Папуа (провинция)

Папуа
Провинция с особым статусом
Провинция Папуа
Герб
Псевдоним(ы): Земля Сендераваси   ( индонезийский ) «Земля Рая»
Девиз(ы): Самопомощь работает   ( санскрит ) «Работать своими силами»
Расположение Папуа в Индонезии
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Координаты (Джаяпура): 2 ° 32' ю.ш., 140 ° 43' в.д.
Страна	Индонезия
Учредил	27 декабря 1949 г.
Под управлением Индонезии	1 мая 1963 г.
Последний раздел	30 июня 2022 г.
Капитал и крупнейший город	Джаяпура
Подразделения	8 регентств и 1 город
Правительство
• Тело	Правительство провинции Папуа
• Губернатор	Ридван Рудаламун ( исполняющий обязанности )
• Вице-губернатор	Вакантный
Область
• Общий	82 680,95 км 2 (31 923,29 квадратных миль)
• Классифицировать	7-е место в Индонезии
Население  (оценка на середину 2022 года)
• Общий	1,034,956
• Плотность	13/км 2 (32/кв. миль)
Демография
• Этнические группы	Папуасы , амбонцы , бугисы , бутонцы , эвав/кеи , яванцы , макасары , минахаса , тораджа
• Языки	Индонезийский (официальный) , Папуас-малайский (лингва-франка) и другие.
Часовой пояс	UTC+09:00 ( восточное время Индонезии )
Код ISO 3166	ОПЛАЧЕННЫЙ
Регистрация автомобиля	Хорошо
Веб-сайт	Папуа .идти .идентификатор

Папуа — провинция Индонезии заливе , включающая северное побережье западной части Новой Гвинеи вместе с группами островов в Сендераваси на западе. Он примерно соответствует границам папуасского традиционного региона Таби Сайрири . Он граничит с суверенным государством Папуа -Новая Гвинея на востоке, Тихим океаном на севере, заливом Сендераваси на западе и провинциями Центральное Папуа и Хайленд Папуа на юге. Провинция также имеет морские границы с Палау в Тихом океане. После разделения двадцати регентств с целью создания трех новых провинций Центрального Папуа , Хайленд Папуа и Южного Папуа 30 июня 2022 года оставшаяся провинция разделена на восемь регентств ( кабупатен ) и один город ( кота ), последний является столица провинции Джаяпура . Провинция имеет большой потенциал природных ресурсов, таких как золото, никель, нефть и т. д. Папуа, наряду с пятью другими папуасскими провинциями , имеет более высокий уровень автономии по сравнению с другими индонезийскими провинциями .

Остров Новая Гвинея был заселен на протяжении десятков тысяч лет. Европейские торговцы начали посещать этот регион примерно в конце 16 века из-за торговли пряностями . В конце концов, Голландская империя стала доминирующим лидером в войне с пряностями, присоединив западную часть Новой Гвинеи к колонии Голландской Ост-Индии . Голландцы оставались в Новой Гвинее до 1962 года, хотя другие части бывшей колонии провозгласили независимость как Республика Индонезия в 1945 году. После переговоров и конфликтов с индонезийским правительством голландцы передали Западную Новую Гвинею Временному исполнительному органу ООН (UNTEA), который снова был передан Индонезии после спорного Акта о свободном выборе . Провинция ранее называлась Ириан-Джая и включала всю Западную Новую Гвинею до открытия провинции Западное Папуа (тогда Западный Ириан-Джая) в 2001 году. В 2002 году Папуа приняло свое нынешнее название и получило особый автономный статус в соответствии с индонезийским законодательством. .

Провинция Папуа остается одной из наименее развитых провинций Индонезии. По состоянию на 2020 год ВВП на душу населения Папуа составляет 56,1 миллиона рупий ( 3970 долларов США ), занимая 11-е место среди всех провинций Индонезии. Однако в Папуа индекс человеческого развития составляет всего 0,604, что является самым низким показателем среди всех провинций Индонезии. Суровый рельеф и климат Новой Гвинеи являются одной из основных причин, почему инфраструктура Папуа считается наиболее сложной для развития среди других регионов Индонезии.

Перепись 2020 года выявила численность населения в 4 303 707 человек, большинство из которых были христианами. Официальная оценка на середину 2022 года составила 4 418 581 человек. до разделения провинции на четыре отдельные провинции. Официальная оценка численности населения сокращенной провинции на середину 2022 года составляла 1 034 956 человек. Внутренние районы преимущественно населены этническими папуасами, в то время как прибрежные города населены потомками смешанных браков между папуасами, меланезийцами и австронезийцами , включая другие индонезийские этнические группы. Мигранты из остальной части Индонезии также, как правило, населяют прибрежные районы. Провинция также является домом для некоторых неконтактируемых народов .

История

Этимология

Историческая принадлежность

Голландская Ост -Индская компания 1640–1799 гг.
Голландская Ост-Индия 1800–1942 гг.; 1944–1949
Японская империя 1942–1944 гг.
Голландская Новая Гвинея 1949–1962 гг.
МАСЛО 1962–1963 гг.
Индонезия 1963 – настоящее время

Существует несколько теорий происхождения слова Папуа. Одна из теорий состоит в том, что название происходит от слова «Папо Уа», названного в честь султаната Тидоре , что на языке Тидоре означает «не присоединение» или «не объединение», что означает, что не было короля, который управлял бы этой территорией. До эпохи колонизации султанат Тидоре контролировал некоторые части полуострова Бердс-Хед на территории нынешних провинций Западное Папуа и Юго-Западное Папуа , а затем расширился и включил прибрежные регионы в нынешнюю провинцию Папуа. Эти отношения играют важную историческую роль в связывании архипелажных цивилизаций Индонезии с папуасским миром. Другая теория состоит в том, что слово Папуа происходит от малайского слова «папува», что означает «вьющиеся волосы». Впервые он был упомянут в малайском словаре 1812 года Уильямом Марсденом , хотя в более ранних словарях он не встречался. В записях португальских и испанских моряков XVI века словом «Папуа» обозначались жители островов Раджа-Ампат и прибрежных частей полуострова Птичья Голова. Прежнее название провинции, Ириан Джая, было предложено во время собрания племенного комитета в Тобати, Джаяпура, сформированного Атмопрасойо, главой школы бестуур в 1940-х годах. Франс Кайсиепо , руководитель комитета, предложил название из мифов Мансрена Корери, Ири-ан на языке Биак , острова Биак что означает «горячая земля», имея в виду местный жаркий климат, а также от Ириан , что означает горячий процесс как метафору для земля, вступающая в новую эру. В Серуи Ири-ан ( букв. « Земля-нация») означает «столп нации», а в Мерауке Ири-ан ( букв . «Высшая нация») означает «восходящий дух» или «подниматься». Это название было предложено в 1945 году Маркусом Кайсиепо, братом будущего губернатора Франса Кайсиепо. Название Ириан позже было политизировано Мартином Индием и Сайласом Папаре с помощью индонезийской аббревиатуры «Ikut Republik Indonesia Anti Nederland» («Присоединяйтесь к Республике Индонезия против Нидерландов»). Это название использовалось на протяжении всей администрации Сухарто , пока оно не было изменено на Папуа во время правления президента Абдуррахмана Вахида .

Голландцы, прибывшие позже под предводительством Якоба Ле Мэра и Виллема Схоутена , назвали его островом Схоутен . Позже они использовали это название только для обозначения островов у северного побережья Папуа, островов Схоутен или острова Биак. Когда голландцы колонизировали этот остров как часть Голландской Ост-Индии , они назвали его Новой Гвинеей .

Выступающие придерживаются политической ориентации при выборе названия западной половины острова Новая Гвинея . Официальное название региона — «Папуа» согласно Международной организации по стандартизации (ISO). Активисты за независимость называют этот регион « Западным Папуа », в то время как индонезийские официальные лица также используют « Западное Папуа » для названия самой западной провинции региона с 2007 года. Исторически этот регион имел официальные названия: Нидерланды, Новая Гвинея (1895–1962 гг.), Западная Новая Гвинея или Западный Ириан (1945–73 гг.), Ириан-Джая (1973–2002 гг.) и Папуа (с 2002 г. по настоящее время).

Доколониальная эпоха

Основная статья: История Западной Новой Гвинеи

По оценкам, заселение этого региона папуасами началось между 42 000 и 48 000 лет назад. Исследования показывают, что высокогорье было ранним и независимым центром сельского хозяйства, и показывают, что сельское хозяйство развивалось постепенно в течение нескольких тысяч лет; банан выращивают в этом регионе уже не менее 7000 лет. Австронезийские народы, мигрировавшие через Приморскую Юго-Восточную Азию, поселились в этом районе по крайней мере 3000 лет назад и заселились, главным образом, в заливе Сендераваси . Из-за географической изоляции на острове развились разнообразные культуры и языки; В регионе насчитывается более 300 языков и двести дополнительных диалектов.

Ghau Yu Kuan, a Chinese merchant, came to Papua around the latter half of 500 AD and referred to it as Tungki, the area where they obtained spices. Meanwhile, in the latter half of 600 AD, the Sumatra-based empire of Srivijaya referred to the island as Janggi. The empire engaged in trade relations with western New Guinea, initially taking items like sandalwood and birds-of-paradise in tribute to China, but later making slaves out of the natives. It was only at the beginning of 700 AD that traders from Persia and Gujarat began to arrive in what is now Papua and called it Dwi Panta or Samudrananta, which means 'at edge of the ocean'.

The Nagarakertagama mentioned a region in the east called Wanin, present-day Onin Peninsula in the Fakfak Regency, West Papua

The 14th-century Majapahit poem Nagarakretagama mentioned Wwanin or Onin and Sran as a recognized territory in the east, today identified as Onin peninsula in Fakfak Regency in the western part of the larger Bomberai Peninsula south of the Bird's Head Peninsula. At that time, Papua was said to be the eighth region of the Majapahit Empire. Wanin or Onin was one of the oldest indigenous names in recorded history to refer to the western part of the island of New Guinea. A transcript from the Nagarakretagama says the following:

Ikang sakasanusasanusa Makasar Butun Banggawai Kuni Ggaliyao mwang i [ng] Salaya Sumba Solot Muar muwah tigang i Wandan Ambwan Athawa maloko Ewanin ri Sran ini Timur ning angeka nusatutur.

According to some linguists, the word Ewanin is another name for Onin as recorded in old communal poems or songs from Wersar, while Sran popularly misunderstood to refers to Seram Island in Maluku, is more likely another name for a local Papuan kingdom which in its native language is called Sran Eman Muun, based in Kaimana and its furthest influence extends to the Kei Islands, in southeastern Maluku. In his book Nieuw Guinea, Dutch author WC. Klein explained the beginning of the influence of the Bacan Sultanate in Papua. There he wrote: In 1569 Papoese hoof den bezoeken Batjan. Ee aanterijken worden vermeld (In 1569, Papuan tribal leaders visited Bacan, which resulted in the creation of new kingdoms). According to the oral history of the Biak people, there used to be a relationship and marriage between their tribal chiefs and the sultans of Tidore in connection with Gurabesi, a naval leader of Waigeo from Biak. The Biak people is the largest Melanesian tribe, spread on the northern coast of Papua, making the Biak language widely used and considered the language of Papuan unity. Due to the relationship of the coastal areas of Papua with the Sultans of Maluku, there are several local kingdoms on this island, which shows the entry of feudalism.

