Лев Выготский

В этом имени, соответствующем восточнославянским обычаям именования , отчество — Семенович , а фамилия — Выготский .

Лев Выготский
Лев Выготский
Рожденный	Lev Simkhovich Vygodsky 17 ноября [ OS 5 ноября] 1896 г. Орша , Могилёвская губерния , Российская империя (ныне Белоруссия)
Умер	11 июня 1934 г. ) ( 1934-06-11 ) ( 37 лет Москва, РСФСР , Советский Союз.
Альма-матер	Императорский Московский Университет Московский городской народный университет Шанявского
Известный	Культурно-историческая психология , зона ближайшего развития , внутренняя речь
Супруг	Роза Смехова ( м. 1924)
Научная карьера
Поля	Психология
Учреждения	Московский Государственный Университет
Диссертация	Психология искусства   (1925)
Известные студенты	Александр Лурия

Лев Семёнович Выготский ( русский : Лев Семёнович Выготский , [vɨˈɡotskʲɪj] ; белорусский : Леў Сямёнавіч Выгоцкі ; 17 ноября [ OS 5 ноября] 1896 - 11 июня 1934) был русский и советский психолог, наиболее известный своими работами по психологическому развитию в детей и создание основы, известной как теория культурно-исторической деятельности . После его ранней смерти его книги и исследования были запрещены в Советском Союзе до смерти Иосифа Сталина в 1953 году, а первый сборник основных текстов был опубликован в 1956 году.

Его основные идеи включают в себя:

Социальное происхождение разума: Выготский считал, что умственные и познавательные способности человека не детерминированы биологически, а создаются и формируются с помощью языка и инструментов в процессе взаимодействия и конструирования культурной и социальной среды.

Важность посредничества. Он считал посредничество ключом к человеческому развитию, поскольку оно ведет к использованию культурных инструментов и становится путем психологического развития через процесс интериоризации.

Зона ближайшего развития: Выготский ввел концепцию ЗБР , которая относится к разрыву между текущим уровнем развития ребенка и уровнем, которого он способен достичь с помощью инструментов, предоставленных другими, обладающими большими знаниями.

Значение игры: Выготский рассматривал игру как важнейший аспект развития детей, как лучшую песочницу для создания и развития практики посредничества.

Биография

отчество было изменено на Семенович , а фамилия на Выготский ) Лев Симхович Выгодский (позже по неясным причинам родился 5 ноября 1896 г., в городе Орше Могилевской губернии Российской империи (ныне Белоруссия ) в нерелигиозной семье российского еврейского происхождения. Его отец Симха Лейбович (также известный как Семен Львович) был банкиром, а мать - Цецилия Моисеевна.

Выготский вырос в городе Гомеле . где он обучался на дому до 1911 года, а затем получил формальную степень с отличием в частной еврейской гимназии, что позволило ему поступить в университет. В 1913 году Выготский был принят в Московский университет простым голосованием по « еврейской лотерее »: в то время для поступления в Московский и Санкт-Петербургский университеты была введена трехпроцентная квота еврейских студентов. У него был интерес к гуманитарным и общественным наукам, но по настоянию родителей он подал документы на медицинский факультет Московского университета. В течение первого семестра обучения он перевелся на юридический факультет. Параллельно он посещал лекции в Московском городском народном университете Шанявского . Ранние интересы Выготского были связаны с искусством и, прежде всего, с темами истории еврейского народа, традиций, культуры и еврейской идентичности.

В январе 1924 года Выготский принял участие во Втором Всероссийском психоневрологическом съезде в Петрограде (вскоре переименованном в Ленинград ). После съезда Выготский встретился с Александром Лурией и с его помощью получил приглашение стать научным сотрудником Психологического института в Москве, которым руководил Константин Корнилов . Выготский переехал в Москву со своей новой женой Розой Смеховой, от которой у него будет двое детей. Трудовую деятельность начал в Психологическом институте в должности «штатного научного сотрудника второго класса». Он также стал учителем средней школы, охватив период, отмеченный его интересом к процессам обучения и роли языка в обучении.

