which can cause adverse health effects.

Containers and packaging

Plastic containers can shed microplastics and nanoparticles into foods and beverages.

Bottled water

In one study, 93% of the bottled water from 11 different brands showed microplastic contamination. Per liter, researchers found an average of 325 microplastic particles. Of the tested brands, Nestlé Pure Life and Gerolsteiner bottles contained the most microplastic with 930 and 807 microplastic particles per liter (MPP/L), respectively. San Pellegrino products showed the least quantity of microplastic densities. Compared to water from taps, water from plastic bottles contained twice as much microplastic. Another study capable of detecting nanoplastics found 240,000 fragments per liter: 10% between 5 mm and 1 μm and 90% under 1 μm in diameter.

Some of the contamination likely comes from the process of bottling and packaging the water, and possibly from filters used to purify the water.

Baby bottles

Newborn drinks milk from a baby bottle

In 2020 researchers reported that polypropylene infant feeding bottles with contemporary preparation procedures were found to cause microplastics exposure to infants ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per capita per day in 48 regions. Microplastics release is higher with warmer liquids and similar with other polypropylene products such as lunchboxes. Unexpectedly, silicone rubber baby bottle nipples degrade over time from repeated steam sterilization, shedding micro- and nano-sized particles of silicone rubber, researchers found in 2021. They estimated that, using such heat-degraded nipples for a year, a baby will ingest more than 660,000 particles.

Single-use plastic products

Conventional paper coffee cups, with internal plastic coating, release many nanoplastics into water.

Common single-use plastic products, such as plastic cups, or even paper coffee cups that are lined with a thin plastic film inside, release trillions of microplastic-nanoparticles per liter into water during normal use. Single-use plastic products enter aquatic environments and "[l]ocal and statewide policies that reduce single-use plastics were identified as effective legislative actions thatcommunities can take to address plastic pollution".

A recent study investigated the release of microplastics from polythene bags and paper cups when exposed to hot and cold water. The study aimed to assess the impact of these microplastics on bovine liver catalase (BLC), a crucial antioxidant enzyme. The researchers found that both polythene bags and paper cups release microplastics under hot and cold conditions. These microplastics bind to BLC, causing changes in its structure and reducing its activity. The reduced activity of BLC could potentially disrupt the cellular redox balance, as catalase plays a key role in protecting cells from oxidative damage.

Cosmetics industry

Some companies have replaced natural exfoliating ingredients with microplastics, usually in the form of "microbeads" or "micro-exfoliates". These products are typically composed of polyethylene, a common component of plastics, but they can also be manufactured from polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon. They are often found in face washes, hand soaps, and other personal care products; the beads are usually washed into the sewage system immediately after use. Their small size prevents them from fully being retained by preliminary treatment screens at wastewater plants, thereby allowing some to enter rivers and oceans. Wastewater treatment plants only remove an average of 95–99.9% of microbeads because of their small design. This leaves an average of 0–7 microbeads per litre being discharged. Considering that the treatment plants of the world discharge 160 trillion liters of water per day, around 8 trillion microbeads are released into waterways every day. This number does not account for the sewage sludge that is reused as fertilizer after the waste water treatment that has been known to still contain these microbeads.

Although many companies have committed to phasing out the use of microbeads in their products, there are at least 80 different facial scrub products that are still being sold with microbeads as a main component. This contributes to the 80 metric tons of microbead discharge per year by the United Kingdom alone, which not only has a negative impact upon the wildlife and food chain, but also upon levels of toxicity, as microbeads have been proven to absorb dangerous chemicals such as pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The restriction proposal by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) and reports by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and TAUW suggest that there are more than 500 microplastic ingredients that are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products.

Even when microbeads are removed from cosmetic products, there are still harmful products being sold with plastics in them. For example, acrylate copolymers cause toxic effects for waterways and animals if they are polluted. Acrylate copolymers also can emit styrene monomers when used in body products which increases a person's chances of cancer. Countries like New Zealand which have banned microbeads often pass over other polymers such as acrylate copolymers, which can be just as toxic to people and the environment.

After the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015, the use of microbeads in toothpaste and other rinse-off cosmetic products has been discontinued in the US, however since 2015 many industries have instead shifted toward using FDA-approved "rinse-off" metallized-plastic glitter as their primary abrasive agent.

Fishing industry

Recreational and commercial fishing, marine vessels, and marine industries are all sources of plastic that can directly enter the marine environment, posing a risk to biota both as macroplastics, and as secondary microplastics following long-term degradation. Marine debris observed on beaches also arises from beaching of materials carried on inshore and ocean currents. Fishing gear is a form of plastic debris with a marine source. Discarded or lost fishing gear, including plastic monofilament line and nylon netting (sometimes called ghost nets), is typically neutrally buoyant and can, therefore, drift at variable depths within the oceans. Various countries have reported that microplastics from the industry and other sources have been accumulating in different types of seafood. In Indonesia, 55% of all fish species had evidence of manufactured debris similar to America which reported 67%. However, the majority of debris in Indonesia was plastic, while in North America the majority was synthetic fibers found in clothing and some types of nets. The implication from the fact that fish are being contaminated with microplastic is that those plastics and their chemicals will bioaccumulate in the food chain.