Since the 16th century, apart from the Raja Ampat Islands which was contested between the Bacan Sultanate, Tidore Sultanate, and Ternate Sultanate, other coastal areas of Papua from the island of Biak to Mimika became vassals of the Tidore Sultanate. The Tidore Sultanate adheres to the trade pact and custom of Uli-Siwa (federation of nine), there were nine trade partners led by Tidore in opposition to the Ternate-led Uli Lima (federation of five). In administering its regions in Papua, Tidore divide them to three regions, Korano Ngaruha ( lit. Four Kings ) or Raja Ampat Islands, Papoua Gam Sio ( lit. Papua The Nine Negeri ) and Mafor Soa Raha ( lit. Mafor The Four Soa ). The role of these kingdoms began to decline due to the entry of traders from Europe to the archipelago marking the beginning of colonialism in the Indonesian Archipelago. During Tidore's rule, the main exports of the island during this period were resins, spices, slaves and the highly priced feathers of the bird-of-paradise. Sultan Nuku, one of the most famous Tidore sultans who rebelled against Dutch colonization, called himself "Sultan of Tidore and Papua", during his revolt in the 1780s. He commanded loyalty from both Moluccan and Papuan chiefs, especially those of Raja Ampat Islands. Following Tidore's defeat, much of the territory it claimed in western part of New Guinea came under Dutch rule as part of the Dutch East Indies.

Colonial era

In 1511, Antonio d'Arbau, a Portuguese sailor, called the Papua region as "Os Papuas" or llha de Papo. Don Jorge de Menetes, a sailor from Spain also stopped by in Papua a few years later (1526–1527), he refers to the region as 'Papua', which was mentioned in the diary of Antonio Pigafetta, the clerk for the Magellan voyage. The name Papua was known to Pigafetta when he stopped on the island of Tidore.On 16 May 1545, Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, a Spanish maritime explorer in command of the San Juan de Letran, left port in Tidore, a Spanish stronghold in the Maluku Islands and going by way of the Talaud Islands and the Schoutens, reached the northern coast of New Guinea, which was coasted till the end of August when, owing to the 5°S latitude, contrary winds and currents, forcing a return to Tidore arriving on 5 October 1545. Many islands were encountered and first charted, along the northern coast of New Guinea, and in the Padaidos, Le Maires, Ninigos, Kaniets and Hermits, to some of which Spanish names were given. On 20 June 1545 at the mouth of the Mamberamo River (charted as San Agustin) he took possession of the land for the Spanish Crown, in the process giving the island the name by which it is known today. He called it Nueva Guinea owing to the resemblance of the local inhabitants to the peoples of the Guinea coast in West Africa. The first map showing the whole island as an island was published in 1600 and shown 1606, Luís Vaz de Torres explored the southern coast of New Guinea from Milne Bay to the Gulf of Papua including Orangerie Bay, which he named Bahía de San Lorenzo. His expedition also discovered Basilaki Island, naming it Tierra de San Buenaventura, which he claimed for Spain in July 1606. On 18 October, his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain.

In 1606, a Duyfken expedition led by the commander Wiliam Jansen from Holland landed in Papua. This expedition consisted of 3 ships, where they sailed from the north coast of Java and stopped at the Kei Islands, at the southwestern coast of Papua. With the increasing Dutch grip in the region, the Spanish left New Guinea in 1663. In 1660, the Dutch recognized the Sultan of Tidore's sovereignty over New Guinea. New Guinea thus became notionally Dutch as the Dutch held power over Tidore.

Dutch New Guinea in the early 19th century was administered from the Moluccas. Although the coast had been mapped in 1825 by Lieutenant Commander D.H. Kolff, there had been no serious effort to establish a permanent presence in Dutch New Guinea. The British, however, had shown considerable interest in the area, and were threatening to settle it. To prevent this, the Governor of the Moluccas, Pieter Merkus, urged the Dutch government to establish posts along the coast. An administrative and trading post established in 1828 on Triton Bay on the southwest coast of New Guinea. On 24 August 1828, the birthday of King William I of the Netherlands, the Dutch flag was hoisted and the Dutch claimed all of Western New Guinea, which they called Nieuw Guinea Several native chieftains proclaimed their loyalty to the Netherlands. The post was named Fort Du Bus for the then-Governor General of the Dutch East Indies, Leonard du Bus de Gisignies. 30 years later, Germans established the first missionary settlement on an island near Manokwari. While in 1828 the Dutch claimed the south coast west of the 141st meridian and the north coast west of Humboldt Bay in 1848, they did not try to develop the region again until 1896; they established settlements in Manokwari and Fak-Fak in response to perceived Australian ownership claims from the eastern half of New Guinea. Great Britain and Germany had recognized the Dutch claims in treaties of 1885 and 1895. At the same time, Britain claimed south-east New Guinea, later as the Territory of Papua, and Germany claimed the northeast, later known as the Territory of New Guinea. The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare and headhunting within their respective territories. In 1901, the Netherlands formally purchased West New Guinea from the Sultanate of Tidore, incorporating it into the Netherlands East Indies.

U.S troops landing in Tanahmerah Bay during Operation Reckless, 1944

Dutch activity in the region remained in the first half of the twentieth century, notwithstanding the 1923 establishment of the Nieuw Guinea Beweging (New Guinea Movement) in the Netherlands by ultra right-wing supporters calling for Dutchmen to create a tropical Netherlands in Papua. This pre-war movement without full government support was largely unsuccessful in its drive, but did coincide with the development of a plan for Eurasian settlement of the Dutch Indies to establish Dutch farms in northern West New Guinea. This effort also failed as most returned to Java disillusioned, and by 1938 just 50 settlers remained near Hollandia and 258 in Manokwari. The Dutch established the Boven Digul camp in Tanahmerah, as a prison for Indonesian nationalists. Among those interned here were writer Marco Kartodikromo, Mohammad Hatta, who would become the first vice president of Indonesia, and Sutan Sjahrir, the first Indonesian Prime Minister.

Before about 1930, European maps showed the highlands as uninhabited forests. When first flown over by aircraft, numerous settlements with agricultural terraces and stockades were observed. The most startling discovery took place on 4 August 1938, when Richard Archbold discovered the Grand Valley of the Baliem River, which had 50,000 yet-undiscovered Stone Age farmers living in villages. The people, known as the Dani, were the last society of its size to make first contact with the rest of the world.

The region became important in World War II with the Pacific War upon the Netherlands' declaration of war on Japan after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In 1942, the northern coast of West New Guinea and the nearby islands were occupied by Japan. By late 1942, most of the Netherlands Indies were occupied by Japan. Behind Japanese lines in New Guinea, Dutch guerrilla fighters resisted under Mauritz Christiaan Kokkelink. Allied forces drove out the Japanese after Operations Reckless and Persecution, with amphibious landings near Hollandia, from 21 April 1944. The area served as General Douglas MacArthur's headquarters until the conquest of the Philippines in March 1945. Over twenty U.S. bases were established and half a million US personnel moved through the area. West New Guinean farms supplied food for the half million US troops. Papuan men went into battle to carry the wounded, acted as guides and translators, and provided a range of services, from construction work and carpentry to serving as machine shop workers and mechanics. Following the end of the war, the Dutch retained possession of West New Guinea from 1945.

Preparing for independence

Main article: West New Guinea dispute

In 1944, Jan van Eechoud set up a school for bureaucrats in Hollandia (now Jayapura). One early headmaster of the school was Soegoro Atmoprasojo, an Indonesian nationalist graduate of Taman Siswa and former Boven-Digoel prisoners, in one of these meetings the name "Irian" was suggested. Many of these school early graduates would go on to found Indonesian independence movement in Western New Guinea, while some went on to support Dutch authorities and pursue Papuan independence. In December 1945, Atmoprasojo alongside his students were planning for a rebellion, however Dutch authorities would be alerted by a defecting member of Papuan Battalion on 14 December 1945, utilising forces from Rabaul, Dutch authorities would also capture 250 people possibly involved in this attack. The news of Indonesian independence proclamation arrived in New Guinea primarily through shipping laborers associated with Sea Transport Union of Indonesia (Sarpelindo), who were working for ships under the flag of Australian and the Dutch. This led to the formation of the Komite Indonesia Merdeka or KIM branch in Abepura, Hollandia in October 1946, originally an organization for Indonesian exiles in Sydney. It was led by Dr. J.A. Gerungan, a woman doctor who led an Abepura hospital, by December 1946, it came to be led by Martin Indey. KIM was one of the first Indonesian nationalist groups in New Guinea, whose members were mostly former associates of Soegoro. Simultaneously another separate Indonesian nationalist movement in New Guinea formed when Dr. Sam Ratulangi, was exiled at Serui, along with his six staff by the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration on 5 July 1946. In exile he met with Silas Papare who was also exiled from a failed Pagoncang Alam led rebellion to free Atmoprasojo, on 29 November 1946, an organization called Indonesian Irian Independence Party (PKII) was formed. A year later, on 17 August 1947, former students of Soegoro and others would held a red and white flag-raising ceremony to commemorate the Indonesian independence day.

KIM and PKII members began to start movements in other areas of New Guinea, most of these were unsuccessful, and the perpetrators were either imprisoned or killed. In Manokwari, a movement called Red and White Movement (GMP) was founded, which was led by Petrus Walebong and Samuel D. Kawab. This movement later spread to Babo, Kokas, Fakfak, and Sorong. In Biak, a local branch of KIM was joined with Perserikatan Indonesia Merdeka (PIM) which was formed earlier in September 1945 under the leadership of Lukas Rumkorem. Lukas would be captured and exiled to Hollandia, with the charge he instigated violence among local population accused of trying to kill Frans Kaisiepo and Marcus Kaisiepo. Still the movement did not disappear in Biak, Stevanus Yoseph together with Petero Jandi, Terianus Simbiak, Honokh Rambrar, Petrus Kaiwai and Hermanus Rumere on 19 March 1948, instigate another revolt. Dutch authorities had to send reinforcements from Jayapura. The Dutch imposed a harder penalty, with capital punishment for Petro Jandi, and a life sentence to Stevanus Yoseph. Meanwhile, another organization was formed on the 17 August 1947, called the Association of Young Men of Indonesia (PPI) under the leadership of Abraham Koromath.

Around the Bomberai Peninsula area of Fakfak, specifically in Kokas, an Indonesian nationalist movement was led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan. On 1 March 1946, he ordered that all the Dutch's flags in Kokas to be changed into Indonesian flags. He was later imprisoned in Doom Island, Sorong, where he managed to recruit some followers as well as the support from local Sangaji Malan Dutch authorities later aided by incoming troops from Sorong arrested the King Rumagesan and he was given capital punishment. Meanwhile, in Kaimana, King Muhammad Achmad Aituarauw founded an organization called Independence With Kaimana, West Irian (MBKIB), which similarly boycotted Dutch flags every 31 August. In response of this activity, Aituarauw was arrested by the Dutch and exiled to Ayamaru for 10 years in 1948. Other movements opposing the Dutch under local Papuan kings includes, New Guinea Islamic Union (KING) led by Ibrahim Bauw, King of Rumbati, Gerakan Pemuda Organisasi Muda led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan and Abbas Iha, and Persatuan Islam Kaimana (PIK) of Kaimana led by Usman Saad and King of Namatota, Umbair.