К концу 1925 года Выготский завершил диссертацию «Психология искусства», которая не публиковалась до 1960-х годов, и книгу «Педагогическая психология», основанную, по-видимому, на конспектах лекций, которые он готовил в Гомеле, будучи психологом. преподаватель местных учебных заведений. Летом 1925 года он совершил свою первую и единственную поездку за границу на лондонский конгресс по образованию глухих. По возвращении в Советский Союз он был госпитализирован из-за туберкулеза и оставался инвалидом и неработоспособным до конца 1926 года. Его диссертация была принята как необходимое условие для получения ученой степени, которая была присуждена Выготскому осенью 1925 года заочно .

После выписки из больницы Выготский занимался теоретической и методологической работой над кризисом психологии, но так и не закончил черновик рукописи и прервал работу над ней примерно в середине 1927 года. Рукопись была опубликована позже с заметными редакционными вмешательствами и искажениями в 1982 году и была представлена ​​редакцией как одна из наиболее важных работ Выготского. В этой ранней рукописи Выготский выступал за формирование общей психологии, которая могла бы объединить натуралистические объективистские направления психологической науки с более философскими подходами марксистской ориентации. Однако он также резко критиковал тех своих коллег, которые пытались построить « марксистскую психологию» как альтернативу натуралистической и философской школам. Он утверждал, что если кто-то хочет построить подлинно марксистскую психологию, то нельзя найти ярлыков, просто ища подходящие цитаты в трудах Маркса . Скорее, следует искать методологию, соответствующую марксистскому духу.

С 1926 по 1930 год Выготский работал над исследовательской программой, изучающей развитие высших психологических функций, то есть культурно обусловленных низших психологических функций, таких как произвольное внимание, избирательная память, объектно-ориентированное действие и принятие решений. В этот период он собрал группу сотрудников, в которую вошли Александр Лурия, Борис Варшава, Алексей Леонтьев , Леонид Занков и ряд других. Выготский руководил своими учениками в исследовании этого явления с трех разных точек зрения:

• Инструментальный подход, целью которого было понять, как люди используют объекты в качестве опосредующих средств для памяти и рассуждения.
• Подход к развитию, ориентированный на то, как дети приобретают более высокие когнитивные функции в процессе развития.
• Культурно-исторический подход, изучающий, как социальные и культурные модели взаимодействия формируют формы посредничества и траектории развития.

Выготский умер от рецидива туберкулеза 11 июня 1934 года в возрасте 37 лет в Москве. Одна из последних записей в личном блокноте Выготского была:

Это последнее, что я сделал в психологии – и я хочу, как Моисей умрет на вершине, увидев землю обетованную, но так и не ступив на нее. Прощайте, дорогие создания. Остальное тишина.

Хронология важнейших событий жизни и карьеры

1922-24 - worked in the psychological laboratory which he organized in Gomel Pedagogical College;

January of 1924 - meeting Luria at the II Psychoneurological Congress in Petrograd, moving from Gomel to Moscow, enrolling in graduate school and taking position at the State Institute of Experimental Psychology in Moscow;

July of 1924 - the beginning of work as the head of the sub-department of the education of physically and intellectually disabled children in the department of social and legal protection of minors (SPON);

November of 1924 - during II Congress of the Social and Legal Protection of Minors in Moscow, a turn of Soviet defectology to social education was officially announced and collection of articles and materials edited by Vygotsky "Issues of the upbringing of blind, deaf and mentally retarded children" was published;

May 9, 1925 - the birth of the first child: the daughter Gita

Summer of 1925 - the only trip abroad: went to London for a defectology conference; on the way passed through Germany, where he met with German psychologists

November 5, 1925 - Vygotsky, in absence (due to illness), was awarded the title of senior researcher, equivalent to the modern degree of candidate of sciences for defense of the dissertation "Psychology of Art". The contract for the publication of The Psychology of Art was signed on November 9, 1925, but the text was published only in 1965;

