Преимущество первого движения в шахматах

Вильгельм Штейниц, который в 1889 году утверждал, что шахматы - это ничья с лучшей игрой

В шахматах есть консенсус среди игроков и теоретиков , что игрок, который делает первый шаг ( белый ), имеет неотъемлемое преимущество, хотя и не достаточно большой, чтобы победить с идеальной игрой . Это был консенсус, по крайней мере, с 1889 года, когда первый чемпион мира по шахматам , Вильгельм Стейниц , решил эту проблему, хотя шахматы не были решены .

С 1851 года составленная статистика поддерживает эту точку зрения; Уайт постоянно выигрывает чуть чаще, чем черный , обычно достигая процента выигрыша от 52 до 56 процентов. Преимущество Уайта менее значительное в играх и играх между игроками нижнего уровня и становится все больше, поскольку уровень игры поднимается; Однако повышение уровня игры также увеличивает процент розыгрышей . По мере того, как уровень игры повышается, вплоть до уровня верхнего двигателя, количество решающих игр приближается к нулю, а доля белых побед среди этих решающих игр приближается к 100%.

Некоторые игроки, в том числе чемпионы мира, такие как Хосе Рауль Кэпабланка , Эмануэль Ласкер , Бобби Фишер и Владимир Крамник , выразили опасения перед «смертью», поскольку шахматы становится более глубоко проанализировано, и открытие становится все более важной. Чтобы облегчить эту опасность, Капабланка, Фишер и Крамник предложили шахматные варианты , чтобы оживить игру, в то время как Ласкер предложил изменить то, как рисунки и припасы оцениваются . Несколько из этих предложений были проверены с помощью двигателей: в частности, Ларри Кауфмана и Арно Никеля расширение идеи Ласкера -забивание, набравшись, голый король и вызывая тройное повторение в качестве четвертьторов-показывают на данный момент наибольшее сокращение ничьей. Среди протестированных вариантов, и случайные шахматы Fischer (которые устраняют подготовку путем рандомизации стартового массива) получили значительное поглощение на верхнем уровне.

Some writers have challenged the view that White has an inherent advantage. András Adorján wrote a series of books on the theme that "Black is OK!", arguing that the general perception that White has an advantage is founded more in psychology than reality. Though computer analysis disagrees with his wider claim, it agrees with Adorján that some openings are better than others for Black, and thoughts on the relative strengths of openings have long informed the opening choices in games between top players. Mihai Suba and others contend that sometimes White's initiative disappears for no apparent reason as a game progresses. The prevalent style of play for Black today is to seek unbalanced, dynamic positions with active counterplay, rather than merely trying to equalize. Modern writers also argue that Black has certain countervailing advantages. The consensus that White should try to win can be a psychological burden for the White player, who sometimes loses by trying too hard to win. Some symmetrical openings (i.e. those where Black's moves mirror White's) can lead to situations where moving first is a detriment, for either psychological or objective reasons.

Winning percentages

	White wins	Drawn	Black wins	Total score for White
Tournaments 1851–1878	45.52%	14.07%	40.41%	52.55%
Tournaments 1881–1914	36.89%	31.76%	31.35%	52.77%
Tournaments 1919–1932	36.98%	36.98%	26.04%	55.47%
Tournaments overall 1851–1932	38.12%	30.56%	31.31%	53.40%
New in Chess database 2000	N/A	N/A	N/A	54.8%
World Blitz Chess Championship 2009	38.96%	26.41%	34.63%	52.16%
CEGT chess engines results (40/120) 2009	34.7%	41.3%	24.0%	55.4%
Chessgames.com database 2015	37.50%	34.90%	27.60%	54.95%

In 1946, W.F. Streeter examined the results of 5,598 games played in 45 international chess tournaments between 1851 and 1932. Streeter found that overall White scored 53.4% (W: 38.12; D: 30.56; L: 31.31). White scored 52.55% in 1851–1878 (W:45.52; D: 14.07; L: 40.41), 52.77% in 1881–1914 (W: 36.89; D: 31.76; L: 31.35), and 55.47% in 1919–1932 (W: 36.98; D: 36.98; L: 26.04). Streeter concluded, "It thus appears that it is becoming increasingly difficult to win with Black, but somewhat easier to draw."

Two decades later, statistician Arthur M. Stevens concluded in The Blue Book of Charts to Winning Chess, based on a survey of 56,972 master games that he completed in 1967, that White scores 59.1%. However, Stevens assembled his games from those that had been published in chess magazines, rather than complete collections of all the games played in particular events.

More recent sources indicate that White scores approximately 54 to 56 percent. In 2005, Grandmaster (GM) Jonathan Rowson wrote that "the conventional wisdom is that White begins the game with a small advantage and, holding all other factors constant, scores approximately 56% to Black's 44%". International Master (IM) John Watson wrote in 1998 that White had scored 56% for most of the 20th century, but that this figure had recently slipped to 55%. The website Chessgames.com holds regularly updated statistics on its games database. As of January 12, 2015, White had won 37.50%, 34.90% were drawn, and Black had won 27.60% out of 739,769 games, resulting in a total White winning percentage of 54.95%.

New In Chess observed in its 2000 Yearbook that of the 731,740 games in its database, White scored 54.8% overall; with the two most popular opening moves, White scored 54.1% in 349,855 games beginning 1.e4 (moving the king's pawn two spaces forward), and 56.1% in 296,200 games beginning 1.d4 (moving the queen's pawn two spaces forward). The main reason that 1.e4 was less effective than 1.d4 was the Sicilian Defence (1.e4 c5), which gave White only a 52.3% score in 145,996 games. (Since then, 1.e4 e5 has replaced 1.e4 c5 as the top choice among the best players by 2021, due to analytical advances in favour of Black's chances in the Open Game and against them in the Sicilian.)

Statistician Jeff Sonas, in examining data from 266,000 games played between 1994 and 2001, concluded that White scored 54.1767% plus 0.001164 times White's Elo rating advantage, treating White's rating advantage as +390 if it is better than +390, or −460 if it is worse than −460. He found that White's advantage is equivalent to 35 rating points, i.e. if White has a rating 35 points below Black's, each player will have an expected score of 50%. Sonas also found that White's advantage is smaller (53%) in rapid games than in games at a slower ("classical") time control. In the 462 games played at the 2009 World Blitz Chess Championship, White scored only 52.16% (W38.96 D26.41 L34.63).

Other writers conclude that there is a positive correlation between the players' ratings and White's score. According to GM Evgeny Sveshnikov, statistics show that White has no advantage over Black in games between beginners, but "if the players are stronger, White has the lead". An analysis of the results of games in ChessBase's Mega 2003 database between players with similar Elo ratings, commissioned by GM András Adorján, showed that as the players' ratings went up, the percentage of draws increased, the proportion of decisive games that White won increased, and White's overall winning percentage increased. For example, taking the highest and lowest of Adorján's rating categories of 1669 games played by the highest-rated players (Elo ratings 2700 and above), White scored 55.7% overall (W26.5 D58.4 L15.2), whereas of 34,924 games played by the lowest-rated players (Elo ratings below 2100), White scored 53.1% overall (W37.0 D32.1 L30.8). Adorján also analyzed the results of games played at World Championship matches. Of 755 games played in 34 matches between 1886 and 1990, White won 234 (31.0%), drew 397 (52.6%), and lost 124 (16.4%), for a total white winning percentage of 57.3%. In the last five matches in Adorján's survey, all between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov, White won 31 (25.8%), drew 80 (66.7%), and lost 9 (7.5%), for a total white winning percentage of 59.2%. Since then, the draw percentage in World Championship games has increased further; notably, in the World Chess Championship 2018 between Magnus Carlsen and Fabiano Caruana, all classical games were drawn.