Dutch colonial civil servant in the Baliem Valley, 1958

Following the Indonesian National Revolution, the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia, on 27 December 1949. However, the Dutch refused to include Netherlands New Guinea in the new Indonesian Republic and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Following the failure of the Dutch and Indonesians to resolve their differences over West New Guinea during the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference in late 1949, it was decided that the present status quo of the territory would be maintained and then negotiated bilaterally one year after the date of the transfer of sovereignty. However, both sides were still unable to resolve their differences in 1950, which led the Indonesian President Sukarno to accuse the Dutch of reneging on their promises to negotiate the handover of the territory. On 17 August 1950, Sukarno dissolved the United States of Indonesia and proclaimed the unitary Republic of Indonesia. Indonesia also began to initiate incursions to New Guinea in 1952, though most of these efforts would be unsuccessful. Most of these failed infiltrators would be sent to Boven-Digoel which would form clandestine intelligence groups working from the primarily southern part of New Guinea in preparation for war. Meanwhile, following the defeat of the third Afro-Asian resolution in November 1957, the Indonesian government embarked on a national campaign targeting Dutch interests in Indonesia; A total of 700 Dutch-owned companies with a valuation total of around $1.5 billion was nationalised. By January 1958, ten thousand Dutch nationals had left Indonesia, many returning to the Netherlands. By June 1960, around thirteen thousand Dutch nationals mostly Eurasians from New Guinea left for Australia, with around a thousand moving to the Netherlands. Following a sustained period of harassment against Dutch diplomatic representatives in Jakarta, the Indonesian government formally severed relations with the Netherlands in August 1960.

Dutch and Papuan officials during the opening of the Central Hospital in Hollandia, 1959

In response to Indonesian aggression, the Netherlands government stepped up its efforts to prepare the Papuan people for self-determination in 1959. These efforts culminated in the establishment of a hospital in Hollandia (modern–day Jayapura, currently Jayapura Regional General Hospital or RSUD Jayapura), a shipyard in Manokwari, agricultural research sites, plantations, and a military force known as the Papuan Volunteer Corps. By 1960, a legislative New Guinea Council had been established with a mixture of legislative, advisory and policy functions. Half of its members were to be elected, and elections for this council were held the following year. Most importantly, the Dutch also sought to create a sense of West Papuan national identity, and these efforts led to the creation of a national flag (the Morning Star flag), a national anthem, and a coat of arms. The Dutch had planned to transfer independence to West New Guinea in 1970.

M.S. Rumagesan, Silas Papare, N.L.Suwages, Soegoro Atmoprasodjo, and A.H. Nasution in Putra-putra Irian Barat ('Sons of Irian Barat') Conference in Cibogo Bogor, 14–15 April 1961

Following the raising of the Papuan National Flag on 1 December 1961, tensions further escalated. Multiple rebellions erupted inside New Guinea against Dutch authorities, such as in Enarotali, Agats, Kokas, Merauke, Sorong and Baliem Valley. On 18 December 1961 Sukarno issued the Tri Komando Rakjat (People's Triple Command), calling the Indonesian people to defeat the formation of an independent state of West Papua, raise the Indonesian flag in the territory, and be ready for mobilisation at any time. In 1962 Indonesia launched a significant campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations against the disputed territory, beginning with a seaborne infiltration launched by Indonesian forces on 15 January 1962. The Indonesian attack was defeated by Dutch forces including the Dutch destroyers Evertsen and Kortenaer, the so-called Vlakke Hoek incident. Amongst the casualties was the Indonesian Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff; Commodore Yos Sudarso.

It finally was agreed through the New York Agreement in 1962 that the administration of Western New Guinea would be temporarily transferred from the Netherlands to Indonesia and that by 1969 the United Nations should oversee a referendum of the Papuan people, in which they would be given two options: to remain part of Indonesia or to become an independent nation. For a period of time, Dutch New Guinea were under the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority, before being transferred to Indonesia in 1963. A referendum was held in 1969, which was referred locally as Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat (Determination of the People's Opinion) or Act of Free Choice by independence activists. The referendum was recognized by the international community and the region became the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya. The province has been renamed as Papua since 2002.

Province of Indonesia

Handover ceremony of West Irian Governorship from Jan Bonay to Frans Kaisiepo, 1965

Following the Act of Free Choice in 1969, Western New Guinea was formally integrated into the Republic of Indonesia. Instead of a referendum of the 816,000 Papuans, only 1,022 Papuan tribal representatives were allowed to vote, and they were coerced into voting in favor of integration. While several international observers including journalists and diplomats criticized the referendum as being rigged, the U.S. and Australia support Indonesia's efforts to secure acceptance in the United Nations for the pro-integration vote. That same year, 84 member states voted in favor for the United Nations to accept the result, with 30 others abstaining. Due to the Netherlands' efforts to promote a West Papuan national identity, a significant number of Papuans refused to accept the territory's integration into Indonesia. These formed the separatist Organisasi Papua Merdeka (Free Papua Movement) and have waged an insurgency against the Indonesian authorities, which continues to this day.

West Papuan separatists raising the Morning-Star flag in the jungles of Papua, 1971

In January 2003 President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: Central Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Tengah), Papua (or East Irian Jaya, Irian Jaya Timur), and West Papua (Irian Jaya Barat). The formality of installing a local government for Jakarta in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (Central Irian Jaya) was delayed from August 2003 due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate Central Irian Jaya Province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact.

Following his election in 2014, Indonesian president, Joko Widodo, embarked on reforms intended to alleviate grievances of Native Papuans, such as stopping the transmigration program and starting massive infrastructure spending in Papua, including building Trans-Papua roads network. The Joko Widodo administration has prioritized infrastructure and human resource development as a great framework for solving the conflict in Papua. The administration has implemented a one-price fuel policy in Papua, with Jokowi assessing that it is a form of "justice" for all Papuans. The administration has also provided free primary and secondary education.

Security forces have been accused of abuses in the region including extrajudicial killings, torture, arrests of activists, and displacements of entire villages. On the other hand, separatists have been accused and claimed much of the same violence, such as extrajudicial killings of both Papuan and non-Papuan civilians, torture, rapes, and attacking local villages. Protests against Indonesian rule in Papua happen frequently, the most recent being the 2019 Papua protests, one of the largest and most violent, which include burning of mostly non-Papuan civilians and Papuans that did not want to join the rally.

In July 2022, regencies in central and southern Papua were separated from the province, to be created into three new provinces: South Papua administered from Merauke Regency, Central Papua administered from Nabire Regency, and Highlands Papua administered from Jayawijaya Regency.

Politics

Government

The Papuan People's Assembly is created formally in 2001 to administer the Papuan Special Autonomy

The province of Papua is governed by a directly elected governor and a regional legislature, People's Representative Council of Papua (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Papua, abbreviated as DPRP or DPR Papua). A unique government organization in the province is the Papuan People's Assembly (Majelis Rakyat Papua), which was formed by the Indonesian government in 2005, as mandated by the Papua Special Autonomy Law, as a coalition of Papuan tribal chiefs, Papuan religious leaders, and Papuan women representatives, tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs.

Since 2014, the DPRP has 55 members who are elected through General elections every five years and 14 people who are appointed through the special autonomy, bringing the total number of DPRP members to 69 people. The DPRP leadership consists of 1 Chairperson and 3 Deputy Chairmen who come from political parties that have the most seats and votes. The current DPRP members are the results of the 2019 General Election which was sworn in on 31 October 2019 by the Chairperson of the Jayapura High Court at the Papua DPR Building. The composition of DPRP members for the 2019–2024 period consists of 13 political parties where the Nasdem Party is the political party with the most seats, with 8 seats, followed by the Democratic Party which also won 8 seats and the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle which won 7 seats.

The province of Papua is one of six provinces to have obtained special autonomy status, the others being Aceh, West Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua and South Papua (the Special Regions of Jakarta and Yogyakarta have a similar province-level special status). According to Law 21/2001 on Special Autonomy Status (UU Nomor 21 Tahun 2001 tentang Otonomi khusus Papua), the provincial government of Papua is provided with authority within all sectors of administration, except for the five strategic areas of foreign affairs, security and defense, monetary and fiscal affairs, religion and justice. The provincial government is authorized to issue local regulations to further stipulate the implementation of the special autonomy, including regulating the authority of districts and municipalities within the province. Due to its special autonomy status, Papua province is provided with significant amount of special autonomy funds, which can be used to benefit its indigenous peoples. But the province has low fiscal capacity and it is highly dependent on unconditional transfers and the above-mentioned special autonomy fund, which accounted for about 55% of total revenues in 2008.

After obtaining its special autonomy status, to allow the local population access to timber production benefits, the Papuan provincial government issued a number of decrees, enabling:

• a Timber Logging Permit for Customary Communities, which enabled local people to carry out timber extraction in small concessions (250 to 1,000 hectares) for one year through a community-based or participatory community cooperative;
• a Permit to Manage Customary Forests, which was a timber extraction permit for larger concessions (up to 2,000 hectares) for a maximum of 20 years;
• logging companies had to pay compensations to local communities in addition to all other fees and taxes collected by the national government.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Indonesia

As of 2022 (following the separation of Central Papua, Highland Papua, and South Papua province), the residual Papua Province consisted of 8 regencies (kabupaten) and one city (kota); on the map below, these regencies comprise the northern belt from Waropen Regency to Keerom Regency, plus the island groups to their northwest. Initially the area now forming the present Papua Province contained three regencies - Jayapura, Yapen Waropen and Biak Numfor. The City of Jayapura was separated on 2 August 1993 from Jayapura Regency and formed into a province-level administration. On 11 December 2002 three new regencies were created - Keerom and Sarmi from parts of Jayapura Regency, and Waropen from part of Yapen Waropen Regency (the rest of this regency was renamed as Yapen Islands). On 18 December 2003 a further regency - Supiori - was created from part of Biak Numfor Regency, and on 15 March 2007 a further regency - Mamberamo Raya - was created from the western part of Sarmi Regency. These regencies and the city are together subdivided as into districts (distrik), and thence into "villages" (kelurahan and desa). With the release of the Act Number 21 of 2001 concerning the Special Autonomous Region of Papua Province, the term distrik was used instead of kecamatan in the entire Western New Guinea. The difference between the two is merely the terminology, with kepala distrik being the district head.