One study analyzed the plastic-derived chemical called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the stomachs of short-tailed shearwaters. It found that one-fourth of the birds had higher-brominated congeners that are not naturally found in their prey. However, the PBDE got into the birds' systems through plastic that was found in the stomachs of the birds. It is therefore not just the plastics that are being transferred through the food chain but the chemicals from the plastics as well.

Manufacturing

The manufacture of plastic products uses granules and small resin pellets as their raw material. In the United States, production increased from 2.9 million pellets in 1960 to 21.7 million pellets in 1987. In 2019, plastic world production was 368 million tonnes; 51% were produced in Asia. China, the world's largest producer, created 31% of the world total. Through accidental spillage during land or sea transport, inappropriate use as packing materials, and direct outflow from processing plants, these raw materials can enter aquatic ecosystems. In an assessment of Swedish waters using an 80 μm mesh, KIMO Sweden found typical microplastic concentrations of 150–2,400 microplastics per m³; in a harbor adjacent to a plastic production facility, the concentration was 102,000 per m³.

Many industrial sites in which convenient raw plastics are frequently used are located near bodies of water. If spilled during production, these materials may enter the surrounding environment, polluting waterways. "More recently, Operation Cleansweep, a joint initiative of the American Chemistry Council and Society of the Plastics Industry, is aiming for industries to commit to zero pellet loss during their operations". Overall, there is a significant lack of research aimed at specific industries and companies that contribute to microplastics pollution.

Personal protective equipment

Face masks

Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, the usage of medical face masks has sharply increased to reach approximately 89 million masks each. Single use face masks are made from polymers, such as polypropylene, polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, or polyester. The increase in production, consumption, and littering of face masks was added to the list of environmental challenges, due to the addition of plastic particles waste in the environment. After degrading, disposable face masks could break down into smaller size particles (under 5mm) emerging a new source of microplastic. A single surgical weathered face mask may release up to 173,000 fibers/ day.

A report made in February 2020 by Oceans Asia, an organization committed to advocacy and research on marine pollution, confirms "the presence of face masks of different types and colors in an ocean in Hong Kong".

Sewage treatment plants

Sewage treatment plants, also known as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), remove contaminants from wastewater, primarily from household sewage, using various physical, chemical, and biological processes. Most plants in developed countries have both primary and secondary treatment stages. In the primary stage of treatment, physical processes are employed to remove oils, sand, and other large solids using conventional filters, clarifiers, and settling tanks. Secondary treatment uses biological processes involving bacteria and protozoa to break down organic matter. Common secondary technologies are activated sludge systems, trickling filters, and constructed wetlands. The optional tertiary treatment stage may include processes for nutrient removal (nitrogen and phosphorus) and disinfection.

Microplastics have been detected in both the primary and secondary treatment stages of the plants. A groundbreaking 1998 study suggested that microplastic fibers would be a persistent indicator of sewage sludges and wastewater treatment plant outfalls. A study estimated that about one particle per liter of microplastics are being released back into the environment, with a removal efficiency of about 99.9%. A 2016 study showed that most microplastics are actually removed during the primary treatment stage where solid skimming and sludge settling are used. When these treatment facilities are functioning properly, the contribution of microplastics into oceans and surface water environments from WWTPs is not disproportionately large. Many studies show that while wastewater treatment plants certainly reduce the microplastic load on waterways, with current technological developments they are not able to clean the waters fully of this pollutant.

Sewage sludge is used for soil fertilizer in some countries, which exposes plastics in the sludge to the weather, sunlight, and other biological factors, causing fragmentation. As a result, microplastics from these biosolids often end up in storm drains and eventually into bodies of water. In addition, some studies show that microplastics do pass through filtration processes at some WWTPs. According to a study from the UK, samples taken from sewage sludge disposal sites on the coasts of six continents contained an average one particle of microplastic per liter. A significant amount of these particles was of clothing fibers from washing machine effluent.

Transportation

Car and truck tires

Main article: Rubber pollution

Wear and tear from tires significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment. Estimates of emissions of microplastics to the environment in Denmark are between 5,500 and 14,000 tonnes (6,100 and 15,400 tons) per year. Secondary microplastics (e.g. from car and truck tires or footwear) are more important than primary microplastics by two orders of magnitude. The formation of microplastics from the degradation of larger plastics in the environment is not accounted for in the study.

The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from car tires (wear reaching 100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tires (2%), artificial turf (wear 12–50%), brakes (wear 8%), and road markings (wear 5%). In the case of road markings, recent field study indicated that they were protected by a layer of glass beads and their contribution was only between 0.1 and 4.3 g/person/year, which would constitute approximately 0.7% of all of the secondary microplastics emissions; this value agrees with some emissions estimates. Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tire wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM_2.5) is estimated to consist of tire wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization at 3 million deaths in 2012. Pollution from tire wear and tear also enters the food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks.