GM Larry Kaufman notes that in amateur games, the draw rate is low, but rises above 50% (in classical games) at the master level: in 2017 and 2018, the draw rate of players rated over 2750 surpassed 70%. In top-level correspondence chess (where engine assistance is allowed), the draw rate is much higher. Of 1512 games played in the World Correspondence Championship finals and the Candidates' sections between 2010 and 2013, 82.3% ended in a draw. Since that time, the draw rate in top-level correspondence play has been rising steadily, reaching 97% in 2019. Regarding computer play, Kaufman wrote: "As the level soars past 3000, the percentage of decisive games drops ever closer to zero, while the percentage of White wins among those decisive games approaches 100. This is why engine vs. engine tournaments and rating lists have to use arbitrarily chosen openings (playing each side once) to keep things interesting."

In 2017 AlphaZero, playing 100 games against Stockfish, won 25 and drew 25 as White, but won 3 and drew 47 as Black.

Drawn with best play

Evgeny Sveshnikov, who in 1994 claimed that White must play to win, while Black must play to draw

Joseph Bertin wrote in his 1735 textbook The Noble Game of Chess, "He that plays first, is understood to have the attack." This is consistent with the traditional view that White, by virtue of the first move, begins with the initiative and should try to extend it into the middlegame, while Black should strive to neutralize White's initiative and attain equality. Because White begins with the initiative, a minor mistake by White generally leads only to loss of the initiative, while a similar mistake by Black may have more serious consequences. Thus, Sveshnikov wrote in 1994, "Black players cannot afford to make even the slightest mistake ... from a theoretical point of view, the tasks of White and Black in chess are different: White has to strive for a win, Black—for a draw!" Kaufman gives Black slightly more scope for errors: he writes "if White plays a good opening, and Black wastes a move very early, Black can probably still draw if he plays perfectly thereafter, but a second pointless move should lose".

Chess theorists have long debated how enduring White's initiative is and whether, if both sides play perfectly, the game should end in a win for White or a draw. François-André Danican Philidor was of the opinion that White's first-move advantage should be sufficient to win. However, his contemporaries who wrote the Traité des Amateurs (published in 1786) disagreed: they wrote that White's advantage is not enough to win, that the result of a perfect game should be a draw, and that Black would seize the advantage if White made a mistake. George Walker wrote in 1846 that, "The first move is an advantage, ... but if properly answered, the first move is of little worth". Steinitz, the first World Champion, who is widely considered the father of modern chess, wrote in 1889, "It is now conceded by all experts that by proper play on both sides the legitimate issue of a game ought to be a draw." Lasker and Capablanca, the second and third World Champions, agreed. Reuben Fine, one of the world's leading players from 1936 to 1951, wrote that White's opening advantage is too intangible to be sufficient for a win without an error by Black.

The view that a game of chess should end in a draw given best play prevails. Even if it cannot be proved, this assumption is considered "safe" by Rowson and "logical" by Adorján. Watson agrees that "the proper result of a perfectly played chess game ... is a draw. ... Of course, I can't prove this, but I doubt that you can find a single strong player who would disagree. ... I remember Kasparov, after a last-round draw, explaining to the waiting reporters: 'Well, chess is a draw.'" Eleventh World Champion Bobby Fischer thought that "it's almost definite that the game is a draw theoretically". Similarly, British grandmaster and World Championship challenger Nigel Short wrote that "... with perfect play, God versus God ... chess is a draw".

Today some of the sharpest opening variations have been analyzed so deeply that they are often used as drawing weapons. For example, at the highest levels, Black often uses the Marshall Attack in the Ruy Lopez. In this line Black sacrifices a pawn for strong attacking chances, to obtain an endgame where Black is still a pawn down but is able to draw with correct play.

The perfect game?
Vallejo Pons vs. Kasparov, 2004

a b c d e f g h 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 a b c d e f g h Position after 9...Qa3 a b c d e f g h 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 a b c d e f g h Final position

In 2007, GMs Kiril Georgiev and Atanas Kolev asserted that much the same was true of the so-called Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian, which arises after 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6!? This has long been considered one of the sharpest and most problematic, or even foolhardy, opening lines. The game usually continues 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Rb1 Qa3. Georgiev and Kolev stated that 6.Bg5 is seldom seen at the highest level because the main line of this variation leads, with best play, to a draw by perpetual check. They wrote that the following game "will probably remain the last word of theory":

Francisco Vallejo Pons vs. Garry Kasparov, Moscow 2004; Poisoned Pawn Variation
1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 d6 3. d4 cxd4 4. Nxd4 Nf6 5. Nc3 a6 6. Bg5 e6 7. f4 Qb6 8. Qd2 Qxb2 9. Rb1 Qa3 10. f5 Nc6 11. fxe6 fxe6 12. Nxc6 bxc6 13. e5 dxe5 14. Bxf6 gxf6 15. Ne4 Qxa2 16. Rd1 Be7 17. Be2 0-0 18. 0-0 Ra7 19. Rf3 Kh8 20. Rg3 Rd7 21. Qh6 Rf7 22. Qh5 Rxd1+ 23. Bxd1 Qa5 24. Kf1 Qd8 25. Qxf7 Qxd1+ 26. Kf2 Qxc2+ 27. Kf3 Qd1+ 28. Kf2 Qc2+ 29. Ke3 Bc5+ 30. Nxc5 Qxc5+ 31. Kd2 Qf2+ 32. Kc3 Qd4+ 33. Kc2 Qf2+ 34. Kc3 ½–½ (After 34...Qd4+, White cannot escape the checks.)

Georgiev and Kolev's pessimistic assessment of 6.Bg5 has since been called into question, however, as White succeeded with 10.e5 (another critical line) in several later high-level games. GM Zaven Andriasyan wrote in 2013 that after 10.f5, "a forced draw results", but that after 10.e5, "we reach a very sharp position, with mutual chances."

Draw death and proposed rule changes

Emanuel Lasker, the second World Champion. To avoid draw death, he suggested that stalemate and bare king (king and minor piece versus king) should be scored as ¾–¼ rather than draws; Kaufman and Nickel suggest that an extension of this to score creating a threefold repetition as a ¼ point would be enough to dramatically reduce the draw problem.

Lasker and Capablanca both worried that chess would suffer a "draw death" as top-level players drew more and more of their games. More recently, Fischer considered that this had happened, saying that the game has become played out. Fourteenth World Champion Vladimir Kramnik agreed, writing: "From my own experience, I know how difficult it has become to force a complex and interesting fight if your opponent wants to play it safe. As soon as one side chooses a relatively sterile line of play, the opponent is forced to follow suit, leading to an unoriginal game and an inevitably drawish outcome."

These problems could be addressed by playing rapid instead of classical, as draws become much less common and the higher error rate means that preparation is less important: Larry Kaufman estimates that "the quality of play in fast rapid, say 10+2, is about 200 Elo below classical play". This is already done for xiangqi (Chinese chess), which is even more drawish than chess (because the elephants and advisors cannot cross the river and are hence relegated to defense only). However, this is impossible for correspondence chess, and brings a philosophical problem: Kaufman writes "For many chess players the beauty of the game is in the search for truth, and if allowing enough time to find the truth about positions makes for too many draws or makes preparation too critical that's a huge problem".