The regencies (kabupaten) and the city (kota) are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2020 census and subsequent official estimates for mid 2022, together with the 2020 Human Development Index of each administrative divisions.

hideKode Wilayah	Name of City or Regency	Capital	Districts	Area in km2	Pop'n census 2020	Pop'n estimate mid 2022	HDI (2020)
91.71	Jayapura City		Abepura, Heram, Muara Tami, South Jayapura, North Jayapura	835.48	398,478	410,852	0.799 (High)
91.06	Biak Numfor Regency	Biak	Aimando Padaido, Andey, West Biak, Biak City (Biak), East Biak, North Biak, Bondifuar, Bruyadori, West Numfor, East Numfor, Oridek Orkeri, Padaido, Poiru, Samofa, Swandiwe, Warsa, Yawosi, Yendidori	2,257.78	134,650	135,796	0.722 (High)
91.03	Jayapura Regency	Sentani	Airu, Demta, Depapre, Ebungfau, South Gresi, Kaureh, Kemtuk, Kemtuk Gresi, Namblong, Nimbokrang, Nimboran, Ravenirara, Sentani, West Sentani, East Sentani, Unurum Guay, Waibu, Yapsi, Yokari	14,082.21	166,171	171,331	0.717 (High)
91.11	Keerom Regency	Waris	Arso, West Arso, East Arso, Kaisenar, Mannem, Senggi, Skanto, Towe, Waris, Web, Yaffi	9,526.32	61,623	62,777	0.664 (Medium)
91.20	Mamberamo Raya Regency	Burmeso	Benuki, Mamberamo Hilir, Mamberamo Hulu, Central Mamberamo (Burmeso), East Central Mamberamo, Rufaer, Sawai, Bottom Waropen	28,042.39	36,483	37,616	0.518 (Low)
91.10	Sarmi Regency	Sarmi	Apawer Hulu, Bonggo, East Bonggo, West Coast, East Coast, East Coast West, Sarmi, South Sarmi, East Sarmi, Top Tor	14,068.37	41,515	42,233	0.636 (Medium)
91.19	Supiori Regency	Sorendiweri	Aruri Islands, West Supiori, South Supiori, East Supiori, North Supiori	660.61	22,547	23,247	0.623 (Medium)
91.15	Waropen Regency	Botawa	Demba, Inggerus, Kirihi, Masirei, Oudate, Risei Sayati, Soyoi Mambai, Urei Faisei, Wapoga, Bottom Waropen, Wonti	10,778.76	33,943	34,997	0.649 (Medium)
91.05	Yapen Islands Regency	Serui	Angkaisera, Anotaurei, Ambai Islands, Kosiwo, Poom, Kurudu Islands, Pulau Yerui, Raimbawi, Teluk Ampimoi, Windesi, Wonawa, West Yapen, South Yapen (Serui), East Yapen, North Yapen, Yawakukat	2,429.03	112,676	116,107	0.677 (Medium)
-	Total Papua Province			82,680.95	1,008,086	1,034,956	(Medium)

Environment

Geography and Climate

The island of New Guinea lies to the east of the Malay Archipelago, with which it is sometimes included as part of a greater Indo-Australian Archipelago. Geologically it is a part of the same tectonic plate as Australia. When world sea levels were low, the two shared shorelines (which now lie 100 to 140 metres below sea level), and combined with lands now inundated into the tectonic continent of Sahul, also known as Greater Australia. The two landmasses became separated when the area now known as the Torres Strait flooded after the end of the Last Glacial Period.

The province of Papua is located between 2 ° 25'LU – 9 ° S and 130 ° – 141 ° East. The total area of Papua is now 82,680.95 km² (31,923.29 sq mi). Until its division in 2022 into four provinces, Papua Province was the province that had the largest area in Indonesia, with a total area of 312,816.35 km², or 19.33% of the total area of the Indonesian archipelago. The boundaries of Papua are: Pacific Ocean (North), Highland Papua (South), Central Papua (Southwest) and Papua New Guinea (East). Papua, like most parts of Indonesia, has two seasons, the dry season and the rainy season. From June to September the wind flows from Australia and does not contain much water vapor resulting in a dry season. On the other hand, from December to March, the wind currents contain a lot of water vapor originating from Asia and the Pacific Ocean so that the rainy season occurs. The average temperature in Papua ranges from 19 °C to 28 °C and humidity is between 80% and 89%. The average annual rainfall is between 1,500 mm and 7,500 mm. Snowfalls sometime occurs in the mountainous areas of New Guinea, especially the central highlands region.

View of Lake Sentani near Jayapura

Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges. Except in high elevations, most areas possess a hot, humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season.

Another major habitat feature is the vast northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometers, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, and some of the largest expanses of mangrove forest in the world. The northern lowlands are drained principally by the province's largest river, the Mamberamo River and its tributaries on the western side, and by the Sepik on the eastern side. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region.

Ecology

Paradisaea apoda, native to Papua, displaying its feathers

Anthropologically, New Guinea is considered part of Melanesia. Botanically, New Guinea is considered part of Malesia, a floristic region that extends from the Malay Peninsula across Indonesia to New Guinea and the East Melanesian Islands. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, together with typically Australasian flora. Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the Conifers Podocarpus and the rainforest emergents Araucaria and Agathis, as well as Tree ferns and several species of Eucalyptus.

New Guinea is differentiated from its drier, flatter, and less fertile southern counterpart, Australia, by its much higher rainfall and its active volcanic geology. Yet the two land masses share a similar animal fauna, with marsupials, including wallabies and possums, and the egg-laying monotreme, the echidna. Other than bats and some two dozen indigenous rodent genera, there are no pre-human indigenous placental mammals. Pigs, several additional species of rats, and the ancestor of the New Guinea singing dog were introduced with human colonization.

Dorcopsis hageni, native to northern region of New Guinea.

The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic. Papua's known forest fauna includes; marsupials (including possums, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, cuscuses); other mammals (including the endangered long-beaked echidna); bird species such as birds-of-paradise, cassowaries, parrots, and cockatoos; the world's longest lizards (Papua monitor); and the world's largest butterflies.

The waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater crocodile, tree monitors, flying foxes, osprey, bats and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.

Several parts of the province remains unexplored due to steep terrain, leaving a high possibility that there are still many undiscovered floras and faunas that is yet to be discovered. In February 2006, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains, Sarmi, discovered new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including possibly the largest-flowered species of rhododendron. In December 2007, a second scientific expedition was taken to the mountain range. The expedition led to the discovery of two new species: the first being a 1.4 kg giant rat (Mallomys sp.) approximately five times the size of a regular brown rat, the second a pygmy possum (Cercartetus sp.) described by scientists as "one of the world's smallest marsupials." An expedition late in 2008, backed by the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, National Geographic Society and Smithsonian Institution, was made in order to assess the area's biodiversity. New types of animals recorded include a frog with a long erectile nose, a large woolly rat, an imperial-pigeon with rust, grey and white plumage, a 25 cm gecko with claws rather than pads on its toes, and a small, 30 cm high, black forest wallaby (a member of the genus Dorcopsis).

Ecological threats include logging-induced deforestation, forest conversion for plantation agriculture (including oil palm), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of alien species such as the crab-eating macaque which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water pollution from oil and mining operations.

Economy

Papua GDP share by sector (2005)

  Mining (71.6%)

  Agriculture (10.4%)

  Retails (4.0%)

  Construction (3.5%)

  Transport & communications (3.4%)

  Others (7.1%)

Papua is reported to be one of Indonesia's poorest regions. The province is rich in natural resources but has weaknesses namely in limited infrastructure and less skilled human resources. So far, Papua has had a fairly good economic development due to the support of economic sources, especially mining, forest, agriculture and fisheries products. Economic development has been uneven in Papua, and poverty in the region remains high by Indonesian standards. Part of the problem has been neglect of the poor—too little or the wrong kind of government support from Jakarta and Jayapura. A major factor in this is the extraordinarily high cost of delivering goods and services to large numbers of isolated communities, in the absence of a developed road or river network (the latter in contrast to Kalimantan) providing access to the interior and the highlands. Intermittent political and military conflict and tight security controls have also contributed to the problem but with the exception of some border regions and a few pockets in the highlands, this has not been the main factor contributing to underdevelopment.

Papua's gross domestic product grew at a faster rate than the national average until, and throughout the financial crisis of 1997–98. However, the differences are much smaller if mining is excluded from the provincial GDP. Given that most mining revenues were commandeered by the central government until the Special Autonomy Law was passed in 2001, provincial GDP without mining is most likely a better measure of Papuan GDP during the pre- and immediate post-crisis periods. On a per capita basis, the GDP growth rates for both Papua and Indonesia are lower than those for total GDP. However, the gap between per capita GDP and total GDP is larger for Papua than for Indonesia as a whole, reflecting Papua's high population growth rates.

Although Papua has experienced almost no growth in GDP, the situation is not as serious as one might think. It is true that the mining sector, dominated by Freeport Indonesia, has been declining over the last decade or so, leading to a fall in the value of exports. On the other hand, government spending and fixed capital investment have both grown, by well over 10 per cent per year, contributing to growth in sectors such as finance, construction, transport and communications, and trade, hotels and restaurants. With so many sectors still experiencing respectable levels of growth, the impact of the stagnant economy on the welfare of the population will probably be limited. It should also be remembered that mining is typically an enclave activity; its impact on the general public is fairly limited, regardless of whether it is booming or contracting.

Grasberg Mine in Mimika Regency. Mining is the most important sector in the province

Papua has depended heavily on natural resources, especially the mining, oil and gas sectors, since the mid-1970s. Although this is still the case, there have been some structural changes in the two provincial economies since the split in 2003. The contribution of mining to the economy of Papua province declined from 62 per cent in 2003 to 47 per cent in 2012. The shares of agriculture and manufacturing also fell, but that of utilities remained the same. A few other sectors, notably construction and services, increased their shares during the period. Despite these structural changes, the economy of Papua province continues to be dominated by the mining sector, and in particular by a single company, Freeport indonesia.

Mining is still and remains one of the dominant economic sector in Papua. The Grasberg Mine, the world's largest gold mine and second-largest copper mine, is located in the highlands near Puncak Jaya, the highest mountain in Papua and whole Indonesia. Grasberg Mine producing 1.063 billion pounds of copper, 1.061 million ounces gold and 2.9 million ounces silver. It has 19,500 employees operated by PT Freeport Indonesia (PT-FI) which used to be 90.64% owned by Freeport-McMoran (FCX). In August 2017, FCX announced that it will divest its ownership in PT-FI so that Indonesia owns 51%. In return the CoW will be replaced by a special license (IUPK) with mining rights to 2041 and FCX will build a new smelter by 2022.

Fishing boats in Biak

Besides mining, there are at least three other important economic sectors (excluding the government sector) in the Papuan economy. The first is agriculture, particularly food crops, forestry and fisheries. Agriculture made up 10.4 per cent of provincial GDP in 2005 but grew at an average rate of only 0.1 per cent per annum in 2000–05. The second important sector is trade, hotels and restaurants, which contributed 4.0 per cent of provincial GDP in 2005. Within this sector, trade contributed most to provincial GDP. However, the subsector with the highest growth rate was hotels, which grew at 13.2 per cent per annum in 2000–05. The third important sector is transport and Communications, which contributed 3.4 per cent of provincial GDP in 2005. The sector grew at an average annual rate of 5.3 percent in 2000–05, slightly below the national level. Within the sector, sea transport, air transport and communications performed particularly well. The role of private enterprise in developing communications and air transport has become increasingly significant. Since private enterprise will only expand if businesspeople see good prospects to make a profit, this is certainly an encouraging development. At current rates of growth, the transport and communications sector could support the development of agriculture in Papua. However, so far, most of the growth in communications has been between the rapidly expanding urban areas of Jayapura, Timika, Merauke, and between them and the rest of Indonesia. Nevertheless, in the medium term, improved communication networks may create opportunities for Papua to shift from heavy dependence on the mining sector to greater reliance on the agricultural sector. With good international demand for palm oil anticipated in the medium term, production of this commodity could be expanded. However, the negative effects of deforestation on the local environment should be a major consideration in the selection of new areas for this and any other plantation crop. In 2011, Papuan caretaker governor Syamsul Arief Rivai claimed Papua's forests cover 42 million hectares with an estimated worth of Rp 700 trillion ($78 billion) and that if the forests were managed properly and sustainably, they could produce over 500 million cubic meters of logs per annum.

Manufacturing and banking make up a tiny proportion of the regional economy and experienced negative growth in 2000–05. Poor infrastructure and lack of human capital are the most likely reasons for the poor performance of manufacturing. In addition, the costs of manufacturing are typically very high in Papua, as they are in many other outer island regions of Indonesia. Both within Indonesia and in the world economy, Papua's comparative advantage will continue to lie in agriculture and natural resource-based industries for a long time to come. A more significant role for manufacturing is unlikely given the far lower cost of labor and better infrastructure in Java. But provided that there are substantial improvements in infrastructure and communications, over the longer term manufacturing can be expected to cluster around activities related to agriculture—for example, food processing.