November 21, 1925 to May 22, 1926 - hospitalization in the Zakharyino sanatorium-type hospital due to tuberculosis; upon discharge qualified as a disabled person until the end of the year;

1926 - Vygotsky's first book, Pedagogical Psychology, was published; writes notes and essays that would be published years later under the title "The Historical Meaning of the Psychological Crisis";

1927 - resumes work at the RANION Institute of Experimental Psychology and in a number of other institutions in Moscow and Leningrad;

September 17, 1927 - approved as a professor by the scientific and pedagogical section of the State Academic Council (SUS);

December 19, 1927 - appointed as the head of the Medical and Pedagogical Station of the Glavsotsvos of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR, remained in this position until October 1928 (dismissed on his own will);

December 28, 1927 to January 4, 1928 - First All-Russian Pedological Congress, Moscow: Vygotsky works as co-editor of the section on difficult childhood, and also presents two reports: "The development of a difficult child and its study" and "Instrumental method in pedology"; these two articles together with Zankov's report "Principles for the construction of complex programs of an auxiliary school from a pedological point of view" and Luria "On the methodology of instrumental-psychological research" become the first public presentation of "Instrumental Psychology" as a research method associated with the names of Vygotsky and Luria;

1928 - Vygotsky's second book "Pedology of School Age" was published, along with a number of articles establishing "Instrumental Psychology" approach in Russian and English language journals;

December of 1928 - after a conflict with the director of the Institute of Experimental Psychology (GIEP) K. N. Kornilov, the research activities of the Vygotsky-Luria group were curtailed in this organization, and experimental research was transferred to the Academy of Communications.

1929 - freelance scientific consultant, head of psychological laboratories at the Experimental Defectological Institute (transformed Medical-pedagogical station)

Major themes of research

Vygotsky was a pioneering psychologist with interests in extremely diverse fields: his work covered topics such as the origin and the psychology of art, development of higher mental functions, philosophy of science and the methodology of psychological research, the relation between learning and human development, concept formation, interrelation between language and thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, learning disabilities, and abnormal human development (aka defectology). His philosophical framework includes interpretations of the cognitive role of mediation tools, as well as the re-interpretation of well-known concepts in psychology such as internalization of knowledge. Vygotsky introduced the notion of zone of proximal development, a metaphor capable of describing the potential of human cognitive development.

His most important and widely known contribution is his theory for the development of "higher psychological functions," which emerge through unification of interpersonal connections and actions taken within a given socio-cultural environment (i.e. language, culture, society, and tool-use). It was during this period that he identified the play of young children as their "leading activity", which he understood to be the main source of preschoolers' psychological development, and which he viewed as an expression of an inseparable unity of emotional, volitional, and cognitive development.

While Vygotsky never met Jean Piaget, he had read a number of his works and agreed on some of his perspectives on learning. At some point (around 1929–30), Vygotsky came to disagree with Piaget's understanding of learning and development, and held a different theoretical position from Piaget on the topic of inner speech; Piaget thought that egocentric speech follows from inner speech and "dissolved away" as children matured. Vygotsky showed that egocentric speech became inner speech, and then called "thoughts". Piaget only read Vygotsky's work after his death and openly praised him for his discovery of the social origin of children's thoughts, reasoning, and moral judgements.

Cultural-historical theory

The hypothesis put forward by Vygotsky was a paradigm shift in psychology. He was first to propose that all psychological functions that govern mental, cognitive and physical actions of the individual are not immutable but have a history of cultural development (in human history and in everyone personally) through interiorization of cultural tools. Therefore, the process of transformation which is happening when current cultural tools are interiorized becomes the focus of psychological research.

It was assumed before, that individual possess function in well done, half-done or raw form, that function would unfold in the society, become complex, bigger, is enriched or, vice versa - slowed down and suppressed etc. Now we have reasons to believe that in regard of higher mental functions things are opposite. Functions first appear in social group in form of social relations of a child, then they become mental functions of an individual. For example, assumption was that every child is able to think, make arguments and proofs and look for sound reasonings. Debates with others grow from collision of these reasonings. But things are different. Research shows - debates foster thinking. Research also leads us to the same conclusions in regard to all other mental functions.