Shipping

Shipping has significantly contributed to marine pollution. Some statistics indicate that in 1970, commercial shipping fleets around the world dumped over 23,000 tons of plastic waste into the marine environment. In 1988, an international agreement (MARPOL 73/78, Annex V) prohibited the dumping of waste from ships into the marine environment. In the United States, the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 prohibits discharge of plastics in the sea, including from naval vessels. However, shipping remains a dominant source of plastic pollution, having contributed around 6.5 million tons of plastic in the early 1990s. Research has shown that approximately 10% of the plastic found on the beaches in Hawaii are nurdles. In one incident on 24 July 2012, 150 tonnes of nurdles and other raw plastic material spilled from a shipping vessel off the coast near Hong Kong after a major storm. This waste from the Chinese company Sinopec was reported to have piled up in large quantities on beaches. While this is a large incident of spillage, researchers speculate that smaller accidents also occur and further contribute to marine microplastic pollution.

Human health

Further information: Microplastics effects on human health

The potential risks of microplastic to human health are little understood, and the field is difficult to research because of the potentially long time between exposure to the contaminant and any associated health effect becoming evident. Microplastic pollution has been associated with various adverse health conditions, including respiratory disease and inflammation, but it is not known whether there is a causative effect. There is concern microplastic pollutants may act as a vector for antibiotic resistant genes and bacteria. It is reported that clinically important bacterial genus like Eggerthella were notably (more than three times) enriched on riverine microplastics compared to water.

According to a comprehensive review of scientific evidence published by the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism in 2019, "little is known with respect to the human health risks of nano- and microplastics, and what is known is surrounded by considerable uncertainty". The authors of the review identify the main limitations as the quality or methodology of the research to date. Since "the poison is in the dose", the review concludes that "there is a need to understand the potential modes of toxicity for different size-shape-type NMP [nano- (< 0.1 mm) and microplastic] combinations in carefully selected human models, before robust conclusions about 'real' human risks can be made".

Mean/median intake of microplastics in humans are at levels considered to be safe in humans; however, some individuals may sometimes exceed these limits; the effects of this, if any, are unknown. It is unknown whether and to what degree microplastics bioaccumulate in humans. Microplastics can interact with antioxidant enzymes like catalase, potentially altering their activity and thus disrupting the cellular redox balance.

Effects on the environment

According to a comprehensive review of scientific evidence published by the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism in 2019, microplastics are now present in every part of the environment. While there is no evidence of widespread ecological risk from microplastic pollution yet, risks are likely to become widespread within a century if pollution continues at its current rate.

There is rapid growth of microplastic pollution research that may influence the growth of understanding of the problem, with marine and estuarine environments most frequently studied. Researchers have called for better sharing of research data that might lead to effective solutions.

Participants at the 2008 International Research Workshop on the Occurrence, Effects and Fate of Microplastic Marine Debris at the University of Washington at Tacoma concluded that microplastics are a problem in the marine environment, based on:

• the documented occurrence of microplastics in the marine environment,
• the long residence times of these particles (and, therefore, their likely buildup in the future), and
• their demonstrated ingestion by marine organisms.

So far, research has mainly focused on larger plastic items. Widely recognized problems facing marine life are entanglement, ingestion, suffocation and general debilitation often leading to death and/or strandings. This causes serious public concern. In contrast, microplastics are not as conspicuous, being less than 5 mm, and are usually invisible to the naked eye. Particles of this size are available to a much broader range of species, enter the food chain at the bottom, become embedded in animal tissue, and are then undetectable by unaided visual inspection.Furthermore, consequences of plastic degradation and pollution release over long term have mostly been overlooked. The large amounts of plastic currently in the environment, exposed to degradation, but that has many more years of decay and release of toxic compounds to follow is referred to as toxicity debt.

Microplastics have been detected not just in marine but also in freshwater systems including marshes, streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers in (Europe, North America, South America, Asia and Australia). Samples collected across 29 Great Lakes tributaries from six states in the United States were found to contain plastic particles, 98% of which were microplastics ranging in size from 0.355mm to 4.75mm.

Hurricane Larry in September 2021 deposited, during the storm peak, 113,000 particles/m2/day as it passed over Newfoundland, Canada. Back-trajectory modelling and polymer type analysis indicate that those microplastics may have been ocean-sourced as the hurricane traversed the North Atlantic garbage patch of the North Atlantic Gyre.

Biological integration into organisms

Micro and nano plastics can become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or respiration. The initial demonstration of bioaccumulation of these particles in animals was conducted under controlled conditions by exposing them to high concentrations of microplastics over extended periods, accumulating these particles in their gut and gills due to ingestion and respiration, respectively. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding lugworms (Arenicola marina), have been shown to accumulate microplastics embedded in their gastrointestinal tract. Similarly, many crustaceans, like the shore crab Carcinus maenas, have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts. Plastic particles are often mistaken by fish for food, which can block their digestive tracts, sending incorrect feeding signals to the brains of the animals. However, research in 2021 revealed that fish ingest microplastics inadvertently rather than intentionally. The first occurrence of bioaccumulation of micro and nanoplastics in wild animals was documented in the skin mucosa of salmon, and it was attributed to the resemblance between nanoplastics and the outer shell of the viruses that the mucosa traps. This discovery was entirely serendipitous, as the research team had developed a detailed molecular separation process for the components of fish skin with the primary objective of isolating chitin from a vertebrate for the first time.