Infrastructure

Compared to other parts of Indonesia, the infrastructure in Papua is one of the most least developed, owing to its distance from the national capital Jakarta. Nevertheless, for the past few years, the central government has invested significant sums of money to build and improve the current infrastructure in the province. The infrastructure development efforts of the Ministry of Public Works and Housing in Papua have been very massive in the last 10 years. This effort is carried out to accelerate equitable development and support regional development in Papua. The main focus of infrastructure development in Papua is to improve regional connectivity, improve the quality of life through the provision of basic infrastructure and increase food security through the development of water resources infrastructure. The achievements and conditions of infrastructure development in Papua until 2017 have shown significant progress.

Energy and water resources

Electricity distribution in the province as well as the whole country is operated and managed by the Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). Originally, most Papuan villages do not have access to electricity. The Indonesia government through the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, in the beginning of year 2016, introduced a program named "Indonesia Terang" or Bright Indonesia. The aimed of this program is to speed up Electrification Rate (ER) with priority to the six provinces at Eastern area of Indonesia including Papua Province. The target of Indonesian's ER by 2019 is 97%. While the Indonesian's national ER already high (88.30%) in 2015, Papua still the lowest ER (45.93%) among the provinces. The scenario to boost up ER in the Eastern area by connected the consumers at villages which not electrified yet to the new Renewable Energy sources.

The percentage of household that were connected to the electricity in Papua (Electrification ratio/ER) is the lowest one among the provinces in Indonesia. Data from the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources shows that only Papua Province has ER level below 50% (45.93%) with the national average RE was 88.30%. High ER of more than 85% can be found in the rest of west area of the country. The main reason of lowest ER in Papua is a huge area with landlocked and mountain situation and low density population. Energy consumption in residential sector, 457 GWh in year 2014, contributes the electrification rate in Papua Province. But again, geographic and demographic obstacle made the electrical energy not well dispersed in Papua. The ER levels are usually higher in the coastal area but become low in the mountain area. These can be seen by the formation of new provinces in 2022: Papua Province has an ER of 89.22%, while the former regions of South Papua has an ER of 73.54%, Central Papua has an ER of 47.36%, and Highland Papua has an ER of 12.09%.

All pipes water supply in the province is managed by the Papua Municipal Waterworks (Indonesian: Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum Papua – PDAM Papua ). The supply of clean water is one of the main problem faced by the province, especially during drought seasons. Papua has been named as the province with the worst sanitation in Indonesia, garnering a score of 45 while the national average is 75, due to unhealthy lifestyle habits and a lack of clean water. In response, the government has invested money to build the sufficient infrastructure to hold clean water. Several new dams are also being built by the government throughout the province.

Achieving universal access to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene is essential to accelerating progress in the fields of health, education and poverty alleviation. In 2015, about a quarter of the population used basic sanitation facilities at home, while a third still practiced open defecation. The coverage of improved drinking water sources is much higher, both in households and schools. Inequality based on income and residence levels is stark, demonstrating the importance of integrating equity principles into policy and practice and expanding the coverage of community-based total sanitation programs.

Internet and telecommunication

Papua is one of the larger province in Indonesia, but it has the least amount of telecommunications services due to geographic isolation. The deployment of service to the district and to the sub district is still not evenly distributed. The distribution of telecommunication services in Papua is still very uneven. This is indicated by the percentage of the number of telecommunication services and infrastructure whose distribution is centralized in certain areas such as Jayapura. Based on data, the Human Development Index in Papua increases every year but is not accompanied by an increase adequate number of telecommunication facilities.

The Ministry of Communication and Information Technology through the Information Technology Accessibility Agency (BAKTI) has built around 9 base transceiver stations in remote areas of Papua, namely Puncak Jaya Regency and Mamberamo Raya Regency, to connect to internet access. In the early stages, the internet was prioritized to support the continuity of education, health and better public services. To realize connectivity in accordance with government priorities, the Ministry of Communication and Information is determined to reach all districts in the Papua region with high-speed internet networks by 2020. It is planned that all districts in Papua and West Papua will build a fast internet backbone network. There are 31 regencies that have new high-speed internet access to be built.

In late 2019, the government announced the completion of the Palapa Ring project – a priority infrastructure project that aimed to provide access to 4G internet services to more than 500 regencies across Indonesia, Papua included. The project is estimated to have cost US$1.5 billion and comprises 35,000 km (22,000 mi) of undersea fiber-optic cables and 21,000 km (13,000 mi) of land cables, stretching from the westernmost city in Indonesia, Sabang to the easternmost town, Merauke, which is located in Papua. Additionally, the cables also transverse every district from the northernmost island Miangas to the southernmost island, Rote. Through the Palapa Ring, the government can facilitate a network capacity of up to 100 Gbit/s in even the most outlying regions of the country.

Transportation

Land

Skouw border checkpoint, on the Indonesia-Papua New Guinea border

So far, air routes have been a mainstay in Papua and West Papua provinces as a means of transporting people and goods, including basic necessities, due to inadequate road infrastructure conditions. This has resulted in high distribution costs which have also increased the prices of various staple goods, especially in rural areas. Therefore, the government is trying to reduce distribution costs by building the Trans-Papua Highway. As of 2016, the Trans-Papua highway that has been connected has reached 3,498 kilometers, with asphalt roads for 2,075 kilometers, while the rest are still dirt roads, and roads that have not been connected have reached 827 km. The development of the Trans-Papua highway will create connectivity between regions so that it can have an impact on the acceleration of economic growth in Papua and West Papua in the long term. Apart from the construction of the Trans-Papua highway, the government is also preparing for the first railway development project in Papua, which is currently entering the feasibility study phase. The said infrastructure funding for Papua is not insignificant. The need to connect all roads in Papua and West Papua is estimated at Rp. 12.5 trillion (US$870 million). In the 2016 State Budget, the government has also budgeted an additional infrastructure development fund of Rp. 1.8 trillion (US$126 million).

Data from the Ministry of Public Works and Housing (KPUPR) states, the length of the Trans-Papua highway in Papua reaches 2,902 km. These include Merauke-Tanahmerah-Waropko (543 km), Waropko-Oksibil (136 km), Dekai-Oksibil (225 km), and Kenyam-Dekai (180 km). Then, Wamena-Habema-Kenyam-Mamug (295 km), Jayapura-Elelim-Wamena (585 km), Wamena-Mulia-Ilaga-Enarotali (466 km), Wagete-Timika (196 km), and Enarotali-Wagete-Nabire (285 km). As of 2020, only about 200–300 kilometers of the Trans-Papua highwat have not been connected.

Youtefa Bridge, currently the longest bridge in Papua

As in other provinces in Indonesia, Papua uses a dual carriageway with the left-hand traffic rule, and cities and towns such as Jayapura and Merauke provide public transportation services such as buses and taxis along with Gojek and Grab services. Currently, the Youtefa Bridge in Jayapura is the longest bridge in the province, with a total length of 732 metres (2,402 feet). The bridge cut the distance and travel time from Jayapura city center to Muara Tami district as well as Skouw State Border Post at Indonesia–Papua New Guinea border. The bridge construction was carried out by consortium of state-owned construction companies PT Pembangunan Perumahan Tbk, PT Hutama Karya (Persero), and PT Nindya Karya (Persero), with a total construction cost of IDR 1.87 trillion and support from the Ministry of Public Works and Housing worth IDR 1.3 trillion. The main span assembly of the Youtefa Bridge was not carried out at the bridge site, but at PAL Indonesia shipyard in Surabaya, East Java. Its production in Surabaya aims to improve safety aspects, improve welding quality, and speed up the implementation time to 3 months. This is the first time where the arch bridge is made elsewhere and then brought to the location. From Surabaya the bridge span, weighing 2000 tons and 112.5 m long, was sent by ship with a 3,200 kilometers journey in 19 days. Installation of the first span was carried out on 21 February 2018, while the second span was installed on 15 March 2018 with an installation time of approximately 6 hours. The bridge was inaugurated on 28 October 2019 by President Joko Widodo.

A railway with a length of 205 km is being planned, which would connect the provincial capital Jayapura and Sarmi to the east. Further plans include connecting the railway to Sorong and Manokwari in West Papua. In total, the railway would have a length of 595 km, forming part of the Trans-Papua Railway. Construction of the railway is still in the planning stage. A Light Rapid Transport (LRT) connecting Jayapura and Sentani is also being planned.

Air

Sentani International Airport in Jayapura is the principal point of entry to Papua

The geographical conditions of Papua which are hilly and have dense forests and do not have adequate road infrastructure, such as in Java or Sumatra, make transportation a major obstacle for local communities. Air transportation using airplanes is by far the most effective means of transportation and is needed most by the inhabitants of the island, although it is not cheap for it. A number of airlines are also scrambling to take advantage of the geographical conditions of the island by opening busy routes to and from a number of cities, both district and provincial capitals. If seen from the sufficient condition of the airport infrastructure, there are not a few airports that can be landed by jets like Boeing and Airbus as well as propeller planes such as ATR and Cessna.

Sentani International Airport in Jayapura is the largest airport in the province, serving as the main gateway to the province from other parts of Indonesia. The air traffic is roughly divided between flights connecting to destinations within the Papua province and flights linking Papua to other parts of Indonesia. The airport connects Jayapura with other Indonesian cities such as Manado, Makassar, Surabaya and Jakarta, as well as towns within the province such as Biak, Timika and Merauke. Sentani International Airport is also the main base for several aviation organizations, including Associated Mission Aviation, Mission Aviation Fellowship, YAJASI and Tariku Aviation. The airport currently does not have any international flights, although there are plans to open new airline routes to neighboring Papua New Guinea in the future. Other medium-sized airports in the province are Mozes Kilangin Airport in Timika, Mopah International Airport in Merauke, Frans Kaisiepo International Airport in Biak, and Wamena Airport in Wamena. There are over 300 documented airstrips in Papua, consisting of mostly small airstrips that can only be landed by small airplanes. The government is planning to open more airports in the future to connect isolated regions in the province.

Water

Water transportation, which includes sea and river transportation, is also one of the most crucial form of transportation in the province, after air transportation. The number of passengers departing by sea in Papua in October 2019 decreased by 16.03 percent, from 18,785 people in September 2019 to 15,773 people. The number of passengers arriving by sea in October 2019 decreased by 12.32 percent, from 11,108 people in September 2019 to 9,739 people. The volume of goods loaded in October 2019 was recorded at 17,043 tons, an increase of 30.57 percent compared to the volume in September 2019 which amounted to 13,053 tons. The volume of goods unloaded in October 2019 was recorded at 117,906 tons or a decrease of 2.03 percent compared to the volume in September 2019 which amounted to 120,349 tons.

There are several ports in the province, with the Port of Depapre in Jayapura being the largest, which started operation in 2021. There are also small to medium-sized ports in Biak, Timika, Merauke and Agats, which serves passenger and cargo ships within the province, as well as from other Indonesian provinces.