The preparation issue has also become more important in recent years; in the past, opening preparation meant the top players had to analyse by themselves, but now they only need to consult engines. Kaufman writes that "to a significant degree", the games of the top players are not "human play, but the play of engines with the humans merely choosing which engine they want to follow".

Rules prohibiting an early draw by agreement have been tried, but they do not address the problem, which is that chess is drawish enough at high levels that draws are too common even if one or both players is playing to win. Lasker, Capablanca, Fischer, and Kramnik all advocated changing the rules of chess to minimize the number of drawn games. Lasker suggested that stalemate or king and minor piece versus king (with the superior side to move) should receive ¾ of a point instead of being a draw, and was supported by Richard Réti. (This rewards the side that would have often been considered the winner in shatranj, and thus has a historical precedent.) More recently, correspondence chess grandmaster Arno Nickel has also favoured this idea and tested it in correspondence play: a form of it, giving a ¾–¼ result for stalemate only, has even been rated by FIDE. Kaufman and Nickel advocate extending Lasker's idea to scoring threefold repetition as ¾–¼ as well. This means penalising the player who brings about the repetition with only a quarter-point, even if the other side is forcing the repetition. This has similarities to the East Asian variants xiangqi (Chinese chess) and shogi (Japanese chess), as well as the game of Go, where repetition is forbidden either absolutely or under certain circumstances. (Shogi has a very low draw rate of about 1–2%, and under some rule sets used in some amateur events, draws are completely eliminated.) Kaufman does concede that this is a "much more extreme idea" than simply penalising perpetual check (which is more like the East Asian rules), but argues for it nonetheless because engine-play experiments show that most repetition draws occur when any other move would lead to a position that is not clearly drawn.

Kaufman has tested these ideas regarding the scoring of draws with the engine Komodo, and found the following results: chess at the level of a human World Championship match would have a draw rate of 65.6%; scoring stalemate as ¾–¼ reduces the draw rate to 63.4%; scoring stalemate and bare king as ¾–¼ brings it to 55.9%; and scoring stalemate, bare king, and threefold repetition as ¾–¼ brings it all the way down to 22.6%. Kaufman and Nickel thus argue that this last extension of Lasker's rule "is the simplest and most acceptable way to reduce draws dramatically without fundamentally changing the game." (The same reduction of draws would occur if stalemate, bare king, and threefold repetition were scored as 1–0 instead of ¾–¼, but the point of the ¾–¼ scoring is to allow the weaker side to still benefit from avoiding checkmate, while giving the stronger side something to play for even when checkmate cannot be attained.) The remaining draws would mostly be by the fifty-move rule; Kaufman notes that even these could be similarly addressed by giving ¾ of a point to the last player who captured or played a pawn move, but considers this too radical, noting that "it really does change the game drastically".

Capablanca in 1926 proposed Capablanca Chess, a chess variant played on a larger 10×10 board and with additional pieces (the chancellor and archbishop, moving as rook–knight and bishop–knight combinations respectively in the same way the queen could be said to be a rook–bishop combination). (He later changed his proposal to a 10×8 board.) Other masters were not in agreement with Capablanca's proposal. In 1928, Max Euwe (who later became the fifth World Champion) replied to Capablanca's proposal to the effect that he thought that changes were unnecessary, but that he was in agreement with Lasker and Réti that reevaluating stalemate and considering bare king as a victory "would do the game no harm". Siegbert Tarrasch and Akiba Rubinstein were against Capablanca's modifications. The fourth World Champion Alexander Alekhine considered in 1933 that chess did not need any changes at the time, but that combining "the best features" of the Asian varieties of chess with Western chess "would be a more natural evolution than adding new squares and pieces, or some of the other changes that have been proposed". In 1936, Capablanca advocated scoring ⅔ or ¾ points for a stalemate, saying that that change would be enough to address the problem of the game being played out.

	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h
8									8
7									7
6									6
5									5
4									4
3									3
2									2
1									1
	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h

One of the 960 possible setups of Fischerandom Chess, a commonly-played variant that reduces draws in human play.

Fischer advocated Fischerandom Chess, another chess variant, in which the initial position of the pieces is determined at random and identical for both players, subject to the constraints that the bishops be on opposite colours and that the king stand between the rooks. (Randomising the starting position has a long history: in 1792, Philip Julius van Zuylen van Nijevelt already advocated it as a solution to obviate the advantage of preparation.) In 2021, Larry Kaufman wrote that he considered the case for Fischerandom "very strong as the draw reduction is sizeable, memorization is almost eliminated, and the game already has strong support, being recognized by FIDE and quite popular among the top players." However, he added that while he supported Fischerandom for human play, it is still insufficient at reducing draws for computer play. Kaufman also wrote that his and Nickel's extension of the Lasker rule could be combined with Fischerandom in order to solve both draw death and opening preparation.

Kramnik has also advocated changes to the rules of chess, such as No Castling Chess where castling is forbidden. At one point, Kramnik advocated an alternative solution to avoid the issue of openings being prepared to extreme depth with engines: using the normal starting position, but choosing openings by lot or at random from a preselected list. Computer tournaments are run this way, though with two games per chosen opening, so that each player plays White once: this arrangement with two games per chosen opening was advocated in 1928 by Frank Marshall.

Other ideas have also been suggested, such as the "football scoring": 0 for a loss, 1 for a draw, and 3 for a win, which is equivalent to scoring draws as ⅓–⅓ rather than ½–½. This has been criticised, however. Kaufman argues that this solution misses the point: it reduces the incentive to draw, but the reason for the high draw rate is not one of incentives, but rather that White's first-move advantage is not enough to win. Thus Kaufman calls this solution "terrible", going against "the very nature of the game": he writes that "The inferior side should be trying to draw, and to penalize Black for obtaining a good result is crazy. It makes chess like a game of 'chicken'; who will 'blink' first and play an unsound move to avoid the mutually bad result of a draw?" Nickel has likewise criticised this idea as "wholly inadequate", creating "an artificial and empty pressure at best", and creating unfairness and incentivising "game manipulations" in team events or double round-robins. In this format, players are simply incentivised to trade wins with each other rather than agree to draws, and players have an easier time cheating as a team. (A team of players enters an open event; one of them is selected to obtain the maximum score and portion of the prize fund, and the others throw their games to that player; the prize is then shared among the team. This is easier to do when a win earns more points.) Kaufman speaks more favourably of an idea by Ed Epp, which is to score draws as 0.4–0.6, equalising the expected score for White and Black; but while he writes that he is "all for this idea", he also admits that "the benefit would be small, most games would have the same outcome".

Playing janggi, the only competitively played version of chess with no draws, on Seoul's streets

Kaufman has also mentioned (but not advocated) the system used in janggi (Korean chess): in positions which otherwise would be draws, points are tallied up for the pieces and pawns remaining on the board, with the player moving second being given 1.5 points to compensate for the first-move advantage. Since every piece and pawn is given an integer number of points, the result can never be a draw, making janggi the only competitively played version of chess where draws do not exist (at least when played by the official South Korean tournament rules). He writes: "The chess analogue would perhaps be to count pawn 3, knight 10, bishop 11, rook 16, queen 31 in case of a draw by normal rules, with Black winning ties. It would probably be close to fair, but of course it would be a somewhat different chess."