Representation of the exposure of marine life to microplastics

Some coral such as Pocillopora verrucosa have also been found to ingest microplastics.It can take up to 14 days for microplastics to pass through an animal (as compared to a normal digestion period of 2 days), but enmeshment of the particles in animals' gills can prevent elimination entirely. When microplastic-laden animals are consumed by predators, the microplastics are then incorporated into the bodies of higher trophic-level feeders. For example, scientists have reported plastic accumulation in the stomachs of lantern fish which are small filter feeders and are the main prey for commercial fish like tuna and swordfish. Microplastics also absorb chemical pollutants that can be transferred into the organism's tissues. Small animals are at risk of reduced food intake due to false satiation and resulting starvation or other physical harm from the microplastics.

A study done at the Argentinean coastline of the Rio de la Plata estuary, found the presence of microplastics in the guts of 11 species of coastal freshwater fish. These 11 species of fish represented four different feeding habits: detritivore, planktivore, omnivore and ichthyophagous. This study is one of the few so far to show the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater organisms.

Bottom feeders, such as benthic sea cucumbers, who are non-selective scavengers that feed on debris on the ocean floor, ingest large amounts of sediment. It has been shown that four species of sea cucumber (Thyonella gemmate, Holothuria floridana, H. grisea and Cucumaria frondosa) ingested between 2- and 20-fold more PVC fragments and between 2- and 138-fold more nylon line fragments (as much as 517 fibers per organism) based on plastic-to-sand grain ratios from each sediment treatment. These results suggest that individuals may be selectively ingesting plastic particles. This contradicts the accepted indiscriminate feeding strategy of sea cucumbers, and may occur in all presumed non-selective feeders when presented with microplastics.

Bivalves, important aquatic filter feeders, have also been shown to ingest microplastics and nanoplastics. Upon exposure to microplastics, bivalve filtration ability decreases. Multiple cascading effects occur as a result, such as immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Decreased immune function occurs due to reduced phagocytosis and NF-κB gene activity. Impaired neurological function is a result of the inhibition of ChE and suppression of neurotransmitter regulatory enzymes. When exposed to microplastics, bivalves also experience oxidative stress, indicating an impaired ability to detoxify compounds within the body, which can ultimately damage DNA. Bivalve gametes and larvae are also impaired when exposed to microplastics. Rates of developmental arrest, and developmental malformities increase, while rates of fertilization decrease. When bivalves have been exposed to microplastics as well as other pollutants such as POPs, mercury or hydrocarbons in lab settings, toxic effects were shown to be aggravated.

Not only fish and free-living organisms can ingest microplastics. Scleractinian corals, which are primary reef-builders, have been shown to ingest microplastics under laboratory conditions. While the effects of ingestion on these corals has not been studied, corals can easily become stressed and bleach. Microplastics have been shown to stick to the exterior of the corals after exposure in the laboratory. The adherence to the outside of corals can potentially be harmful, because corals cannot handle sediment or any particulate matter on their exterior and slough it off by secreting mucus, expending energy in the process, increasing the likelihood of mortality.

Marine biologists in 2017 discovered that three-quarters of the underwater seagrass in the Turneffe Atoll off the coast of Belize had microplastic fibers, shards, and beads stuck to it. The plastic pieces had been overgrown by epibionts (organisms that naturally stick themselves to seagrass). Seagrass is part of the barrier reef ecosystem and is fed on by parrotfish, which in turn are eaten by humans. These findings, published in Marine Pollution Bulletin, may be "the first discovery of microplastics on aquatic vascular plants... [and] only the second discovery of microplastics on marine plant life anywhere in the world."

Research published in 2023 demonstrated that microplastic exposure impaired the cognitive performance of hermit crabs, which could potentially impact their survivability.

It is not just aquatic animals which may be harmed. Microplastics can stunt the growth of terrestrial plants due to the increased uptake of toxic metals such as cadmium.

In 2019, the first European records of microplastic items in amphibians' stomach content was reported in specimens of the common European newt (Triturus carnifex). This also represented the first evidence for Caudata worldwide, highlighting that the emerging issue of plastics is a threat even in remote high-altitude environments. The microplastic has also been found in common blackbirds (Turdus merula) and song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) which shows a ubiquity of microplastics in terrestrial environments.

Zooplankton ingest microplastics beads (1.7–30.6 μm) and excrete fecal matter contaminated with microplastics. Along with ingestion, the microplastics stick to the appendages and exoskeleton of the zooplankton. Zooplankton, among other marine organisms, consume microplastics because they emit similar infochemicals, notably dimethyl sulfide, just as phytoplankton do. Plastics such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) produce dimethyl sulfide odors. These types of plastics are commonly found in plastic bags, food storage containers, and bottle caps. Green and red filaments of plastics are found in the planktonic organisms and in seaweeds.

Not only do animals and plants ingest microplastics, some microbes also live on the surface of microplastics. This community of microbes form a slimy biofilm which, according to a 2019 study, has a unique structure and possesses a special risk, because microplastic biofilms have been proven to provide a novel habitat for colonization that increases overlap between different species, thus spreading pathogens and antibiotic resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer. Then, due to rapid movement through waterways, these pathogens can be moved very quickly from their origin to another location where a specific pathogen may not be naturally present, spreading the potential disease.