Healthcare

Health-related matters in the Papua is administered by the Papua Provincial Health Agency (Indonesian: Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi Papua). According to the Indonesian Central Agency on Statistics, as of 2015, there are around 13,554 hospitals in Papua which consists of 226 state-owned hospitals and 13,328 private hospitals. Furthermore, there are 394 clinics spread throughout the province. The most prominent hospital is the Papua Regional General Hospital (Indonesian: Rumah Sakit Umum Daerah Papua) in Jayapura, which is the largest state-owned hospital in the province.

Papua is reported to have the highest rates of child mortality and HIV/AIDS in Indonesia. Lack of good healthcare infrastructure is one of the main issues in Papua as of today, especially in the remote regions, as most hospitals that have adequate facilities are only located at major cities and towns. A measles outbreak and famine killed at least 72 people in Asmat regency in early 2018, during which 652 children were affected by measles and 223 suffered from malnutrition.

Education

Main article: List of universities in Indonesia

Education in Papua, as well as Indonesia in a whole, falls under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan or Kemdikbud) and the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Kementerian Agama or Kemenag). In Indonesia, all citizens must undertake twelve years of compulsory education which consists of six years at elementary level and three each at middle and high school levels. Islamic schools are under the responsibility of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The Constitution also notes that there are two types of education in Indonesia: formal and non-formal. Formal education is further divided into three levels: primary, secondary and tertiary education. Indonesians are required to attend 12 years of school, which consists of three years of primary school, three years of secondary school and three years of high school.

As of 2015, there are 3 public universities and 40 private universities in Papua. Public universities in Papua fall under the responsibility of the Ministry of Research and Technology (Kementerian Riset dan Teknologi) as well as the Ministry of Education and Culture. The most famous university in the province is the Cenderawasih University in Jayapura. The university has faculties in economics, law, teacher training and education, medical, engineering, and social and political science. Until 2002 the university had a faculty of agricultural sciences at Manokwari, which was then separated to form the Universitas Negeri Papua.

Demographics

Historical population

Year	Pop.	±%
1971	210,901	—
1980	282,310	+33.9%
1990	407,643	+44.4%
2000	534,050	+31.0%
2010	718,782	+34.6%
2020	1,008,086	+40.2%
2023	1,085,281	+7.7%
(data prior to 2022 excludes regencies under Central Papua, Highland Papua and South Papua that were part of the province until 2022) Source: Statistics Indonesia 2024 and earlier.

While the Papuan branch of the Central Agency on Statistics had earlier projected the 2020 population of the province to be 3,435,430 people the actual census in 2020 revealed a total population of 4,303,707, spread throughout 28 regencies and 1 administrative city. The city of Jayapura is the most populated administrative division in the province, with a total of 398,478 people in 2020, while Supiori Regency, which comprises mainly the island of Supiori, one of the Schouten Islands within Cenderawasih Bay off the north coast of Papua, is the least populated administrative division in the province, with just 22,547 people. Most of the population in the province are concentrated in coastal regions, especially around the city of Jayapura and its suburbs. Papua is also home to many migrants from other parts of Indonesia, of which an overwhelming percentage of these migrants came as part of a government-sponsored transmigration program. The transmigration program in Papua was only formally halted by President Joko Widodo in June 2015.

Ethnicity

Main article: Indigenous people of New Guinea

Culture parade in Biak

In contrast to other Indonesian provinces, which are mostly dominated by Austronesian peoples, Papua and West Papua as well as some part of Maluku are home to the Melanesians. The indigenous Papuans which are part of the Melanesians forms the majority of the population in the province. Many believe human habitation on the island dates to as early as 50,000 BC, and first settlement possibly dating back to 60,000 years ago has been proposed. The island of New Guinea is presently populated by almost a thousand different tribal groups and a near-equivalent number of separate languages, which makes it the most linguistically diverse area in the world. Current evidence indicates that the Papuans (who constitute the majority of the island's peoples) are descended from the earliest human inhabitants of New Guinea. These original inhabitants first arrived in New Guinea at a time (either side of the Last Glacial Maximum, approx 21,000 years ago) when the island was connected to the Australian continent via a land bridge, forming the landmass of Sahul. These peoples had made the (shortened) sea-crossing from the islands of Wallacea and Sundaland (the present Malay Archipelago) by at least 40,000 years ago.

The ancestral Austronesian peoples are believed to have arrived considerably later, approximately 3,500 years ago, as part of a gradual seafaring migration from Southeast Asia, possibly originating in Taiwan. Austronesian-speaking peoples colonized many of the offshore islands to the north and east of New Guinea, such as New Ireland and New Britain, with settlements also on the coastal fringes of the main island in places. Human habitation of New Guinea over tens of thousands of years has led to a great deal of diversity, which was further increased by the later arrival of the Austronesians and the more recent history of European and Asian settlement.

Papuan is also home to ethnic groups from other part of Indonesia, including the Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Batak, etc. Most of these migrants came as part of the transmigration program, which was an initiative of the Dutch colonial government and later continued by the Indonesian government to move landless people from densely populated areas of Indonesia to less populous areas of the country. The program was accused of fuelling marginalisation and discrimination of Papuans by migrants, and causing fears of the "Javanisation" or "Islamisation" of Papua. There is open conflict between migrants, the state, and indigenous groups due to differences in culture—particularly in administration, and cultural topics such as nudity, food and sex. The transmigration program in Papua was stopped in 2015 due to the controversies it had caused.

Language

Main article: Papuan languages

Trans-New Guinea languages (multi-coloured), Austronesian languages (gold), and other languages (grey)

Papua, the easternmost region of the Indonesian archipelago, exhibits a very complex linguistic network. The diversity of languages and the situation of multilingualism is very real. There are many language families scattered in this wide area, namely the Austronesian language family and numerous non-Austronesian languages known collectively as Papuan languages. Speakers of different Austronesian languages are found in coastal communities, such as Biak, Wandamen, Waropen and Ma'ya. On the other hand, Papuan languages are spoken in the interior and Central Highlands, starting from the Bird's Head Peninsula in the west to the eastern tip of the island of New Guinea, for example Meybrat, Dani, Ekari, Asmat, Muyu and Sentani language.

At this time, research efforts to find out how many indigenous languages in Papua are still being pursued. Important efforts regarding documentation and inventory of languages in Papua have also been carried out by two main agencies, namely SIL International and the Language and Book Development Agency in Jakarta. The results of the research that have been published by the two institutions show that there are differences in the number of regional languages in Papua. The Language and Book Development Agency as the official Indonesian government agency has announced or published that there are 207 different regional languages in Papua, while SIL International has stated that there are 271 regional languages in the region. Some of the regional languages of Papua are spoken by a large number of speakers and a wide spread area, some are supported by a small number of speakers and are scattered in a limited environment. However, until now it is estimated that there are still a number of regional languages in Papua that have not been properly studied so that it is not known what the form of the language is. In addition to local languages that have been listed by the two main institutions above, there are also dozens more languages from other islands due to population migration that is not included in the list of local languages in Papua, for example languages from Sulawesi (Bugis, Makassar, Toraja, Minahasa), Javanese from Java, and local languages from Maluku. So-called Papuan languages comprise hundreds of different languages, most of which are not related.

As in other provinces, Indonesian is the official language of the state, as well as the province. Indonesian is used in inter-ethnic communication, usually between native Papuans and non-Papuan migrants who came from other parts of Indonesia. Most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, and other forms of communication in Papua, are conducted in Indonesian. A Malay-based creole language called Papuan Malay is used as the lingua franca in the province. It emerged as a contact language among tribes in Indonesian New Guinea for trading and daily communication. Nowadays, it has a growing number of native speakers. More recently, the vernacular of Indonesian Papuans has been influenced by Standard Indonesian, the national standard dialect. Some linguists have suggested that Papuan Malay has its roots in North Moluccan Malay, as evidenced by the number of Ternate loanwords in its lexicon. Others have proposed that it is derived from Ambonese Malay. A large number of local languages are spoken in the province, and the need for a common lingua franca has been underlined by the centuries-old traditions of inter-group interaction in the form of slave-hunting, adoption, and intermarriage. It is likely that Malay was first introduced by the Biak people, who had contacts with the Sultanate of Tidore, and later, in the 19th century, by traders from China and South Sulawesi. However, Malay was probably not widespread until the adoption of the language by the Dutch missionaries who arrived in the early 20th century and were then followed in this practice by the Dutch administrators. The spread of Malay into the more distant areas was further facilitated by the Opleiding tot Dorpsonderwizer ('Education for village teacher') program during the Dutch colonial era. There are four varieties of Papuan Malay that can be identified, including Serui Malay. A variety of Papuan Malay is spoken in Vanimo, Papua New Guinea near the Indonesian border.

Religion

Religion in Papua (2022)

  Protestantism (64.23%)

  Roman Catholicism (5.62%)

  Islam (29.85%)

  Hinduism (0.14%)

  Buddhism (0.15%)

  Others (0.01%)

According to Indonesian Citizenship and Civil Registry in 2022, 70.15% of the Papuans identified themselves as Christians, with 64.68% being Protestants and 5.47% being Catholics. 29.56% of the population are Muslims and less than 1% were Buddhists or Hindus. There is also substantial practice of animism, the traditional religion for many Papuans, with many blending animistic beliefs with other religions such as Christianity and Islam. Christianity, including Protestantism and Roman Catholic are mostly adhered by native Papuans and migrants from Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara, North Sulawesi and Bataks of North Sumatra. Islam are mostly adhered by migrants from North Maluku, South Sulawesi (except Torajans), western Indonesia, and some native Papuans. Lastly Hinduism and Buddhism are mostly adhered by Balinese migrants and Chinese-Indonesians respectively.

Islam had been present in Papua since the 15th century, because of interaction with Muslim traders and Moluccan Muslim Sultanates especially the earliest being Bacan. Though there were many earlier theories and folk legends on origin of Islam, sometimes mixed with indigenous folk religion of Fakfak, Kaimana, Bintuni, and Wondama. These include Islamic procession of Hajj pilgrimage that do not go to Meccah, but to Nabi Mountain, near Arguni Bay and Wondama Bay. According to Aceh origins, a Samudra Pasai figure called Tuan Syekh Iskandar Syah was sent to Mesia (Kokas) to preach in Nuu War (Papua), he converted a Papuan called Kriskris by teaching him about Alif Lam Ha (Allah) and Mim Ha Mim Dal (Muhammad), he became Imam and first king of Patipi, Fakfak. Syekh Iskandar brought with him some religious texts, which were copied onto Koba-Koba leaves and wood barks. Syekh Iskandar would return to Aceh bringing the original manuscripts, but before that he would visit Moluccas specifically in Sinisore village. This corresponds with the village's origin of Islam that instead came from Papua. A study by Fakfak government, mentioned another Acehnese figure called Abdul Ghafar who visited Old Fatagar in 1502 under the reign of Rumbati King Mansmamor. He would preach in Onin language (lingua franca of the area at the time) and was buried next to village mosque in Rumbati, Patipi Bay, Fakfak. Based on family account of Abdullah Arfan, the dynasty of Salawati Kingdom, in the 16th century the first Papuan Muslim was Kalewan who married Siti Hawa Farouk, a muballighah from Cirebon, and changed his name to Bayajid who became the ancestor of Arfan clan. Meanwhile, based on oral history of Fakfak and Kaimana, a Sufi by the name of Syarif Muaz al-Qathan from Yaman constructed a mosque in Tunasgain, which was dated using the 8 merbau woods previously used as ceremonial Alif poles for the mosque around every 50 years, to be from 1587. He was also attributed of converting Samay, an Adi Ruler of the royal line of Sran. Islam only grew in the coastal part of Papua especially in the bird head areas, and did not spread to the interior part of the island until Dutch started sending migrants in 1902 and exiled Indonesian leaders in 1910 to Merauke. Muhammadiyah figures were exiled in Papua and in their exile help spread Islam in the region. Later on to help members with education issues, Muhammadiyah only formally sent its teacher in 1933. Islam in the interior highland only spread after 1962, after interaction with teachers and migrants as was the case of Jayawijaya and the case of Dani tribe of Megapura. While in Wamena, conversion of Walesi village in 1977 was attributed to Jamaludin Iribaram, a Papuan teacher from Fakfak. Other smaller indigenous Islamic communities can also be found in Asmat, Yapen, Waropen, Biak, Jayapura, and Manowari.

