Библиотека Марчиана

Библиотека Марчиана
Основное марка
Расположение	Квадрат Святого Марка Венеция, Италия
Учредил	1468
Коллекция
Специализация	Классика и венецианская история
Размер	13,117 рукописей 2887 колыбель 24 060 Cinquecentine 1 000 000 ( около ) книг после шестнадцатого века
Building details
Reading room
Design and construction
Architect(s)	Jacopo Sansovino
Style	High Renaissance
Construction	1537 (1537)–1588 (1588)
Notable artists	Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Battista Franco, Giuseppe Salviati, Andrea Schiavone

Библиотека Маркианы или Библиотека Святого Марка ( Итальянская : Biblioteca Marciana , но в исторических документах, обычно называемых Libreria pubblica di San Marco ), является публичной библиотекой в ​​Венеции , Италия. Это одна из самых ранних выживших публичных библиотек и репозиториев для рукописей в мире в Италии, и она имеет одну из самых значительных коллекций классических текстов . Он назван в честь Святого Марка , покровителя города.

Библиотека была основана в 1468 году, когда ученый -гуманистический кардинал Бессарион , епископ Tusculum и титульный латинский патриарх Константинополя , пожертвовал свою коллекцию греческих и латинских рукописей Республике Венеции , при этом была установлена ​​библиотека коммунального предприятия. Коллекция стала результатом постоянных усилий Бессариона по поиску редких рукописей по всей Греции и Италии, а затем приобрет или копировал их как средство сохранения сочинений классических греческих авторов и литературы Византии после падения Константинополя в 1453 году. города Венеции в первую очередь были связаны с крупным сообществом греческих беженцев и ее историческими связями с Византийской империей . Однако правительство венецианского языка было медленным, чтобы соблюдать его приверженность соответствующим образом разместить рукописи с десятилетиями дискуссий и нерешительности из-за серии военных конфликтов в конце пятнадцатого и начала шестнадцатого веков и в результате климата политической неопределенности. Библиотека была в конечном итоге построена в течение периода восстановления в рамках обширной программы обновления городов, направленной на прославление республики через архитектуру и подтверждение его международного престижа как центра мудрости и обучения.

The original library building is located in Saint Mark's Square, Venice's former governmental centre, with its long façade facing the Doge's Palace. Constructed between 1537 and 1588, it is considered the masterpiece of the architect Jacopo Sansovino and a key work in Venetian Renaissance architecture. The Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio described it as "perhaps the richest and most ornate building that there has been since ancient times up until now" ("il più ricco ed ornato edificio che forse sia stato da gli Antichi in qua"). The art historian Jacob Burckhardt regarded it as "the most magnificent secular Italian building" ("das prächtigste profane Gebäude Italiens"), and Frederick Hartt called it "one of the most satisfying structures in Italian architectural history". Also significant for its art, the library holds many works by the great painters of sixteenth-century Venice, making it a comprehensive monument to Venetian Mannerism.

Today, the building is customarily referred to as the 'Libreria sansoviniana' and is largely a museum. Since 1904, the library offices, the reading rooms, and most of the collection have been housed in the adjoining Zecca, the former mint of the Republic of Venice. The library is now formally known as the Biblioteca nazionale Marciana. It is the only official institution established by the Venetian Republican government that survives and continues to function.

Historical background

See also: History of libraries § Renaissance

Cathedral libraries and monastic libraries were the principal centres of study and learning throughout Italy in the Middle Ages. But beginning in the fifteenth century, the humanist emphasis on the knowledge of the classical world as essential to the formation of the Renaissance man led to a proliferation of court libraries, patronized by princely rulers, several of which provided a degree of public access. In Venice, an early attempt to found a public library in emulation of the great libraries of Antiquity was unsuccessful, as Petrarch's personal collection of manuscripts, donated to the republic in 1362, was dispersed at the time of his death.

Cardinal Bessarion's letter to Doge Cristoforo Moro and the Senate of Venice, announcing the donation of his library. BNM Lat. XIV, 14 (= 4235), fol. 1r.

In 1468, the Byzantine humanist and scholar Cardinal Bessarion donated his collection of 482 Greek and 264 Latin codices to the Republic of Venice, stipulating that a public library be established to ensure their conservation for future generations and availability for scholars. The formal letter announcing the donation, dated 31 May 1468 and addressed to Doge Cristoforo Moro (in office 1462–1471) and the Senate, narrates that following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and its devastation by the Turks, Bessarion had set ardently about the task of acquiring the rare and important works of ancient Greece and Byzantium and adding them to his existing collection so as to prevent the further dispersal and total loss of Greek culture. The cardinal's stated desire in offering the manuscripts to Venice specifically was that they should be properly conserved in a city where many Greek refugees had fled and which he himself had come to consider "another Byzantium" ("alterum Byzantium").