Persistent organic pollutants and Emerging organic contaminants

Plastic particles may highly concentrate and transport synthetic organic compounds (e.g. persistent organic pollutants and emerging organic contaminants), commonly present in the environment and ambient seawater, on their surface through adsorption. Microplastics can act as carriers for the transfer of POPs from the environment to organisms, also termed as the Trojan Horse effect. Recent articles have also shown that microplastics can sorb emerging organic chemicals such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products. The sorption potential is affected by water matrix, pH, ionic strength and aging of microparticles.

Additives added to plastics during manufacture may leach out upon ingestion, potentially causing serious harm to the organism. Endocrine disruption by plastic additives may affect the reproductive health of humans and wildlife alike.

Plastics, polymers derived from mineral oils, are virtually non-biodegradable. However, renewable natural polymers are now in development which can be used for the production of biodegradable materials similar to those derived from oil-based polymers.

Disease

In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds.The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste. "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."

Geophysics

Microplastics can increase the stability of breaking waves or sea foam, potentially affecting sea albedo or atmosphere-ocean gas exchange. Microplastics in the ocean may re-enter the atmosphere via sea spray.

Where microplastics can be found

Air

Airborne microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere, as well as indoors and outdoors. In 2019 a study found microplastic to be atmospherically transported to remote areas on the wind. A 2017 study found indoor airborne microfiber concentrations between 1.0 and 60.0 microfibers per cubic meter (33% of which were found to be microplastics). Another study looked at microplastic in the street dust of Tehran and found 2,649 particles of microplastic within 10 samples of street dust, with ranging samples concentrations from 83 particle – 605 particles (±10) per 30.0 g of street dust. Microplastics and microfibers were also found in snow samples, and high up in "clean" air in high mountains at vast distances from their source. However, much like freshwater ecosystems and soil, more studies are needed to understand the full impact and significance of airborne microplastics.

Water

Oceans

This section is an excerpt from Marine plastic pollution § Microplastics.[edit]

A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide, and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants. These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates.

Because plastic is so widely used across the planet, microplastics have become widespread in the marine environment. For example, microplastics can be found on sandy beaches and surface waters as well as in the water column and deep sea sediment. Microplastics are also found within the many other types of marine particles such as dead biological material (tissue and shells) and some soil particles (blown in by wind and carried to the ocean by rivers). Population density and proximity to urban centers have been considered the main factors that influence the abundance of microplastics in the environment.

Ice cores

Plastic pollution has previously been recorded in Antarctic surface waters and sediments as well as in the Arctic sea ice, but in 2009, for the first time, plastic was found in Antarctic sea ice, with 96 microplastic particles from 14 different types of polymers in an ice core sampled from east Antarctica. Relatively large particle sizes in Antarctic sea ice suggest local pollution sources.

Freshwater

Microplastics have been widely detected in the world's aquatic environments. The first study on microplastics in freshwater ecosystems was published in 2011 that found an average of 37.8 fragments per square meter of Lake Huron sediment samples. Additionally, studies have found MP (microplastic) to be present in all of the Great Lakes with an average concentration of 43,000 MP particle km⁻². Microplastics have also been detected in freshwater ecosystems outside of the United States, for example in 2019 study conducted in Poland showed that microplastic was present in all 30 studied lakes of the Masurian Lakeland with density from 0.27 to 1.57 particles per liter. In Canada, a three-year study found a mean microplastic concentration of 193,420 particles km⁻² in Lake Winnipeg. None of the microplastics detected were micro-pellets or beads and most were fibers resulting from the breakdown of larger particles, synthetic textiles, or atmospheric fallout. The highest concentration of microplastic ever discovered in a studied freshwater ecosystem was recorded in the Rhine river at 4000 MP particles kg⁻¹.

Soil

A substantial portion of microplastics are expected to end up in the world's soil, yet very little research has been conducted on microplastics in soil outside of aquatic environments. In wetland environments microplastic concentrations have been found to exhibit a negative correlation with vegetation cover and stem density. There exists some speculation that fibrous secondary microplastics from washing machines could end up in soil through the failure of water treatment plants to completely filter out all of the microplastic fibers. Furthermore, geophagous soil fauna, such as earthworms, mites, and collembolans could contribute to the amount of secondary microplastic present in soil by converting consumed plastic debris into microplastic via digestive processes. Further research, however, is needed. There is concrete data linking the use of organic waste materials to synthetic fibers being found in the soil; but most studies on plastics in soil merely report its presence and do not mention origin or quantity. Controlled studies on fiber-containing land-applied wastewater sludges (biosolids) applied to soil reported semiquantitative recoveries of the fibers a number of years after application.

Salt and seafood

A 2015 review of 15 brands of table salts commercially available in China found microplastics were much more prevalent in sea salts compared to lake, rock, or well salts, attributing this to sea salts being contaminated by ocean water pollution while the rock/well salts were more likely contaminated during the production stages of collecting, wind drying, and packaging. According to a 2017 estimate, a person who consumes seafood will ingest 11,000 bits of microplastics per year. A 2019 study found a kilo of sugar had 440 microplastic particles, a kilo of salt contained 110 particles, and a litre of bottled water contained 94 particles.

Human body

While it is known microplastic enter the human body from the environment, the quantities involved are not well understood.

The microplastics ingested by fish and crustaceans can be subsequently consumed by humans as the end of the food chain. Microplastics are found in air, water, and food that humans eat, especially seafood; however, the degree of absorption and retention is unclear. However, ingestion of microplastics via food may be relatively minor; for example, while mussels are known to accumulate microplastics, humans are predicted to be exposed to more microplastics in household dust than by consuming mussels.