Missionaries Carl Ottow and Johann Geisler, under the initiative of Ottho Gerhard Heldring and permission from Tidore Sultanate, are the first Christian missionaries that reached Papua. They entered Papua at Mansinam Island, near Manokwari on 5 February 1855. Since 2001, the fifth of February has been a Papuan public holiday, recognizing this first landing. In 1863, sponsored by the Dutch colonial government, the Utrecht Mission Society (UZV) started a Christian-based education system as well as regular church services in Western New Guinea. Initially the Papuans' attendance was encouraged using bribes of betel nut and tobacco, but subsequently this was stopped. In addition, slaves were bought to be raised as step children and then freed. By 1880, only 20 Papuans had been baptized, including many freed slaves. The Dutch government established posts in Netherlands New Guinea in 1898, a move welcomed by the missionaries, who saw orderly Dutch rule as the essential antidote to Papua paganism. Subsequently, the UZV mission had more success, with a mass conversion near Cenderawasih Bay in 1907 and the evangelization of the Sentani people by Pamai, a native Papuan in the late 1920s. Due to the Great Depression, the mission suffered a funding shortfall, and switched to native evangelists, who had the advantage of speaking the local language (rather than Malay), but were often poorly trained. The mission extended in the 1930s to Yos Sudarso Bay, and the UZV mission by 1934 had over 50,000 Christians, 90% of them in North Papua, the remainder in West Papua. By 1942 the mission had expanded to 300 schools in 300 congregations. The first Catholic presence in Papua was in Fakfak, a Jesuit mission in 1894. In 1902 the Vicariate of Netherlands New Guinea was established. Despite the earlier activity in Fakfak, the Dutch restricted the Catholic Church to the southern part of the island, where they were active especially around Merauke. The mission campaigned against promiscuity and the destructive practices of headhunting among the Marind-anim. Following the 1918 flu pandemic, which killed one in five in the area, the Dutch government agreed to the establishment of model villages, based on European conditions, including wearing European clothes, but which the people would submit to only by violence. In 1925 the Catholics sought to re-establish their mission in Fakfak; permission was granted in 1927. This brought the Catholics into conflict with the Protestants in North Papua, who suggested expanding to South Papua in retaliation.

Culture

The native Papuan people has a distinct culture and traditions that cannot be found in other parts of Indonesia. Coastal Papuans are usually more willing to accept modern influence into their daily lives, which in turn diminishes their original culture and traditions. Meanwhile, most inland Papuans still preserves their original culture and traditions, although their way of life over the past century are tied to the encroachment of modernity and globalization. Each Papuan tribe usually practices their own tradition and culture, which may differ greatly from one tribe to another.

The Ararem tradition is the tradition of delivering the dowry of a future husband to the family of the prospective wife in the Biak custom. In the Biak language, the word "Ararem" means dowry. In this procession, the bride and groom will be escorted on foot in a procession, accompanied by songs and dances accompanied by music and. The amount of the dowry is determined by the woman's family as agreed by her relatives. The date of submission of the dowry must be agreed upon by the family of the woman or the family of the prospective wife and the family of the man or family of the prospective husband. In the tradition of the Biak people, the payment of the dowry is a tradition that must be obeyed because it involves the consequences of a marriage.

Arts and performance

Local people from Biak during a ceremony

There are a lot of traditional dances that are native to the province of Papua. Each Papuan tribe would usually have their own unique traditional dances.

The Yospan dance (Indonesian: Tarian Yospan) is a type of social association dance in Papua which is a traditional dance originating from the coastal regions of Papua, namely Biak, Yapen and Waropen, which are often played by the younger people as a form of friendship. Initially, the Yospan dance originated from two dances called Yosim and Pancar, which were eventually combined into one. Hence, Yospan is an acronym of Yosim and Pancar. When performing the Yosim dance, which originated from Yapen and Waropen, the dancers invited other residents to be immersed in the songs sung by a group of singers and music instrument holders. The musical instruments used are simple, which consists of ukulele and guitar, musical instruments that are not native to Papua. There is also a tool that functions as a bass with three ropes. The rope is usually made from rolled fibers, a type of pandanus leaf, which can be found in the forests of the coastal areas of Papua. A music instrument called Kalabasa is also played during the dance, it is made of dried Calabash, then filled with beads or small stones that are played by simply shaking it. The women dancers wear woven sarongs to cover their chests, decorative heads with flowers and bird feathers. Meanwhile, the male dancers would usually wear shorts, open chest, head also decorated with bird feathers. The Pancar dance that originated from Biak is only accompanied by a tifa, which is the traditional musical instrument of the coastal tribes in Papua.

The Isosolo dance is a type of dance performed by the inhabitants who lives around Lake Sentani in Jayapura. The Isosolo dance is performed to symbolize the harmony between different tribes in Papua. The art of boat dancing is a tradition of the Papuan people, especially among the Sentani people, where the dance is performed from one village to another. According to the Sentani language, Isosolo or Isolo dance is a traditional art of the Sentani people who dance on a boat on Lake Sentani. The word Isosolo consists of two words, iso and solo (or holo). Iso means to rejoice and dance to express feelings of the heart, while holo means a group or herd from all age groups who dance. Hence, isosolo means a group of people who dance with joy to express their feelings. The Isosolo dance in Sentani is usually performed by ondofolo (traditional leaders) and the village community to present a gift to other ondofolo. Items that are offered are items that are considered valuable, such as large wild boar, garden products, delivering ondofolo girls to be married, and several other traditional gifts. However, at this time, apart from being a form of respect for ondoafi, isosolo is considered more as a performance of the Sentani people's pride which is one of the popular attractions at the Lake Sentani Festival, which is held annually.

Традиционный папуасский военный танец с островов Япен.

У каждого папуасского племени обычно есть свой военный танец . Папуасский военный танец — один из старейших танцев папуасского народа, поскольку этот классический танец существует уже тысячи лет и даже является одним из наследий доисторических времен Индонезии. В папуасской культуре этот танец является символом силы и храбрости папуасского народа. Якобы этот танец когда-то был частью традиционных церемоний при борьбе с другими племенами .

Танец Кепала Панджанг , священный ритуал исцеления, направленный на поглощение негативной энергии народа Драа из района Яффи в Кироме .

Другой традиционный танец, общий для большинства, если не для всех, папуасских племен, называется мусёх . Возникновение танца мусё основано на определённой истории. В древние времена, когда член папуасского племени умирал из-за несчастного случая или чего-то неожиданного, папуасский народ считал, что злой дух ( Суангги ) умершего человека все еще бродит и неспокойно. Чтобы преодолеть это, папуасские соплеменники создали ритуал в виде танца мусёх . Таким образом, этот традиционный танец часто называют танцем изгнания духов. Обычно танец мусё исполняют мужчины. Однако, помимо изгнания духов, танец мусёх используется папуасами и для другой цели, например, для встречи гостей. Танец мусё – символ уважения, благодарности и выражения радости от приема гостей. Если цель изгнания духа, этот танец мусёх исполняют мужчины. В случае встречи гостей этот танец исполняют мужчины и женщины. Танцоры носят простые костюмы, состоящие из головных уборов, верха и низа, сделанных из обработанной коры деревьев и корней растений. Затем их украшают браслетами и ожерельями, а тела танцоров наносят краской.

Архитектура

Каривари озера — один из традиционных папуасских домов, точнее, традиционный дом народа Тобати-Энггрос, живущего вокруг залива Йотефа и Сентани недалеко от Джаяпуры . традиционных домов, таких как круглый хонаи , каривари В отличие от других форм папуасских обычно строится в форме восьмиугольной пирамиды. Каривари обычно изготавливают из бамбука, железной древесины и листьев лесного саго. Дом Каривари состоит из двух этажей и трех или трех комнат, каждая из которых имеет разные функции. Каривари , не похож на хонаи в которых может жить кто угодно, он даже не может быть резиденцией вождя племени – в отличие от хонаи , который имеет политические и юридические функции. Каривари . более специфичен как место обучения и поклонения, поэтому положение каривари в сообществе народа Тобати-Энггрос считается священным и святым местом Как и традиционные дома в целом, каривари также имеет дизайн, полный декоративных деталей, которые делают его уникальным. Разумеется, украшения связаны с папуасской культурой. особенно из Тобати-Энггроса. Украшения каривари обычно представляют собой, среди прочего, произведения искусства; картины, резьба, а также скульптуры. украшен произведениями искусства, Помимо того, что каривари он также украшен различным оружием, например; лук и стрелы. Встречаются также скелеты хищных животных, обычно в виде клыков дикого кабана, скелетов кенгуру , черепах или панцирей черепах, райских птиц и так далее.

Румсрам — традиционный дом народа Биак Нумфор на северном побережье Папуа. Этот дом изначально предназначался для мужчин, женщинам же запрещалось входить в него или приближаться к нему. Его функция аналогична каривари , а именно как место для деятельности по обучению и воспитанию мужчин, начинающих подростковый возраст, в поисках жизненного опыта. Здание квадратное с крышей в форме перевернутой лодки из-за происхождения племени Биак Нумфор, которое работает моряками. В качестве материалов используются кора для полов, расколотый и измельченный водяной бамбук для стен, а крыша сделана из сушеных саго листьев . Стены сделаны из листьев саго. В первоначальной стене Рамсрама было всего несколько окон, и она располагалась спереди и сзади. Рамсрам . обычно имеет высоту примерно 6–8 м и разделен на две части, различающиеся по уровням пола Первый этаж открытый и без стен. Видны были только колонны здания. В этом месте мужчин обучают лепке, защите, строительству лодок и военным приемам. На традиционной церемонии под названием Вор Капанакник , что на языке биак означает «брить ребенку волосы», традиционный ритуал обычно проводится, когда мальчикам исполняется 6–8 лет. Возраст, когда ребенок считается способным мыслить и ребенок начинает получать образование в поисках жизненного опыта, а также того, как впоследствии стать сильным и ответственным мужчиной, главой семьи. Затем дети входили в Рамсрам , поэтому обряд посвящения также называется Рамсрам, потому что ритуал проводится в Рамсраме .

Традиционное оружие

Традиционный папуасский кинжал

Вертел из кости кускуса — традиционное папуасское оружие, используемое одним из коренных папуасских племен, а именно народом баузи . Народ Баузи до сих пор сохраняет традиции охоты и собирательства. Оружие, которое они используют для охоты на животных в ожидании урожая, — это колющий инструмент, сделанный из кускусовых костей. Использование костей кускуса в качестве традиционного оружия очень экологично. Это происходит потому, что при его изготовлении не требуется помощь промышленного оборудования, загрязняющего окружающую среду. Это традиционное оружие изготавливается из очищенной кускусной кости (перед тем, как мясо будет съедено и отделено от кости), затачивается путем натирания точильным камнем и повторяется, чтобы образовалась желаемая острота.