Bessarion's first contact with Venice had been in 1438 when, as the newly ordained metropolitan bishop of Nicaea, he arrived with the Byzantine delegation to the Council of Ferrara-Florence, the objective being to heal the schism between the Catholic and Orthodox churches and unite Christendom against the Ottoman Turks. His travels as envoy to Germany for Pope Pius II brought him briefly to the city again in 1460 and 1461. On 20 December 1461, during the second stayover, he was admitted into the Venetian aristocracy with a seat in the Great Council.

Justus van Gent, Portrait of Cardinal Bessarion (c. 1473–1476). Bessarion was created cardinal on 8 January 1440 by Pope Eugene IV.

In 1463, Bessarion returned to Venice as the papal legate, tasked with negotiating the republic's participation in a crusade to liberate Constantinople from the Turks. For the duration of this extended sojourn (1463–1464), the cardinal lodged and studied in the Benedictine monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore, and it was to the monastery that he initially destined his Greek codices which were to be consigned after his death. But under the influence of the humanist Paolo Morosini and his cousin Pietro, the Venetian ambassador to Rome, Bessarion annulled the legal act of donation in 1467 with papal consent, citing the difficulty readers would have had in reaching the monastery, located on a separate island. The following year, Bessarion announced instead his intention to bequeath his entire personal library, both the Greek and Latin codices, to the Republic of Venice with immediate effect.

On 28 June 1468, Pietro Morosini took legal possession of Bessarion's library in Rome on behalf of the republic. The bequest included the 466 codices which were transported to Venice in crates the next year. To this initial delivery, more codices and incunabula were added following the death of Bessarion in 1472. This second shipment, arranged in 1474 by Federico da Montefeltro, departed from Urbino, where Bessarion had deposited the remainder of his library for safekeeping. It included the books that the cardinal had reserved for himself or had acquired after 1468.

Despite the grateful acceptance of the donation by the Venetian government and the commitment to establish a library of public utility, the codices remained crated inside the Doge's Palace, entrusted to the care of the state historian under the direction of the procurators of Saint Mark de supra. Little was done to facilitate access, particularly during the years of the conflict against the Ottomans (1463–1479) when time and resources were directed towards the war effort. In 1485, the need to provide greater space for governmental activities led to the decision to compress the crates into a smaller area of the palace where they were stacked, one atop the other. Access became more difficult and on-site consultation impracticable. Although codices were periodically loaned, primarily to learned members of the Venetian nobility and academics, the requirement to deposit a security was not always enforced. A few of the codices were subsequently discovered in private libraries or even for sale in local book shops. In exceptional circumstances, copyists were allowed to duplicate the manuscripts for the private libraries of influential patrons: among others Lorenzo de' Medici commissioned copies of seven Greek codices. During this period, reproduction of the manuscripts was rarely authorized for printers who needed working copies on which to write notes and make corrections whenever printing critical editions, since it was believed that the value of a manuscript would greatly decline once the editio princeps (first edition) had been published. Notably, Aldus Manutius was able to make only limited use of the codices for his publishing house.

Several prominent humanists, including Marcantonio Sabellico in his capacity as official historian and Bartolomeo d'Alviano, urged the government over time to provide a more suitable location, but to no avail. The political and financial situation during the long years of the Italian Wars stymied any serious plan to do so, notwithstanding the Senate's statement of intent in 1515 to build a library. Access to the collection itself was nevertheless improved after the appointment of Andrea Navagero as official historian and gubernator (curator) of the collection. During Navagero's tenure (1516–1524), scholars made greater use of the manuscripts and copyists were authorized with more frequency to reproduce codices for esteemed patrons, including Pope Leo X, King Francis I of France, and Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Lord High Chancellor of England. More editions of the manuscripts were published in this period, notably by Manutius' heirs. With the nomination of Pietro Bembo as gubernator in 1530 and the termination of the War of the League of Cognac in that same year, efforts to gather support for the construction of the library were renewed. Probably at the instigation of Bembo, an enthusiast of classical studies, the collection was transferred in 1532 to the upper floor of the Church of Saint Mark, the ducal chapel, where the codices were uncrated and placed on shelves. That same year, Vettore Grimani pressed his fellow procurators, insisting that the time had come to act on the republic's long-standing intention to construct a public library wherein Bessarion's codices could be housed.