Microplastics have been found in human testicles.

Prevention

Treatment

Некоторые исследователи предложили сжигать пластмассы для использования в качестве энергии, что известно как рекуперация энергии. В отличие от потери энергии пластика в атмосферу на свалках , этот процесс превращает часть пластика обратно в энергию, которую можно использовать. Однако, в отличие от переработки, этот метод не уменьшает количество производимого пластика. Поэтому переработка пластика считается более эффективным решением.

Биодеградация — еще одно возможное решение проблемы большого количества микропластических отходов. В этом процессе микроорганизмы потребляют и разлагают синтетические полимеры с помощью ферментов. Эти пластмассы затем можно использовать в виде энергии и в качестве источника углерода после разрушения. Микробы потенциально могут быть использованы для очистки сточных вод, что уменьшит количество микропластика, попадающего в окружающую среду.

Фильтрация

Эффективное удаление микропластика с помощью очистных сооружений имеет решающее значение для предотвращения попадания микропластика из общества в природные водные системы. Уловленный микропластик на очистных сооружениях становится частью осадка, образующегося на предприятиях. Проблема в том, что этот осадок часто используется в качестве удобрения на фермах, а это означает, что пластик попадает в водные пути со стоками.

Фионн Феррейра , победитель Google Science Fair 2019 года , разрабатывает устройство для удаления частиц микропластика из воды с помощью феррожидкости .

Устройства для сбора

Компьютерное моделирование, проведенное голландским фондом The Ocean Cleanup , показало, что устройства для сбора, расположенные ближе к побережью, могут удалять около 31% микропластика в этом районе. 9 сентября 2018 года компания The Ocean Cleanup запустила первую в мире систему очистки океана, 001, также известную как «Уилсон», которая развертывается на Большом Тихоокеанском мусорном пятне . Система 001 имеет длину 600 метров и действует как лодка U-образной формы, которая использует естественные океанические течения для концентрации пластика и другого мусора на поверхности океана в ограниченном пространстве для извлечения его судами. Проект был встречен критикой со стороны океанографов и экспертов по загрязнению пластиком, хотя и получил широкую общественную поддержку.

Кроме того, некоторые бактерии приспособились к поеданию пластика, а некоторые виды бактерий были генетически модифицированы для поедания (определенных типов) пластика. Помимо разложения микропластика, микробы были разработаны новым способом улавливания микропластика в матрице биопленки из загрязненных образцов для облегчения удаления таких загрязнителей. Микропластик в биопленках затем может быть высвобожден с помощью специально разработанного механизма «высвобождения» путем рассеивания биопленки, чтобы облегчить восстановление микропластика.

Образование и переработка

Повышение уровня образования посредством кампаний по переработке отходов — еще одно предлагаемое решение проблемы загрязнения микропластиком. Хотя это и было бы менее масштабным решением, было доказано, что образование снижает количество мусора, особенно в городских условиях, где часто наблюдаются большие концентрации пластиковых отходов. Если усилия по переработке будут увеличены, будет создан цикл использования и повторного использования пластика, чтобы уменьшить количество отходов и производство нового сырья. Чтобы достичь этого, штатам необходимо будет использовать более мощную инфраструктуру и инвестиции в переработку отходов. Некоторые выступают за улучшение технологии переработки, чтобы иметь возможность перерабатывать пластик меньшего размера и уменьшить потребность в производстве новых пластиков.

Действия по повышению осведомленности

Вывеска, призывающая общественность собирать зернышки, чтобы уменьшить их негативное воздействие на прибрежную среду.

11 апреля 2013 года в целях повышения осведомленности итальянская художница Мария Кристина Финуччи основала The Garbage Patch State. под патронажем ЮНЕСКО и Министерства окружающей среды Италии.

В 2013 году Агентство по охране окружающей среды США (EPA) запустило инициативу «Воды без мусора», направленную на предотвращение попадания одноразовых пластиковых отходов в водные пути и, в конечном итоге, в океан. Агентство по охране окружающей среды сотрудничает с Программой Организации Объединенных Наций по окружающей среде – Карибской программой по окружающей среде (ЮНЕП-КЭП) и Корпусом мира в целях сокращения, а также удаления мусора в Карибском море . Агентство по охране окружающей среды также профинансировало различные проекты в районе залива Сан-Франциско, в том числе проект, направленный на сокращение использования одноразовых пластиковых изделий, таких как одноразовые чашки , ложки и соломинки, в трех Калифорнийского университета . кампусах

Кроме того, существует множество организаций, выступающих за действия по борьбе с микропластиком и распространяющих информацию о микропластике. Одной из таких групп является Флоридский проект по повышению осведомленности о микропластике (FMAP), группа добровольцев, которые ищут микропластик в пробах прибрежной воды. Также усиливается глобальная пропаганда, направленная на достижение цели 14 Цели устойчивого развития Организации Объединенных Наций , которая предполагает предотвратить и значительно сократить все формы загрязнения морской среды к 2025 году.