The magnitude of the first-move advantage differs in other variants. In Fischerandom, as in normal chess, White has a first-move advantage that is probably insufficient to force a win. In shogi, the first move is only a "modest edge" even at top engine level according to Kaufman, whereas in Crazyhouse (which is basically chess with the shogi drop rule), the first player almost certainly has a forced win at engine level. Suicide chess is a weakly solved game: White wins with 1.e3. Kaufman has also mentioned the old Japanese variant chu shogi (played on a 12×12 board with 46 pieces per side) as a case where draws or opening theory should not be a problem.

White wins

Although it is very much a minority view, three prominent twentieth-century masters claimed that White's advantage should or may be decisive with best play.

White wins with 1.e4

	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h
8									8
7									7
6									6
5									5
4									4
3									3
2									2
1									1
	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h

After 1.e4, "White ought to win", according to Adams.

Weaver Adams, then one of the leading American masters, was the best-known proponent of this view, which he introduced in his 1939 book White to Play and Win, and continued to expound in later books and articles until shortly before his death in 1963. Adams opined that 1.e4 was White's strongest move, and that if both sides played the best moves thereafter, "White ought to win." Adams' claim was widely ridiculed, and he did not succeed in demonstrating the validity of his theory in tournament and match practice. The year after his book was published, at the finals of the 1940 U.S. Open tournament, he scored only one draw in his four games as White, but won all four of his games as Black. Adams also lost a match to IM I.A. Horowitz, who took the black pieces in every game. Larry Kaufman wrote in 2020 that Adams "resorted to dubious gambits that were often just winning for Black".

According to Sveshnikov, Vsevolod Rauzer, a leading Soviet player and theoretician during the 1930s, likewise "claimed in the [1930s]: '1.e4—and White wins!' and he managed to prove it quite often".

White wins with 1.d4

	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h
8									8
7									7
6									6
5									5
4									4
3									3
2									2
1									1
	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h

After 1.d4, Berliner claimed that White may have a winning advantage.

More recently, IM Hans Berliner, a former World Champion of Correspondence Chess, claimed in his 1999 book The System that 1.d4 gives White a large, and possibly decisive, advantage. Berliner asserted that with best play White wins against the Grünfeld Defense, the Modern Benoni, the Benko Gambit and other (unnamed) "major defences", and achieves at least a large advantage in many lines of the Queen's Gambit Declined. He allowed, however, that "It is possible that the rules of chess are such that only some number of plausible-appearing defences to 1.d4 can be refuted." Berliner wrote that Adams' "theories, though looked upon with scorn by most top chess players, made an immediate and lasting impression on me. Weaver W. Adams was the first person I met who actually had theories about how chess should be played."

Berliner's thesis, like Adams', has been sharply criticized.

Modern perspectives

As explained below, chess theorists in recent decades have continued to debate the size and nature of White's advantage, if any. Apart from Berliner, they have rejected the idea that White has a forced win from the opening position. Many also reject the traditional paradigm that Black's objective should be to neutralize White's initiative and obtain equality.

White has an enduring advantage

Starting from 2004, GM Larry Kaufman has expressed a more nuanced view than Adams and Berliner, arguing that the initiative stemming from the first move can always be transformed into some sort of enduring advantage, albeit not a decisive one, which is the same view that has been the consensus for as long as players’ views on the first move advantage in chess have been recorded. He wrote in 2020, "I don't believe that White has a forced win in chess, but I do believe that if he starts with 1.e4 and makes no mistakes, he can retain at least the preferable position without allowing an obvious draw for 30 to 40 moves or so, beyond the point to which openings can generally be analyzed. He should normally get positions where it is fairly easy to explain why White is better, even if in many cases a grandmaster can expect to hold the draw against a similar opponent. Black should at least be the one who has to be careful to get the draw." Nonetheless, Kaufman considers it necessary for White to make no mistakes to achieve this evaluation. Kaufman writes that "once White makes one or two second-rate moves I start to look for a black advantage", which is similar to the view offered by the 1786 Traité des Amateurs.

In 2021, Kaufman wrote that "it appears that White is a long way off from having a forced win in chess", but also that "White is actually quite close to having enough to play for a win without risk at [3000+ Elo] level", and that "with powerful hardware and long time limits" Stockfish NNUE may already be "almost unbeatable", "even against a similar engine". Kaufman has tried to compare White's first-move advantage with various positional or material advantages by having engines play games from modified versions of the opening position: he concludes that "if we define 1.00 as the advantage of a clean extra pawn in the opening with all other factors being equal, it takes above a 0.70 advantage in the opening to be more likely to win than to draw with perfect play (or at least with the most perfect play available now)", and that White's first-move advantage on this scale would be "about 0.20" (assuming he is speaking of a linear scale, an advantage of 0.20 gives White 1 win and 6 draws in 7 games, and 1.50, half a minor piece, is already more than enough to start to look for a conversion). Thus a tempo is worth 0.4 (just under half a pawn), and Kaufman remarks that this means that even allowing White to start with a whole extra move before play (1.e4 2.d4 before Black makes a move) would only result in a 0.6 advantage, not enough to win (engine tests agree). Kaufman further makes the point that if White starts without the c-pawn, engine tests suggest that Black is only barely winning (roughly a 0.75 advantage for Black, because White has compensation from moving first and having an open diagonal for the queen), supporting his contention that "White's initial advantage in chess is way too small to win the game without significant mistakes by Black".

The above conclusions are about optimal play; human play is far from optimal. A pawn down without compensation is usually lost with perfect play, but accumulated small errors mean that grandmasters have a difficult time converting games against engines when they are a clean minor piece up, and have sometimes even lost. In a knight odds for compensation 16-game rapid match (the compensation being either a pawn, castling rights, or Chess960 with the king and rooks on their normal squares; time control 15+10 with the engine always playing White) between GM Alex Lenderman and the engine Komodo in 2020, Lenderman won 9–7 (+5 −3 =8), demonstrating the difficulties involved. Komodo played a six-game match at full knight odds against GM David Smerdon at the same time control the same year; Smerdon won 5–1 (+5 −1 =0). Thus, there is a large difference between the threshold of being objectively lost, and the threshold of resignability (not being able to create practical chances) in human play. As of 2024, grandmasters need roughly knight odds to be competitive against engines.

Black is OK!

Starting in 1988, Adorján has argued in a series of books and magazine articles that "Black is OK!" Alone amongst modern writers, Adorján claims that White starts the game with essentially no advantage. He writes, "In my opinion, the only obvious advantage for White is that if he or she plays for a draw, and does so well, then Black can hardly avoid this without taking obvious risks." Adorján goes so far as to claim that, "The tale of White's advantage is a delusion; belief in it is based on mass psychosis." Rowson writes that Adorján's "contention is one of the most important chess ideas of the last two decades ... because it has shaken our assumption that White begins the game with some advantage, and revealed its ideological nature". Rowson rejects Adorján's claim, however, that White has essentially no advantage, reasoning that "'White is better' and 'Black is OK' need not be mutually exclusive claims". Kaufman writes that he has to disagree with Adorján's claim that "with the right choice of defenses Black should have roughly equal chances", but that Adorján is "correct in the sense that Black need not lose just because he moves second".