Building

Construction

Tintoretto, Portrait of Jacopo Sansovino (c. 1566)

Saint Mark's Square

  a. St Mark's Basilica

  b. Doge's Palace

  c. Bell tower and Loggetta

  d. Marciana Library

  e. Mint

  f. Procuratie Nuove

  g. Napoleonic wing

  h. Procuratie Vecchie

  i. Clock tower

The construction of the library was an integral part of the Renovatio urbis (renewal of the city), a vast architectural programme begun under Doge Andrea Gritti (in office 1523–1538). The programme was intended to heighten Venetian self-confidence and reaffirm the republic's international prestige after the earlier defeat at Agnadello during the War of Cambrai and the subsequent Peace of Bologna, which sanctioned Habsburg hegemony on the Italian peninsula at the end of the War of the League of Cognac. Championed by the Grimani family, it called for the transformation of Saint Mark's Square from a medieval town centre with food vendors, money changers, and even latrines into a classical forum. The intent was to evoke the memory of the ancient Roman Republic and, in the aftermath of the Sack of Rome in 1527, to present Venice as Rome's true successor. This would visually substantiate Venetian claims that, despite the republic's relative loss of political influence, its longevity and stability were assured by its constitutional structure, consisting in a mixed government modelled along the lines of the classical republics.

Monumental in scale, the architectural programme was one of the most ambitious projects of urban renewal in sixteenth-century Italy. In addition to the mint (begun 1536) and the loggia of the bell tower of Saint Mark's (begun 1538), it involved replacing the dilapidated thirteenth-century buildings that lined the southern side of the square and the area in front of the Doge's Palace. For this, the procurators of Saint Mark de supra commissioned Jacopo Sansovino, their proto (consultant architect and buildings manager), on 14 July 1536. A refugee from the Sack of Rome, Sansovino possessed the direct knowledge and understanding of ancient Roman prototypes necessary to carry out the architectural programme.

The commission called for a model of a three-storey building, but the project was radically transformed. On 6 March 1537, it was decided that the construction of the new building, now with only two storeys, would be limited to the section directly in front of the palace and that the upper floor was to be reserved for the offices of the procurators and the library. This would not only satisfy the terms of the donation, it would bring renown to the republic as a centre of wisdom, learning, and culture. Significantly, the earlier decree of 1515, citing as examples the libraries in Rome and in Athens, expressly stated that a perfect library with fine books would serve as an ornament for the city and as a light for all of Italy.

Sansovino's superintendence (1537–c. 1560)

Construction proceeded slowly. The chosen site for the library, although owned by the government, was occupied by five hostelries (Pellegrino, Rizza, Cavaletto, Luna, Lion) and several food stalls, many of which had long-standing contractual rights. It was thus necessary to find a mutually agreed upon alternative location, and at least three of the hostelries had to remain in the area of Saint Mark's Square. In addition, the hostelries and shops provided a steady flow of rental income to the procurators of Saint Mark de supra, the magistrates responsible for the public buildings around Saint Mark's Square. So there was the need to limit the disruption of the revenue by gradually relocating the activities as the building progressed and new space was required to continue.

Construction of the
Marciana Library

   a. area of meat market

   b. area of hostelries

   c. area of lean-to bread shops

The lean-to bread shops and a portion of the Pellegrino hostelry adjoining the bell tower were demolished in early 1537. But rather than reutilizing the existing foundations, Sansovino built the library detached so as to make the bell tower a freestanding structure and transform Saint Mark's Square into a trapezoid. This was intended to give greater visual importance to the Church of Saint Mark located on the eastern side.

Jost Amman, Procession for the Doge's Marriage with the Sea (detail), showing the meat market in the foreground and the unfinished library behind (c. 1565)

Work was suspended following the Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540) due to lack of funding but resumed in 1543. The next year, 1544, the rest of the Pellegrino hostelry was torn down, followed by the Rizza. On 18 December 1545, the heavy masonry vault collapsed. In the subsequent enquiry, Sansovino claimed that workmen had prematurely removed the temporary wooden supports before the concrete had set and that a galley in the basin of Saint Mark, firing her cannon as a salute, had shaken the building. Nevertheless, the architect was sentenced to personally repay the cost of the damage, which took him 20 years. Further, his stipend was suspended until 1547. As a consequence of the collapse, the design was modified with a lighter wooden structure to support the roof.