Vygotsky posits the existence of lower and higher mental functions. The latter have social origins and complex system structure, mediated by cultural tools and controlled by an individual. Vygotsky came to the conclusion that consciousness is possible because of the mediated nature of higher psychological functions. Between the stimulus and the reaction of a person (both behavioral and mental), an additional connection arises through a mediating link - a stimulus-means, or a sign. Signs are tools that mediate higher psychological functions and control one's own behavior. A word could direct attention, create personal meaning, form a concept and coordinate.

Vygotsky illustrated his idea of mediation via Buridan's ass paradox. A problematic situation of choosing between two equal possibilities, interested Vygotsky primarily from the point of view of solving it through a coin flip - redelegating decision to the outside object - an example of using cultural tools to govern one's own psychological function of volition.

While developing a method for studying higher psychological functions, Vygotsky was guided by the principle of ex ungue leonem and additionally analyzed phenomena such as using a knot in the handkerchief for remembering and finger counting.

Cultural mediation and internalization

Vygotsky studied child development and the significant roles of cultural mediation and interpersonal communication. He observed how higher mental functions developed through these interactions, and also represented the shared knowledge of a culture. This process is known as internalization. Internalization may be understood in one respect as "knowing how". For example, the practices of riding a bicycle or pouring a cup of milk, initially, are outside and beyond the child. The mastery of the skills needed for performing these practices occurs through the activity of the child within society. A further aspect of internalization is appropriation, in which children take tools and adapt them to personal use, perhaps using them in unique ways. Internalizing the use of a pencil allows the child to use it very much for personal ends rather than drawing exactly what others in society have drawn previously:

The child acts and speaks at the same time, both are intertwined in one continuous operation for him. In this way, a blend of speech and action arises, a peculiar mixture from an adult's point of view, but a completely natural state for the child, who from the very first days of life, due to his helplessness, finds himself in conditions where the path from him to things and from things to him goes through another person.

Zone of Proximal Development

"Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD) is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an individual's mental development. He originally defined the ZPD as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." He used the example of two children in school who originally could solve problems at an eight-year-old developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8). After each child received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level. He said "This difference between twelve and eight, or between nine and eight, is what we call the zone of proximal development." He further said that the ZPD "defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state." The zone is bracketed by the learner's current ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity.

Scaffolding

According to Vygotsky, through the assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child is able to learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the child's actual developmental or maturational level. This assistance is defined as 'scaffolding'. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the child's developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child is able to reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child's independent capabilities. The advancement through and attainment of the upper limit of the ZPD is limited by the instructional and scaffolding-related capabilities of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO is typically assumed to be an older, more experienced teacher or parent, but often can be a learner's peer or someone their junior. The MKO need not even be a person, it can be a machine or book, or other source of visual and/or audio input.

Thinking and Speech

In the last years of his life, Vygotsky paid most of his attention to the study of the relationship between thought and word in the structure of consciousness. This problem was explored in Vygotsky's book, Thinking and Speech, that was published posthumously in 1934. The book was a collection of essays and scholarly papers that Vygotsky wrote during different periods of his thought development. It was edited by his closest associates Kolbanovskii, Zankov, and Shif. The book established the connection between speech and the development of mental concepts and awareness. Vygotsky described silent inner speech as being qualitatively different from verbal external speech, but both equally important. Vygotsky believed inner speech developed from external speech via a gradual process of "internalization" (i.e., transition from the external to the internal), with younger children only really able to "think out loud". He claimed that in its mature form, inner speech would not resemble spoken language as we know it (in particular, being greatly compressed). Hence, thought itself developed socially.

Inner speech, according to Vygotsky, develops through the accumulation of long-term functional and structural changes. It branches off from the child's external speech along with the differentiation of the social and egocentric functions of speech, and, finally, the speech functions acquired by the child become the main functions of his thinking.

In this work, Vygotsky points out the genesis of the development of thinking and speech and that the relationship between them is not a constant value.