GM Lajos Portisch opined in 1994, and was quoted in one of Adorján's books, that "at least two-thirds of all 'tested' openings give White an apparent advantage." In 2021, Kaufman noted that the number of openings considered playable at the top level has shrunk further, because engines have shown that space advantages are worth more than had been previously supposed: consequently, he writes that "many defenses formerly considered to be playable, if slightly worse for Black, are now viewed as practically, if not theoretically, losing to a well prepared opponent", listing the King's Indian Defense as an example. According to Portisch, for Black, "The root of the problem is that very few people know which are the openings where Black is really OK. Those who find these lines have nothing to fear, as Black is indeed OK, but only in those variations!" Rowson considers this an important point, noting that "1.d4 players struggle to get anywhere against main-line Slavs and 1.e4 players find the Najdorf and Sveshnikov Sicilians particularly tough." Kaufman likewise writes that "White gets a real advantage against all Sicilians other than the Najdorf and Sveshnikov", and that the Berlin and Marshall defenses to the Ruy Lopez are "very close to equal"; indeed, he had to write a new edition of his opening repertoire book (switching from 1.d4 to 1.e4) because "it became nearly impossible to show a consistent advantage for White [after 1.d4], especially against the Grünfeld and Nimzo/Ragozin defenses".

Views on the best openings for Black have played a role in determining what opening moves are more fashionable for White. Kaufman wrote in 2004 that White's "only serious [tries] for advantage in the opening" are 1.e4 and the Queen's Gambit (by which he means playing d4 and c4 in the first few moves, thus also including diverse Black responses like the King's Indian, the Nimzo-Indian, the Modern Benoni, and the Grünfeld). In the 19th century, general opinion was that 1.e4 was obviously the best move and 1...e5 obviously the best reply; but in the first half of the 20th century, the French Defence (1.e4 e6) became popular, and Kaufman speculates that this led to 1.d4 surpassing 1.e4 in popularity among masters then. By the second half of the 20th century, the French had fallen out of favour, and the Najdorf was generally considered Black's best response to and perhaps the only way to equalise against 1.e4. Statistics in 2000 thus show 1.e4 as scoring worse than 1.d4, because of the Sicilian; Kaufman suggests that this may be a reason why Kasparov favoured 1.d4 for most of his career. However, analytical advances have since shown that there are many dangerous ways that White can play for an advantage against the Najdorf, that Black must be very well-prepared to survive, and that White can avoid the Najdorf and Sveshnikov altogether by playing 3.Bb5 and still have the better chances. Meanwhile, the Ruy Lopez, which previously was seen to give White an advantage, is now seen as very even because of the Berlin and Marshall – so much so that the Italian Game, which Kaufman writes "was considered to be a harmless sideline last century", is now seen as a "serious alternative" to the Ruy Lopez. As such, elite players currently prefer 1.e4 e5 to 1.e4 c5.

Dynamism

Modern writers often think of Black's role in more dynamic terms than merely trying to equalize. Rowson writes that "the idea of Black trying to 'equalize' is questionable. I think it has limited application to a few openings, rather than being an opening prescription for Black in general." Evans wrote that after one of his games against Fischer, "Fischer confided his 'secret' to me: unlike other masters, he sought to win with the Black pieces from the start. The revelation that Black has dynamic chances and need not be satisfied with mere equality was the turning point in his career, he said." Likewise, Watson surmised that Kasparov, when playing Black, bypasses the question of whether White has an opening advantage "by thinking in terms of the concrete nature of the dynamic imbalance on the board, and seeking to seize the initiative whenever possible". Watson observes that "energetic opening play by Black may ... lead to a position so complex and unclear that to speak of equality is meaningless. Sometimes we say 'dynamically balanced' instead of 'equal' to express the view that either player is as likely as the other to emerge from complications with an advantage. This style of opening play has become prevalent in modern chess, with World Champions Fischer and Kasparov as its most visible practitioners."

Modern writers also question the idea that White has an enduring advantage. Suba, in his influential 1991 book Dynamic Chess Strategy, rejects the notion that the initiative can always be transformed into an enduring advantage. He contends that sometimes the player with the initiative loses it with no logical explanation, and that, "Sometimes you must lose it, just like that. If you try to cling to it, by forcing the issue, your dynamic potential will become exhausted and you won't be able to face a vigorous counter-attack." Rowson and Watson concur. Watson also observes, "Because of the presumption of White being better, the juncture of the game at which Black frees his game or neutralizes White's plans has often been automatically assumed to give him equality, even though in dynamic openings, the exhaustion of White's initiative very often means that Black has seized it with advantage."

Countervailing advantages

Rowson argues that both White and Black have certain advantages:

White's advantages

	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h
8									8
7									7
6									6
5									5
4									4
3									3
2									2
1									1
	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h

Position after 12.Nf3: Black must either continue with the Zaitsev Variation (12...Re8), allowing White an immediate draw, or choose a different variation.

According to Rowson, White's first advantage is that "the first move has some similarities with the first serve in tennis in that White can score an 'ace' (for instance with a powerful opening novelty), he has more control over the pace and direction of the game, and he has a 'second serve' in that when things go wrong his position is not usually losing." Second, White begins the game with some initiative, although Rowson regards this as a psychological rather than a positional advantage, "and whether it leads to a positional advantage depends on the relative skill of the players." Third, some players are able to use the initiative to "play a kind of powerful 'serve and volley' chess in which Black is flattened with a mixture of deep preparation and attacking prowess." Fourth, "If White wants to draw, it is often not so easy for Black to prevent this. This advantage is particularly acute in cases where there is a possible threefold repetition, because White can begin the repetition without committing to a draw and Black has to decide whether to deviate before he knows whether White is bluffing."

Rowson cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well-regarded Zaitsev Variation of the Ruy Lopez. After 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 0-0 8.c3 d6 9.h3 Bb7 10.d4 Re8 (initiating the Zaitsev Variation), White can repeat moves once with 11.Ng5 Rf8 12.Nf3. This gives Black an awkward choice between (a) insisting on the Zaitsev with 12...Re8, which allows White to choose whether to draw by threefold repetition with 13.Ng5 Rf8 14.Nf3, or play on with a different move, or (b) playing something other than 12...Re8 and entering an inferior variation. Kaufman mentions this draw, as well as an early one in the Italian Game (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Bc5 4.c3 Nf6 5.d4 exd4 6.cxd4 Bb4+ 7.Bd2 Bxd2+ 8.Nbxd2 d5 9.exd5 Nxd5 10.Qb3 Na5 11.Qa4+ Nc6 12.Qb3), in the context of arguing for his proposed rule change to penalise threefold repetition: he argues that "the majority of repetitions occur when the game isn't otherwise clearly drawn".

Black's advantages

Rowson argues that Black also has several advantages. First, "White's alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win, and Black can often use this to his advantage." Second, "White's 'extra move' can be a burden, and sometimes White finds himself in a mild form of zugzwang ('Zugzwang Lite')." Third, although White begins the game with the initiative, if "Black retains a flexible position with good reactive possibilities, this initiative can be absorbed and often passes over to Black." Fourth, "The fact that White moves before Black often gives Black useful information". Suba likewise argues that White's advantage is actually less than a move, since White must tip his hand first, allowing Black to react to White's plans. Suba writes, "In terms of the mathematical games theory, chess is a game of complete information, and Black's information is always greater—by one move!"