In the following years, the procurators increased funding by borrowing from trust funds, recovering unpaid rents, selling unprofitable holdings, and drawing upon the interest income from government bonds. Work proceeded rapidly thereafter. The Cavaletto hostelry was relocated in 1550. This was followed by the demolition of the Luna. By 1552, at least the seven bays in correspondence to the reading room, had been completed. The commemorative plaque in the adjacent vestibule, corresponding to the next three bays, bears the date of the Venetian year 1133 (i.e. 1554), an indication that the end of construction was already considered imminent. By then, fourteen bays had been constructed. However, owing to difficulties in finding a suitable alternative location, only in 1556 was the last of the hostelries, the Lion, relocated, allowing the building to reach the sixteenth bay in correspondence with the lateral entry of the mint. Beyond stood the central meat market. This was a significant source of rental income for the procurators, and construction was halted. The work on the interior decorations continued until about 1560. Although it was decided five years later to relocate the meat market and continue the building, no further action was taken, and in 1570 Sansovino died.

Scamozzi's superintendence (1582–1588)

The meat market was demolished in 1581. The following year Vincenzo Scamozzi was selected to oversee the construction of the final five bays, continuing Sansovino's design for the façade. This brought the building down to the embankment of Saint Mark's Basin and into alignment with the main façade of the mint. Scamozzi added the crowning statues and obelisks. Since the original plans by Sansovino do not survive, it is not known whether the architect intended for the library to reach the final length of twenty-one bays. Scamozzi's negative comment on the junction of the library with the mint has led some architectural historians to argue that the result could not have been intentionally designed by Sansovino. However archival research and technical and aesthetic assessments have not been conclusive.

During Scamozzi's superintendence, the debate regarding the height of the building was reopened. When Sansovino was first commissioned on 14 July 1536, the project expressly called for a three-storey construction similar to the recently rebuilt Procuratie Vecchie on the northern side of Saint Mark's Square. But by 6 March 1537, when the decision was made to locate the library within the new building, the plan was abandoned in favour of a single floor above the ground level. Scamozzi, nonetheless, recommended adding a floor to the library. Engineers were called to assess the existing foundation to determine whether it could bear the additional weight. The conclusions were equivocal, and it was ultimately decided in 1588 that the library would remain with only two floors.

Architecture

Detail of the façade, upper floor

Upper floor

The Ionic capital of the Marciana Library with the decorative motifs in the echinus (a) and in the collar (b)

The Ionic base as described by Vitruvius (left) and as observed at Frascati and adopted by Sansovino for the Marciana Library (right)

The upper storey is characterized by a series of Serlians, so-called because the architectural element was illustrated and described by Sebastiano Serlio in his Tutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetiva, a seven-volume treatise for Renaissance architects and scholarly patrons. Later popularized by the architect Andrea Palladio, the element is also known as the Palladian window. It is inspired by ancient triumphal arches such as the Arch of Constantine and consists in a high-arched opening that is flanked by two shorter sidelights topped with lintels and supported by columns. From his days in Florence, Sansovino was likely familiar with the Serlian, having observed it in the tabernacle of the Merchants' guild by Donatello and Michelozzo (c. 1423) on the façade of the Church of Orsanmichele. He would have undoubtedly seen Donato Bramante's tripartite window in the Sala Regia of the Vatican during his Roman sojourn and may have been aware of the sixteenth-century nymphaeum at Genazzano near Rome, attributed to Bramante, where the Serlian is placed in a series. At the Marciana, Sansovino adopted the contracted Serlian of the Orsanmichele prototype, which has narrow sidelights, but these are separated from the tall opening by double columns, placed one behind the other. This solution of the narrow sidelights ensured greater strength to the structural walls, which was necessary to balance the thrust of the barrel vault originally planned for the upper storey.

Layered over the series of Serlians is a row of large Ionic columns. The capitals with the egg-and-dart motif in the echinus and flame palmettes and masks in the collar may have been directly inspired by the Temple of Saturn in Rome and perhaps by the Villa Medicea at Poggio a Caiano by Giuliano da Sangallo. For the bases, as a sign of his architectural erudition, Sansovino adopted the Ionic base as it had been directly observed and noted by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and Baldassare Peruzzi in ancient ruins at Frascati. The idea of an ornate frieze above the columns with festoons alternating with window openings had already been used by Sansovino for the courtyard of Palazzo Gaddi in Rome (1519–1527). But the insertion of windows into a frieze had been pioneered even earlier by Bramante at Palazzo Caprini in Rome (1501–1510, demolished 1938) and employed in Peruzzi's early sixteenth-century Villa Farnesina. In the library, the specific pattern of the festoons with putti appears to be based on an early second-century sarcophagus fragment belonging to Cardinal Domenico Grimani's collection of antiquities.