папуасских Лезвия ножей обычно используются для рубящих или режущих операций при охоте на животных в лесу. Несмотря на то, что животные, с которыми они сталкиваются, — это крупные млекопитающие и крокодилы, папуасский народ по-прежнему придерживается сложившихся обычаев. По обычаю, на охоте нельзя применять любое огнестрельное оружие. Папуасские кинжалы — это ножи, изготовленные из уникальных материалов, которые трудно добыть в других регионах, а именно из костей эндемичного для Папуа животного — казуара . Кости казуара используются местной культурой как инструмент, имеющий полезную ценность для жизни. Кроме того, перья, прикрепленные к рукоятке клинка, также являются перьями казуара.

Папуасское копье упоминается в местной общине Сентани как Менса . Копье было оружием, которое можно было использовать как для боя, так и для охоты. Кроме того, в папуасской культуре копье часто используется как атрибут в танцах. Упомянутое выше оружие изготовлено из основных материалов, которые легко найти в природе. Дерево для рукояти и речной камень, заточенный как наконечник копья. По этой причине копье способно выжить как оружие, которое необходимо использовать в охоте и боевых действиях. Что делает это традиционное папуасское оружие особенным, так это то, что существует правило, позволяющее использовать копье только для охотничьих и боевых целей. Например, запрещено срезать копьем молодые побеги деревьев или использовать копье для переноски садовых продуктов. Если бы это правило было нарушено, человеку, владевшему этим копьем, не повезло бы. Между тем, процесс изготовления этого каркаса копья занимает много времени. Начинаем из древесины, взятой с дерева каю лебедь диаметром 25 см. После сушки на солнце древесину раскалывают на четыре части и придают ей округлую форму в поперечном сечении, затем кончику придают форму, пока не образуется двусторонний наконечник копья в форме листа.

Лук и стрелы — это традиционное папуасское оружие, называемое Фела , которое встречается в Сентани и используется для охоты на кабана и других животных. Наконечники стрел изготовлены из коры сагового дерева, лук изготовлен из дерева дикого бетеля, из которого также могут быть изготовлены наконечники стрел, древко изготовлено из травы, бамбука небольшого размера, не имеющего полостей, и ротанга. как тетива. В зависимости от фазы боя существуют различные типы стрел: Хируан — это простая острая стрела без украшений, позволяющая заманить врага; Хумбай - это острая стрела с зазубренным на одном конце кончиком, а другая плоская, используемая для стрельбы по приближающемуся врагу; Хубе — стрела с зазубринами с обеих сторон, используемая против приближающегося врага; Хумамэ — стрела с трехгранным зазубренным наконечником, используемая для поражения очень близкого врага; Хукели — стрела с четырехгранным зазубренным наконечником, используемая только после Хумаме истощения ; Пулунг Валиман — стрела с двусторонним наконечником, тремя большими зубцами и отверстием посередине, используемая только для убийства вражеского вождя. Кроме того, для охоты используются три вида стрел: Хируан , имеющий схожие характеристики с боевым Хируаном , за исключением другой формы; Мэг — стрела с двусторонним наконечником; а Каай — стрела с трехконечным наконечником.

Папуасский паранг под названием Яли, сделанный из старой древесины лебедя , занимает 2–3 дня и может быть изготовлен до или после сушки древесины. Его можно использовать в бытовых целях, а именно: приготовление пищи, нарезку мяса, нарезку овощей и нарезку саго. Кроме того, папуасские мачете также используются в сельском хозяйстве и используются в качестве коллекционных. Обычно на нем есть резьба, символизирующая процветание людей или процветание животных.

Папуасские весла — это традиционные папуасские инструменты, называемые Роренг для мужчин и Биаренг для женщин. Их изготавливают из лебедя и коры сагового дерева. Древесину раскололи, чтобы создать плоскую поверхность, а затем придали ей форму весла, с кончиком, сделанным тоньше и острее. В первую очередь оно функционировало как весло для продвижения каноэ вперед, но при нападении врагов с моря его можно использовать как копье из-за его острого наконечника. Обычно на веслах имеются орнаментальные гравюры в форме пальца, называемого Хиокагема, что символизирует единство силы десяти пальцев, приводящих в действие весла.

Папуасские каменные топоры из Сентани называются Мамехе и обычно изготавливаются из речных камней, прикрепленных к рукоятке ротангом. Обычно его делали из бату пуалана (мрамора), которому затем придали форму другого камня путем медленного скалывания. По местной традиции изготовление камня должно производиться тайно от семьи и может занять до 2 месяцев. Рукоять изготавливалась из лебединого или железного дерева. Одна часть предназначалась для крепления головки топора, а другая — для рукоятки, при этом все части связывались друг с другом ротангом. Топор обычно предназначается для вырубки деревьев и строительства каноэ, однако в настоящее время чаще используется в качестве коллекционного.

Музыка и рукоделие

Тифа — папуасский музыкальный инструмент.

Тифа — традиционный папуасский музыкальный инструмент, на котором играют методом отбивки. В отличие от инструментов из Малуку , этот музыкальный инструмент из Папуа обычно длиннее и имеет ручку на одной части инструмента. Между тем, тифа из Малуку имеет широкий размер и не имеет ручки сбоку. Используемый материал также изготавливается из самой прочной древесины, обычно из древесины Ленггуа ( Pterocarpus indicus ) с кожей животных в качестве верхней мембраны. Шкуру животного обвязывают ротангом по кругу, чтобы она была плотной и могла издавать красивый звук. Кроме того, на корпусной части музыкального инструмента имеется типичная папуасская резьба. Тифа обычно используется для сопровождения мероприятий по встрече гостей, традиционных вечеринок, танцев и т. д. Размер звука, исходящего из барабана, зависит от размера инструмента. Тифа не только является средством сопровождения танца, но и имеет социальное значение, основанное на функции и форме резных украшений на теле тифы. В культуре г. маринд-аним Народ в Мерауке , каждый клан имеет свою форму и мотив, а также название для каждой тифы. То же самое касается людей Биак и Варопен .

Тритон — традиционный папуасский музыкальный инструмент, на котором играют, дуя на него. Этот музыкальный инструмент встречается по всему побережью, особенно в Биаке , Япене , Варопене и Набире . Первоначально этот инструмент использовался только как средство связи или как средство вызова и подачи сигналов. В настоящее время этот инструмент также используется как средство развлечения и как традиционный музыкальный инструмент.

Кухня

Саго — типичное папуасское блюдо, из которого обычно готовят папеду .

Родная папуасская еда обычно состоит из жареного кабана с клубнями, такими как сладкий картофель . Основным продуктом питания в Папуа и восточной Индонезии в целом является саго , как аналог кухонь центральной и западной Индонезии , в которых рис является основным продуктом питания. Саго обрабатывают либо в виде блинов, либо в виде отвара из саго, называемого папеда , который обычно едят с желтым супом из тунца , красного окуня или другой рыбы, приправленным куркумой , лаймом и другими специями. На некоторых побережьях и в низинах Папуа саго является основным ингредиентом всех продуктов питания. Сагу бакар, сагу лемпенг и сагу бола стали блюдами, хорошо известными всему Папуа, особенно по традиционным народным кулинарным традициям Маппи , Асмат и Мимика . Папеда — один из редко встречающихся продуктов саго. Поскольку Папуа считается регионом с немусульманским большинством, свинина доступна повсюду. В Папуа жаркое из свинины , состоящее из свинины и ямса , жарят на раскаленных камнях, помещенных в яму, вырытую в земле и прикрытую листьями; этот метод приготовления называется бакар бату (обжигание камня), и это важное культурное и социальное событие среди папуасов.

В прибрежных регионах морепродукты являются основной пищей местного населения. Одним из известных морепродуктов из Папуа является рыбный рулет ( индонезийский : Ikan Bungkus ). Завернутую рыбу в других регионах называют пепес икан. Известно, что завернутая рыба из Папуа очень ароматна. Это потому, что добавляются дополнительные лавровые листы, чтобы смесь специй была более ароматной и впитывалась в мясо рыбы. Основным ингредиентом папуасской завернутой рыбы является морская рыба, чаще всего используется молочная рыба . Молочная рыба подходит для «заворачивания», поскольку имеет мясо, которое не крошится после обработки. Специи нарезаются ломтиками или на кусочки: красный перец чили и перец чили «птичий глаз», лавровый лист, помидоры, галангал и стебли лемонграсса. В то время как другие специи — это куркума , чеснок и красный перец чили, кориандр и фундук . Специи сначала измельчают, а затем смешивают или намазывают рыбу. Обертка - банановые листья.

Папеда , известное блюдо родом из Восточной Индонезии.

Обычные папуасские закуски обычно готовят из саго . Куэ багеа (также называемый пирогом саго) — это пирог, происходящий из Тернате в Северном Малуку , хотя его также можно найти в Папуа. Имеет круглую форму и кремовый цвет. Багеа имеет твердую консистенцию, которую можно размягчить в чае или воде, чтобы ее было легче жевать. Его готовят из саго . Крахмал растительного происхождения, полученный из саговой пальмы или саговника . Сагу Лемпенг – это типичная папуасская закуска, которая изготавливается в виде обработанного саго в виде пластинок. Сагу Лемпенг также является излюбленным местом путешественников. Но найти места, где можно поесть, очень сложно, поскольку этот хлеб является семейным, и его обычно едят сразу после приготовления. Приготовить тарелки саго так же просто, как и другой хлеб. Саго обрабатывают, выпекая его, печатая прямоугольники или прямоугольники железом, созревшим, как белый хлеб. Изначально безвкусный, но в последнее время его стали варьировать сахаром, чтобы получить сладкий вкус. Он имеет жесткую текстуру, и его можно смешивать или окунать в воду, чтобы сделать его мягче. Каша саго — это разновидность каши, которую готовят в Папуа. Эту кашу обычно едят с желтым супом из скумбрии или тунца , приправленным куркумой и лаймом. Кашу саго иногда также едят с вареными клубнями, например, маниоки или сладкого картофеля . Овощные цветы папайи и тушеная капуста часто подают в качестве гарнира к каше из саго. В прибрежных регионах червей саго обычно подают в качестве закуски. Черви саго происходят из стволов саго, которые разрезают и оставляют гнить. Гниющие стебли вызывают выход червей. Форма червей саго варьируется от самых маленьких до самых больших размеров большого пальца взрослого человека. Этих гусениц саго обычно едят живьем или готовят заранее, например, жарят, варят, жарят, а затем нанизывают на шампур. Но со временем жители Папуа стали перерабатывать этих гусениц саго в гусениц сатай . Чтобы приготовить сатай из этой гусеницы саго, способ ничем не отличается от приготовления сатая в целом, а именно на шампурах с шампуром и на гриле над раскаленными углями.

См. также

• Районы Папуа
• Список землетрясений в Индонезии
• Список рек Папуа

Цитируемые работы

• Л, Клемен (2000). «Забытая кампания: Голландская Ост-Индская кампания 1941–1942» .
• Люминтанг, Онни; Харионо, П. Сурё; Гунаван, Ресту; Нурхаджарини, Дви Ратна (1997). Биография национальных героев Мартина Инди и Сайласа Папаре (PDF) (на индонезийском языке). Индонезия: Министерство образования и культуры .

Внешние ссылки

• Официальный сайт
• Языки и этнические группы провинции Папуа SIL Ethnologue