Rowson also notes that Black's chances increase markedly by playing good openings, which tend to be those with flexibility and latent potential, "rather than those that give White fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely." He also emphasizes that "White has 'the initiative', not 'the advantage'. Success with Black depends on seeing beyond the initiative and thinking of positions in terms of 'potential'." These ideas are exemplified by the Hedgehog, a dynamic modern system against the English Opening that can arise from various move orders. A typical position arises after 1.c4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.g3 b6 4.Bg2 Bb7 5.0-0 e6 6.Nc3 Be7 7.d4 cxd4 8.Qxd4 d6 9.e4 a6. White has a spatial advantage, while Black often maneuvers his pieces on the last two ranks of the board, but White "has to keep a constant eye on the possible liberating pawn thrusts ...b5 and ...d5." Watson remarks, "Black's goal is to remain elastic and flexible, with many options for his pieces, whereas White can become paralyzed at some point by the need to protect against various dynamic pawn breaks." He also observes that, "White tends to be as much tied up by Black's latent activity as Black himself is tied up by White's space advantage." Moreover, attempts by White to overrun Black's position often rebound disastrously. An example of this is the following grandmaster game:

Polugaevsky vs. Ftáčnik, 1982

a b c d e f g h 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 a b c d e f g h Position after 19.Nf3 a b c d e f g h 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 a b c d e f g h Position after 28.Rf1

Lev Polugaevsky vs. Ľubomír Ftáčnik, Lucerne Olympiad 1982
1. Nf3 Nf6 2. c4 c5 3. Nc3 e6 4. g3 b6 5. Bg2 Bb7 6. 0-0 Be7 7. d4 cxd4 8. Qxd4 d6 9. Rd1 a6 10. b3 Nbd7 11. e4 Qb8 12. Bb2 0-0 Suba wrote of a similar Hedgehog position, "White's position looks ideal. That's the naked truth about it, but the 'ideal' has by definition one drawback—it cannot be improved." 13. Nd2 Rd8 14. a4 Qc7 15. Qe3 Rac8 16. Qe2 Ne5 17. h3? According to Ftáčnik, 17.f4 Neg4 18.Rf1 is better. h5! 18. f4 Ng6 19. Nf3 Now Black breaks open the position in typical Hedgehog fashion. d5! 20. cxd5?! Ftáčnik considers 20.e5 or 20.exd5 preferable. h4! 21. Nxh4 Nxh4 22. gxh4 Qxf4 23. dxe6 fxe6 24. e5? Ftáčnik recommends instead 24.Rxd8 Rxd8 25.Rd1. Bc5+ 25. Kh1 Nh5! 26. Qxh5 Qg3 27. Nd5 Other moves get mated immediately: 27.Bxb7 Qh3#; 27.Qe2 Qxh3#; 27.Qg4 Bxg2#. Rxd5 28. Rf1 Qxg2+! 29. Kxg2 Rd2+ 0–1 White resigned. If 30.Kg3 (the only legal response to the double check), 30...Rg2+ 31.Kf4 Rf8+ forces mate.

An examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates White's and Black's respective advantages:

Reversed openings

In a "reversed opening", White plays an opening typically played by Black, but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo. Evans writes of such openings, "If a defense is considered good for Black, it must be even better for White with a move in hand." Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik reportedly expressed the same view regarding 1.c4 e5 (a reversed Sicilian), as has Kaufman. Watson questions this idea, citing Suba's thesis that Black, by moving second, has more complete information than White. He writes, "everyone has such difficulties playing as White against a Sicilian Defence (1.e4 c5), but ... leading masters have no qualms about answering 1.c4 with 1...e5." To explain this paradox, Watson discusses several different reversed Sicilian lines, showing how Black can exploit the disadvantages of various "extra" moves for White. He concludes,

Дело в том, что настройка Блэка на сицилийском языке в порядке как реактивная система, но мало стоит при попытке претендовать на эту инициативу как белую. Это правда, потому что черный способен реагировать на конкретный план, который выбирает Уайт; С точки зрения Суба, его информация действительно является большим шагом! Кроме того, он может воспользоваться мертвыми равными позициями, которых белые (надеясь сохранить преимущество первого хода) обычно избегает.

«Этот дополнительный ход повредит мне». - Владимир Маланук

Уотсон также отмечает: «Точно так же защита голландцев выглядит особенно стерильной, когда Уайт достигает измененных позиций вверх (оказывается, что он не имеет ничего полезно их как белый, темп в руке. " Г.М. Алекс Йермолинский также отмечает, что гроссмейстер Владимир Маланиюк , успешный экспонент голландцев Ленинграда (1.d4 f5 2.g3 g6) на самых высоких уровнях, «Однажды произвел на меня глубокое впечатление, небрежно отклонив чье -то предположение, что он должен попробовать 1.f4 ( открытие птицы ) как белый. Он улыбнулся и сказал:« Этот дополнительный ход причинит мне боль » . Действительно, предпочтительный ответ Кауфмана на птицу зависит от этой точки: против голландского белого Ленинграда будет играть в C2 - C4 рано, но с изменением цвета, дополнительное движение Уайта после 1.F4 NF6 2.NF3 D5 3.G3 означает, что черный может использовать Немедленная C-Pawn и играйте сильную 3 ... C6.

Йермолинский также соглашается с критикой Алехина на 1.G3 E5 2.NF3, Вернувшаяся защиту Алехина , в Рети -Алехине, Баден -Баден, 1925, Написание того, что Алехин "понял разницу в открытии философии для белого и черного, и понял, что они просто не могут быть тем же! Белые должны пытаться больше, чем просто получить удобную игру в реверсированных раскрытиях цветовых открытий, и, как Статистика показывает, что удивительно для многих людей, но не для меня - Wheite даже не забивает так же, как и Black, в одних и тех же положениях с его дополнительным темпом и всем ». Говард Стоунтон , как правило, был самым сильным игроком в мире с 1843 по 1851 год, Сделал аналогичный момент более 160 лет назад, написание того, что защита Оуэна (1.E4 B6) играет для черного, но что 1.B3 уступает «более обычным [первым] шагам, от его по существу оборонительной». Текущее представление состоит в том, что защита Оуэна немного лучше для белого, а 1.b3 - играбельно, но с меньшей вероятностью дает преимущество в открытии, чем 1.e4 или 1.d4.

Стефан Джурич, Дмитрий Комаров и Клаудио Панталеони делают аналогичную точку зрения относительно открытия Андерсена (1.A3): «[... A6 для черного] - полезный ход пешки, и это часто является фундаментальным компонентом во многих черных защитах. Таким образом, удивительно, что у какой-то яркой искры возникла идея сыграть эти настройки с дополнительным темпом. Это готовит контрплей на Queenside в отверстиях, где Уайт уже завладел центром. Они продолжают рекомендовать (как и для открытия Клеменца , 1.H3), что черные, столкнувшиеся с таким первым шагом, могут стремиться к настройке, где продвижение белого ладья из ладья белых не полезно или даже ответственность.

Уотсон заключает это

1. «Большинство шагов имеют недостатки, а также преимущества, поэтому дополнительный шаг не всегда является несчастным благословением»;
2. «С его дополнительной информацией о том, что делает белый, черный может лучше реагировать на новую ситуацию»; и
3. Поскольку ничья, вероятно, будет более приемлемой для черного, чем для белого, белый может избежать линий, которые позволяют упростить извлечение, в то время как черный может не возражать против таких линий.

Симметричные отверстия

Роусон пишет, что «в целом можно предположить, что любое преимущество, которое Уайт будет раскрываться наиболее четко в симметричных положениях». Соответственно, Уотсон, Суба, Эванс и выдающийся игрок и теоретик Арон Нимзович (1886–1935) все утверждали, что в интересах Блэка избегать симметрии.

Общие аргументы, с другой стороны, не всегда противостоят конкретному анализу. В 1960 -х годах Бобби Фишер считал сицилийца (1.E4 C5) лучше, чем открытая игра (1.E4 E5) из -за ее асимметрии. Он утверждал, что после 1.e4 e5 2.nf3 nc6 белый лучше, потому что у него есть ход и атака, а не защищать рыцаря, и ближе к способности к замку; Принимая во внимание, что после 1 ... C5 белые не могут играть в D4, не пропустив одну из его центральных пешек. Тем не менее, конкретный анализ с тех пор привел к нынешней World Elite в пользу открытой игры над сицилийцем.