Финансирование

Инициатива «Чистые океаны» — это проект, запущенный в 2018 году государственными учреждениями Европейского инвестиционного банка , Agence Française de Développement и KfW Entwicklungsbank . Целью организаций было предоставить до 2 миллиардов евро в виде кредитов, грантов и технической помощи до 2023 года для разработки проектов по удалению загрязнения из водных путей (с упором на макропластик и микропластик) до того, как оно достигнет океанов. Усилия сосредоточены на инициативах, которые демонстрируют эффективные методы минимизации производства пластиковых отходов и микропластика, уделяя особое внимание речным и прибрежным районам. Cassa Depositi e Prestiti (CDP), итальянское национальное рекламное учреждение и финансовое учреждение по сотрудничеству в целях развития, и Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO), испанский рекламный банк, стали новыми партнерами в октябре 2020 года. По состоянию на декабрь 2023 года Инициатива «Чистые океаны» профинансировала почти 3,2 миллиарда евро, что превышает 80% ее цели в 4 миллиарда евро. Более 20 миллионов человек получат выгоду от подписанных проектных предложений, которые включают улучшение очистки сточных вод в Шри-Ланке, Китае, Египте и Южной Африке, управление твердыми отходами в Того и Сенегале, а также управление ливневыми водами и защиту от наводнений в Бенине, Марокко и Эквадоре. .

В феврале 2022 года инициатива заявила, что к концу 2025 года увеличит цель финансирования до 4 миллиардов евро. В то же время Европейский банк реконструкции и развития (ЕБРР) стал шестым членом Инициативы «Чистые океаны». К февралю 2023 года программа достигла 65% своей цели: 2,6 миллиарда евро было потрачено на 60 проектов, которыми воспользовались более 20 миллионов человек в Африке, Азии, Латинской Америке и Европе.

К началу 2022 года более 80% этой цели было достигнуто, при этом 1,6 млрд евро было использовано на долгосрочное финансирование инициатив государственного и частного секторов, направленных на минимизацию выбросов пластмасс, микропластика и других загрязняющих веществ за счет увеличения количества твердых отходов. , управление сточными и ливневыми водами.

Европейский инвестиционный банк и Азиатский банк развития в январе 2021 года сформировали Партнерство по чистому и устойчивому океану для продвижения совместных проектов по созданию чистого и устойчивого океана и голубой экономики в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе.

Политика и законодательство

По мере роста осведомленности о пагубном воздействии микропластика на окружающую среду группы людей теперь выступают за удаление и запрет микропластика из различных продуктов. Одна из таких кампаний — «Beat the Microbead», направленная на удаление пластика из средств личной гигиены. Организация «Авантюристы и учёные за охрану окружающей среды» реализуют Глобальную инициативу по микропластику — проект по сбору проб воды, чтобы предоставить учёным более точные данные о рассеянии микропластика в окружающей среде. ЮНЕСКО спонсировала программы исследований и глобальной оценки в связи с трансграничной проблемой, которую представляет собой загрязнение микропластиком. Эти экологические группы будут продолжать оказывать давление на компании, чтобы те удалили пластик из своей продукции, чтобы сохранить здоровые экосистемы.

Китай

В 2018 году Китай запретил импорт вторсырья из других стран, вынудив эти страны пересмотреть свои схемы переработки. Река Янцзы в Китае дает 55% всех пластиковых отходов, попадающих в моря. С учетом микропластика, в Янцзы содержится в среднем 500 000 кусков пластика на квадратный километр. Scientific American сообщил, что Китай сбрасывает 30% всего пластика в океан.

Соединенные Штаты

В США некоторые штаты приняли меры по смягчению негативного воздействия микропластика на окружающую среду. Иллинойс стал первым штатом США, запретившим косметику, содержащую микропластик. На федеральном уровне был принят Закон 2015 года о воде, свободной от микрошариков, после его подписания президентом Бараком Обамой 28 декабря 2015 года. Закон запрещает смывание косметических продуктов, выполняющих отшелушивающую функцию, таких как зубная паста или средство для умывания. Это не относится к другим продуктам, таким как бытовые чистящие средства. Закон вступил в силу 1 июля 2017 года в отношении производства и 1 июля 2018 года в отношении внедрения или поставки для внедрения в межгосударственную торговлю. 16 июня 2020 года Калифорния приняла определение «микропластика в питьевой воде», заложив основу для долгосрочного подхода к изучению его загрязнения и воздействия на здоровье человека.

25 июля 2018 года Палата представителей США приняла поправку о сокращении количества микропластика. Законодательство, являющееся частью Закона о спасении наших морей, направленного на борьбу с загрязнением морской среды, направлено на поддержку программы NOAA по морскому мусору. В частности, поправка направлена ​​на продвижение Плана действий NOAA по борьбе с наземным морским мусором в Великих озерах, направленного на усиление тестирования, очистки и просвещения по вопросам пластикового загрязнения в Великих озерах. Президент Дональд Трамп подписал закон о повторном разрешении и поправках, вступивший в силу 11 октября 2018 года.