But since we wanted to express all this in one short formula, in one sentence, we might put it thus: if at the beginning of development there stands the act, independent of the word, then at the end of it there stands the word which becomes the act, the word which makes man's action free.

Legacy

Soviet Union

After Vygotsky's early death, his books and research were banned until Stalin's death in 1953, with a first collection of major texts published in 1956. A small group of his collaborators and students were able to continue his lines of thought in research. The members of the group laid a foundation for the systematic development of Vygotskian psychology in such diverse fields as the psychology of memory (P. Zinchenko), perception, sensation, and movement (Zaporozhets, Asnin, A. N. Leont'ev), personality (Lidiya Bozhovich, Asnin, A. N. Leont'ev), will and volition (Zaporozhets, A. N. Leont'ev, P. Zinchenko, L. Bozhovich, Asnin), psychology of play (G. D. Lukov, Daniil El'konin) and psychology of learning (P. Zinchenko, L. Bozhovich, D. El'konin), as well as the theory of step-by-step formation of mental actions (Pyotr Gal'perin), general psychological activity theory (A. N. Leont'ev) and psychology of action (Zaporozhets). Andrey Puzyrey elaborated the ideas of Vygotsky in respect of psychotherapy and even in the broader context of deliberate psychological intervention (psychotechnique), in general.

United States

Only a couple of Vygotsky's texts were published in English before the translation of Thinking and Speech in 1962. Since then, the majority of his texts have been translated, and his ideas have become influential in some modern educational approaches. The first proponents of Vygotsky in the USA were Michael Cole and James Wertsch. Today, an umbrella term for theoretical framework based on Vygotsky's ideas is "Cultural-historical activity theory" (aka CHAT) or "Activity theory".

Works

• Consciousness as a problem in the Psychology of Behavior, 1925
• Educational Psychology, 1926
• Historical meaning of the crisis in Psychology, unfinished and aborted in 1927
• The Problem of the Cultural Development of the Child, 1929
• The Fundamental Problems of Defectology, 1929
• The Socialist alteration of Man, 1930
• Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Essays in the History of Behaviour, A. R. Luria and L. S. Vygotsky, 1930
• Tool and symbol in child development, c.1930
• Paedology of the Adolescent, 1929-1931
• Play and its role in the Mental development of the Child, oral presentation 1933
• Thinking and Speech, 1934
• The Psychology of Art, 1971 (English translation by MIT Press)
• Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, 1978 (Harvard University Press)
• The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky, 1987

See also

• Cognitivism (learning theory)
• Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
• Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (LCHC)
• Leading Activity
• Organization Workshop
• PsyAnima, Dubna Psychological Journal
• Social constructivism
• Vygotsky Circle

Further reading

• Wertsch J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Yaroshevsky M. (1989) Lev Vygotsky. Progress, Moscow
• Kozulin A. (1990). Vygotsky's Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
• Van der Veer R. & Valsiner J. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky. A quest for synthesis. Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
• Holzman L. (1993) Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary Scientist. Routledge
• Van der Veer, R. & Valsiner, J. eds (1994). The Vygotsky Reader. Oxford, Blackwell.
• Vygodskaya, G. L., & Lifanova, T. M. (1996). Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky: Zhizn', deyatel'nost', shtrikhi k portretu. Moscow: Smysl. Translated in Vygodskaya, G. L., & Lifanova, T. M. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, volume 37.
• Van der Veer R. (2007). Lev Vygotsky. Continuum Books.
• Daniels, H., Wertsch, J. & Cole, M. (Eds.) (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky.
• Dafermos, M. (2018). Rethinking Cultural-Historical Theory. Singapore, Springer.
• Zavershneva, E., & Van der Veer, R. (2018). Vygotsky's notebooks: A selection. Singapore, Springer.

External links

• Media related to Lev Vygotsky at Wikimedia Commons
• Quotations related to Lev Vygotsky at Wikiquote
• Lev Vygotsky archive, marxists.org: all major works
• Annotated bibliography of scholarly histories on Vygotsky, Advances in the History of Psychology, York University