Даже симметричные открывающиеся линии иногда иллюстрируют слабую природу преимущества Уайта, в нескольких отношениях. Белым часто трудно доказать преимущество в симметричных открывающихся линиях. Как написал г -н Бент Ларсен , аннотируя игру, которая началась 1.C4 C5 2.B3 B6, «В симметричных открытиях у белых есть теоретическое преимущество, но у многих из них это только теоретическое». В 2008 году гроссмейстер Эндрю Солтис написал, что он ненавидит играть против защиты симметричного Петрофа (1.e4 e5 2.nf3 nf6), и, соответственно, варьируется в зависимости от 2.nc3, вентской игры . Тем не менее, там тоже он не смог найти способ преимущества после симметричного 2 ... NC6 3.G3 G6 4.BG2 BG7, или после 3.NF3 NF6 ( переход к игре Four Knights ) 4.BB5 BB4 5.0-0 0-0 6.d3 D6 7.BG5 BG4 8.ND5 Контракты 9nxb4 Nxb5, or 7.ne2 ne7 8.c3 ba5 9.ng3 c6 10.ba4 ng6 11.d4 d5, когда 12.exd5 ?! Евро ! может даже отдавать предпочтение черным.

Более того, симметричные позиции могут быть невыгодными для белых, поскольку он должен сначала совершить себя. Уотсон отмечает, что белым даже сложно играть некоммиттно в симметричном положении, поскольку почти у каждого шага есть определенные недостатки. Фишер однажды зашел так далеко, что утверждал, что после 1.NF3 NF6 2.G3 G6 3.BG2 BG7 4.0-0 0-0 5.D3 D6 (Рейнхард-Фишер, Western Open 1963), « Хотите верьте, хотите нет, - нет, черный стоит лучше! Теперь, что бы ни делал белый, черный будет варьировать его и получить асимметричную позицию и иметь превосходную позицию из -за его лучшей структуры пешки !» Тем не менее, гроссмейстер Пол Керс ответил в «Шахматы» журнале : «Мы просто не верим в это!» В симметричных позициях, как показывают игры Ходжсон - Аркелл и Портиш - Тал , обсуждаются ниже, Черные могут продолжать подражать белым, если он находит, что это возможным и желательным для этого и отклоняется, когда это перестает быть так.

Кроме того, конкретный дополнительный шаг иногда является большей ответственностью, чем активом. Например, Солтис отмечает, что позиция французского обмена , возникающая после 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 exd5 4.nf3 nf6 ", довольно равна". Та же самая позиция, но с рыцарем Блэка перешел на E4, возникает в защите Петроффа после 1.e4 e5 2.nf3 nf6 3.nxe5 d6 4.nf3 nxe4 5.d4 d5. Эта позиция дает белый лучшие шансы именно потому, что дополнительный ход Блэка (... NE4) позволяет продвинутому рыцарю стать целью для атаки.

В гостевом появлении подкаста Лекса Фридмана в октябре 2022 года гранд-мастер и нынешний номер два классического шахматиста Хикару Накамура считают, что черные могут сохранить достаточную симметрию, чтобы заставить ничью с идеальной игрой.

Наконец, симметричные позиции могут быть трудными для белого игрока по психологическим причинам. Уотсон пишет, что любой, кто пробует обмен французским, «даже если он думает, что играет за победу, предполагает [s] психологическое бремя. Белые уже уступили преимущество первого шага и знают его, тогда как черные бросают вызов Найдите способы захватить инициативу ». Два известных примера потерь белых во французском обмене - М. Гуревич - Короткий и Татай - Корчнои . В М. Гуревич -Шорт, игра между двумя ведущими игроками мира, Уайт нуждался только в ничьей, чтобы претендовать на матчи кандидатов , в то время как Блэку нужно было выиграть. Гуревич играл пассивно и был переигран Шорт, который добился необходимой победы. В татае -корхнои, Итальянский я стал жертвой вихревой атаки в сочетание вихревой спаривания Корчноя , проиграв всего за 14 движений.

Роусон приводит следующий пример черного переиграния белых из симметричных вариантов открытия английского языка . Блэка есть что -то убедительное Он отмечает: «В стратегии . Похоже, он говорит:« Я скопирую все ваши хорошие ходы, и как только вы сделаете плохой ход, я больше не копируюсь! »» »» »»

Hodgson vs. Arkell, 2001

а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час Положение после 9 ... axb5 а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час Положение после 24 ... D4

Ходжсон против Аркелла , Ньюкасл 2001
1. C4 C5 2. G3 G6 3. BG2 BG7 4. NC3 NC6 5. A3 A6 6. RB1 RB8 7. B4 CXB4 8. AXB4 B5 9. CXB5 AXB5 (первая диаграмма). Здесь Роусон отмечает: «Обе стороны хотят подтолкнуть свою D-Pawn и сыграть в BF4/... BF5, но белые должны идти первым, чтобы черный играл ... D5, прежде чем белые смогут играть в D4. Это не имеет большого значения , но это уже указывает на вызов, с которой сталкиваются белые; " 10. NF3 D5 10 ... NF6 11.0-0 0-0 12.D3 D6 13.BD2 BD7 будет перенести в игру Portisch-TAL ниже. 11. D4 NF6 12. BF4 RB6 13. 0-0 BF5 14. RB3 0-0 15. NE5 NE4 16. H3 H5 !? Наконец нарушая симметрию. 17. KH2 Положение все еще почти симметрична, и белые не могут найти ничего полезного с его дополнительным движением. Роусон причудливо предлагает 17.h4!?, Заставляя черного быть тем, кто сломает симметрию. 17 ... re8! Роусон отмечает, что это полезный ход ожидания, охватывающий E7, который нуждается в защите в некоторых строках, и, возможно, поддерживает возможный ... E5 (см. Двадцать второй ход Блэка). Белый не может скопировать его, так как после 18.re1 ? NXF2 Black выиграет пешку . 18. be3 ?! NXE5! 19. DXE5 RC6! Роусон отмечает, что с его более активными частями «похоже, что у черного есть некоторая инициатива». Если сейчас 20.nxd5, bxe5 ", по крайней мере, равен черному". 20. nxb5 bxe5! 20 ... nxf2? 21.qxd5! побед. 21. ND4 BXD4 22. BXD4 E5 Rowson пишет: «Теперь у обеих сторон есть свои Трампы, но я думаю, что у Blach есть некоторое преимущество из -за его дополнительного центрального контроля, навязывая рыцаря и перспективы для на Кингс атаки ». 23. B5 RC8 24. BB2 D4 (вторая диаграмма). Теперь у белых есть сложная игра: Роусон анализирует 25.e3?! Nxg3 24.fxg3 bc2 25.qf3 bxb3 26.exd4 bc4!, Выигрыш; 25.g4 hxg4 26.hxg4 nxf2! 27.rxf2 bc2, победа; 25.qe1!? RC2! с преимуществом; и 25.f4 (рискованно выглядящий, но, возможно, лучший) NC3! 26.bxc3 dxc3 27.qxd8 rexd8, и черный лучше. 25. B6? С видом на угрозу Черного. 25 ... nxf2! 26. QE1 IF 26.RXF2, BC2 FOLOKS WHITE Королева и Ладья . 26 ... NE4 27. B7 RB8 28. G4 HXG4 29. HXG4 BE6 30. RB5 NF6! 31. RXF6 QXF6 32. QG3 BC4 33. G5 QH8+ 0–1