Япония

15 июня 2018 года правительство Японии приняло закон, направленный на сокращение производства и загрязнения микропластика, особенно в водной среде. Предложенный Министерством окружающей среды и единогласно принятый верхней палатой палаты, это также первый законопроект, принятый в Японии, который специально нацелен на сокращение производства микропластика, особенно в индустрии личной гигиены с помощью таких продуктов, как средства для умывания и зубная паста. Этот закон является пересмотренной версией предыдущего законодательства, которое было сосредоточено на удалении пластикового морского мусора . Он также фокусируется на повышении образования и осведомленности общественности о переработке и пластиковых отходах. Министерство окружающей среды также предложило ряд рекомендаций по методам мониторинга количества микропластика в океане (Рекомендации, 2018). Однако никаких наказаний для тех, кто продолжает производить продукцию из микропластика, законодательство не предусматривает.

Евросоюз

Европейская комиссия отметила растущую обеспокоенность по поводу воздействия микропластика на окружающую среду. комиссии В апреле 2018 года Группа главных научных консультантов заказала всесторонний обзор научных данных о загрязнении микропластиком через ЕС Европейской Механизм научных консультаций . Обзор доказательств был проведен рабочей группой, назначенной европейскими академиями, и представлен в январе 2019 года. В 2019 году Комиссии было представлено научное заключение, основанное на отчете SAPEA, на основе которого комиссия рассмотрит вопрос о том, следует ли предлагать изменения в политике на европейском уровне для сдерживания загрязнения микропластиком.

В январе 2019 года Европейское химическое агентство (ECHA) предложило ограничить намеренно добавляемый микропластик.

На долю Европейского Союза приходится 10% мирового объема, около 150 000 тонн микропластика в год. Это 200 граммов на человека в год, со значительными региональными различиями в производстве микропластика на душу населения.

План действий Европейской комиссии по циркулярной экономике устанавливает обязательные требования по переработке и сокращению отходов ключевых продуктов, например, пластиковой упаковки. План запускает процесс ограничения добавления микропластика в продукты. Он требует принятия мер по улавливанию большего количества микропластика на всех этапах жизненного цикла продукта. Например, в плане будут рассмотрены различные меры политики, направленные на сокращение выбросов вторичного микропластика из шин и текстиля. Европейская комиссия планирует обновить Директиву по очистке городских сточных вод для дальнейшего решения проблемы микропластических отходов и других загрязнений. Они направлены на защиту окружающей среды от сброса промышленных и городских сточных вод. Пересмотр Директивы ЕС о питьевой воде был предварительно одобрен, чтобы обеспечить регулярный мониторинг микропластика в питьевой воде. Это потребует от стран предлагать решения в случае обнаружения проблемы.

Ограничение REACH на микрочастицы синтетических полимеров вступило в силу 17 октября 2023 года.

Великобритания

Положения об охране окружающей среды (микрошарики) (Англия) 2017 года запрещают производство любых смываемых средств личной гигиены (например, отшелушивающих средств), содержащих микрошарики. Этот конкретный закон предусматривает конкретные наказания за его несоблюдение. Тем, кто не соблюдает требования, придется заплатить штраф. В случае неуплаты штрафа производители продукции могут получить уведомление о прекращении производства, которое не позволяет производителю продолжать производство до тех пор, пока он не выполнит правила, запрещающие использование микрошариков. В случае игнорирования уведомления об остановке может быть возбуждено уголовное дело.

Гаити

На Гаити нет коллективной системы сбора и переработки отходов. и поэтому пластик часто выбрасывается в городские водоотводные каналы, которые затем разлагаются с образованием микропластика. Из-за тропической температуры и средней продолжительности дня в 12 часов, пластик, присутствующий в городских водоемах, может разлагаться быстрее. Их сброс в залив Порт-о-Пренс подвергает эту экосистему воздействию ряда опасных для окружающей среды загрязнителей, содержащихся в отходах, а также климатическим опасностям, в частности закислению океана.

9 августа 2012 года правительство Гаити опубликовало постановление, запрещающее производство, импорт, маркетинг и использование полиэтиленовых пакетов и предметов из пенополистирола для пищевых продуктов. Однако 14 стран Карибского бассейна (более трети) запретили одноразовые пластиковые пакеты и/или контейнеры из полистирола.

10 июля 2013 года был опубликован второй указ, вновь запрещающий «ввоз, производство или продажу изделий из пенополистирола пищевого назначения». В поддержку второго указа министерства окружающей среды, юстиции и общественной безопасности, торговли и промышленности, а также экономики и финансов объявили в записке, опубликованной в январе 2018 года, что специалисты бригады будут развернуты на территории, чтобы заставить применение указанного указа.

См. также

• Гражданская наука , проекты по очистке, в которых люди могут принять участие.
• Микрогранулы (исследования)
• Микросферы
• Пластиковые чайные пакетики
• Пластиковые запреты
• Пластиковое загрязнение Средиземного моря

Ссылки

Источники

В эту статью включен текст из бесплатного контента . Лицензия: Cc BY-SA 3.0 IGO ( лицензионное заявление/разрешение ). Текст взят из документа «Утопление в пластике – важные графики морского мусора и пластиковых отходов» , Программа ООН по окружающей среде.

Внешний

• Доказательства наличия микропластика в легких человека. Архивировано 18 января 2023 года в Wayback Machine.
• Программа NOAA по морскому мусору
• Даннинг, Брайан (16 ноября 2021 г.). «Скептоид № 806: Экологический микропластик» . Скептоид . Проверено 28 июня 2022 г.