Открытие следующей игры между двумя игроками мирового класса, Еще один симметричный английский, поступил аналогичный курс:

Портиш против Тал, 1965

а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час Позиция после 13 ... BD7; Белый играть, но у Блэка есть легкая игра а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 а беременный в дюймовый и фон глин час Позиция после 19 ... RC8

Lajos Portisch Vs. Михаил Тал , кандидаты матч 1965
1. NF3 C5 2. C4 NC6 3. NC3 NF6 4. G3 G6 5. BG2 BG7 6. 0-0 0-0 7. D3 A6 8. A3 RB8 9. RB1 B5 10. CXB5 AXB5 11. B4 CXB4 12. AXB4 D6 13. BD2 BD7 (см. Первую диаграмму). Еще раз, Уайт находится в движении в симметричном положении, но не очевидно, что он может сделать со своей инициативой первой движения. Солтис пишет: «Смешно думать, что позиция Блэка лучше. Но Михаил Тал сказал, что ее легче играть. Двигаясь во втором, он увидит ход Уайта, а затем решит, соответствует ли им». 14 . Вместо этого он играет, чтобы доказать, что королева Уайта неуместна. 14 ... RC8! 15. BH6 ND4! Угрожающий 16 ... nxe2+. 16. NXD4 BXH6 17. QXH6 RXC3 18. QD2 QC7 19. RFC1 RC8 (вторая диаграмма). Хотя структура пешки по-прежнему симметрична, контроль Black над C- файлом дает ему преимущество. В конечном итоге Черные достигли конца, две пешки вверх, но Уайт удалось провести ничью в 83 ходах.

Сам Тал проиграл знаменитую игру как белую из симметричной позиции в Тал -Белиавском , чемпионате СССР 1974 года.

Турнир и матч

В шахматных турнирах и матчах частота, с которой каждый игрок получает белый и черный, является важным соображением. В матчах цвета игроков в первой игре определяются путем рисования лотов и чередуются после этого. В турнирах Round Robin с нечетным количеством игроков каждый игрок получает равное количество белых и черных; С ровным количеством игроков каждый получает один лишний белый или черный. Там, где один или несколько игроков выходят из турнира, директор турнира может изменить назначенные цвета в некоторых играх, чтобы ни один игрок не получил еще два чернокожих, чем белых, или наоборот. Считается, что двойной турнир Robin дает наиболее надежные финальные таблицы, поскольку каждый игрок получает одинаковое количество белых и чернокожих и играет как белый, так и черный против каждого противника.

В турнирах швейцарских систем директор турнира пытается гарантировать, что каждый игрок получает, как можно больше, то же количество игр, что и белые и черные, и что цвет игрока чередуется от раунда до раунда. После первого раунда режиссер может отклониться от прописанных парных пар, чтобы дать как можно больше игроков, их выравнивание или цвета. Более существенные отклонения допустимы, чтобы избежать предоставления игроку на два чернокожих, чем белых (например, три чернокожих в четырех играх), чем наоборот, поскольку дополнительные белые «вызывают гораздо меньше стресса игроков», чем дополнительные черные, которые навязывают «значительный гандикап» на пострадавшем игроке. Турниры с равномерным количеством раундов вызывают наибольшее количество проблем, поскольку, если есть неравенство, оно больше (например, игрок, получающий двух белых и четырех чернокожих).

Шахматы Армагеддона - это вариант шахмат для блиц, который часто использовался в качестве тай -брейки в последние годы, например, на чемпионате мира по шахматам и в норвежском шахматном турнире (где он использовался для отдельных розыгрышей). В шахматах Армагеддона нарисованные игры считаются победами для черного (т.е. Блэк имеет шансы на рисование ), так что решающий результат гарантирован. Поскольку преимущество в первом движении Уайта далеко не достаточно близко, чтобы противостоять этому, белые компенсируются дополнительным временем, обычно от 5 минут до 4 минут, когда нет прироста. (Если не будет приращения, то возникают сложные вопросы, когда игроки должны пытаться пометить тривиальные розыгрыш, который произошел на чемпионате мира по шахматным шахмам в 2008 году в матче между Моникой Сочко и Сабиной-Франческой Файсор . С небольшим приращением, шансы на время должны быть больше, чтобы сохранить сбалансированную ситуацию: в Норвегии Шахматы использовали от 10 минут до 7 минут.)

Шахматы Armageddon не очень хорошо масштабируются до более медленных контролей времени, так как даже в быстром случае необходимые шансы на время были бы слишком большими; В переписки или событиях двигателя против двигателя это просто неработоспособно. Ларри Кауфман, Кай Ласкос и Стивен Пол тестировали с использованием двигателей ( Stockfish , Komodo и Houdini ) альтернативное решение, позволяющее получить равное время: у черного есть шансы на рисование, но не разрешается замок коротко. Тесты двигателя предполагают, что это справедливо, что наводит на мысль о размере первоначального преимущества Уайта, хотя человеческие гроссмейстеры еще предстоит опробовать на практике.

Решение шахмат

Основная статья: Решение шахмат

Игра в шахматы не решается , что означает, что она с уверенностью не была определена, будет ли идеально сыгранная игра заканчивается победой для белого, ничьей или даже победы для черного. Из -за высокого уровня сложности и ограничений компьютерных технологий считается маловероятным, что она будет решена в обозримом будущем.

В своем документе 1950 года «Программирование компьютера для игры в шахматы» теоретик информации Клод Шеннон утверждал, что в принципе игра в шахмат должна быть разрешена. Однако, в практическом плане, он утверждал, что для любого компьютера невозможно сделать это. Он подсчитал, что компьютер должен будет рассчитать 10 ¹²⁰ позиции с начальной позиции, которая, по его словам, займет 10 ⁹⁰ годы. Таким образом, теоретически возможно решать шахматы; Однако, по словам Шеннона, необходимые временные рамки выпускают эту возможность за пределы любой возможной технологии.

Ханс-Йоахим Бремерманн , профессор математики и биофизики в Калифорнийском университете в Беркли , также утверждал в статье 1965 года, что «скорость, память и способность к обработке любого возможного будущего компьютерного оборудования ограничены определенными физическими барьерами: световой Барьер , квантовый барьер и термодинамический барьер . Последовательности игры в шахматы ". Тем не менее, Бремерманн не выкупал возможность того, что компьютер когда -нибудь сможет решить шахматы. Он писал: «Чтобы компьютер играл в идеальную или почти идеальную игру [шахмат], необходимо будет либо полностью проанализировать игру ... или для анализа игры приблизительным образом и объединить ее с ограниченной суммой Поиск деревьев.

Недавние достижения в области компьютерных наук не значительно изменили эту оценку. Игра в шашки была решена в 2007 году, Но он имеет примерно квадратный корень количества позиций в шахматах. Джонатан Шеффер , ученый, который возглавил эти усилия, сказал, что такой прорыв, как вычисления квантовые Решение шашек «никогда не стоит недооценивать достижения в области технологий».

Цитаты

• «Вы выиграете с любым цветом, если вы лучший игрок, но с черным займет больше времени». - Исаак Кашдан
• «Когда я белый, я побеждаю, потому что я белый. Когда я черный, я побеждаю, потому что я боголджубоу». - Эфим Боголджубов
• «Во всяком случае, играть в ничьей, в некоторой степени преступление против шахмат». - Михаил Тал

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