Detail of the façade, ground floor

Ground floor

Theoretical corner of the Marciana Library with a final column, showing the insufficient space for a half metope

Sansovino's solution for the corner with a final pilaster placed on a wider pier (shaded)

The ground floor is modelled on the Theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum in Rome. It consists in a succession of Doric columns supporting an entablature and is layered over a series of arches resting on pillars. The combination of columns layered over an arcade had been proposed by Bramante for the Palazzo di Giustizia (unexecuted), and was employed by Antonio da Sangallo the younger for the courtyard of Palazzo Farnese (begun 1517). In adopting the solution for the Marciana Library, Sansovino was faithfully adhering to the recommendation of Leon Battista Alberti that in larger structures the column, inherited from Greek architecture, should only support an entablature, whereas the arch, inherited from Roman mural construction, should be supported on square pillars so that the resulting arcade appears to be the residual of "a wall open and discontinued in several places".

According to the architect's son, Francesco, Sansovino's design for the corner of the Doric frieze was much discussed and admired for its faithful adherence to the principles of Ancient Roman architecture as outlined by Vitruvius in De architectura. These principles required that a triglyph be centred over the last column and then followed by half a metope, but the space was insufficient. With no surviving classical examples to guide them, Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Raphael, and other great Renaissance architects had struggled with the dilemma, implementing various ideas, none of which satisfied the Vitruvian dictum. Sansovino's solution was to lengthen the end of the frieze by placing a final pilaster on a wider pier, thus creating the space necessary for a perfect half metope. Francesco Sansovino relates that his father additionally sensationalized the design by challenging the leading architects in Italy to resolve the problem and then triumphantly revealing his own solution.

Girolamo Campagna (attributed), statue of Apollo (Orpheus?)

Carvings

Rather than a two-dimensional wall, the façade is conceived as an assemblage of three-dimensional structural elements, including piers, arcades, columns, and entablatures layered atop one another to create a sense of depth, which is increased by the extensive surface carvings. These are the work of Sansovino's collaborators, including Danese Cattaneo, Pietro da Salò, Bartolomeo Ammannati, and Alessandro Vittoria. Male figures in high relief are located in the spandrels on the ground floor. With the exception of the arch in correspondence to the entry of the library which has Neptune holding a trident and Aeolus with a wind-filled sail, these figures represent allegories of non-specific rivers, characterized by the cornucopias and the urns with water flowing out. The enlarged keystones of the arches on the ground floor alternate between lions’ heads and the heads of pagan divinities (Ceres?, Pan, Apollo, Diana, Mercury, Minerva, Venus, Mars, Juno?, Jupiter, Saturn, and Phanes). In low relief, the underarches have either mythological scenes, mostly related to the divinity in the keystone, or grotesques. The spandrels on the upper floor have allegorical female figures with wings. These are in mid relief, thus creating the illusion that they are further from the viewer. The upright structural axes, consisting of the succession of columns and pedestals, become progressively lighter. This all serves to emphasize the verticality and counterbalance the long, horizontal succession of arcades.

The balustrade above is surmounted by statues of pagan divinities and immortalized heroes of Antiquity. Built by Scamozzi between 1588 and 1591 following Sansovino's design, this solution for the roofline may have been influenced by Michelangelo's designs for the Capitoline Hill in Rome and may have later inspired Scamozzi's own work at the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. Among the sculptors were Agostino and Vigilio Rubini, Camillo Mariani, Tiziano Aspetti, and Girolamo Campagna. Over time, however, several of the original statues were eroded or otherwise damaged and ultimately replaced with statues that are not always consistent with the original subjects.

The Doge's Palace (left) and the Marciana Library (right)

The effect of the library, overall, is that the entire façade has been encrusted with archaeological artefacts. Statues and carvings abound, and there are no large areas of plain wall. In addition to the abundance of classical decorative elements – obelisks, keystone heads, spandrel figures, and reliefs – the Doric and Ionic orders, each with the appropriate frieze, cornice, and base, follow ancient Roman prototypes, giving the building a sense of authenticity. The proportions, however, do not always respect Vitruvian canons. Scamozzi, a rigid classicist, was critical of the arches on the ground floor, considered to be dwarfed and ill-proportioned, and the excessive height of the Ionic entablature with respect to the columns. Nevertheless, the classical references were sufficient to satisfy the Venetians’ desire to emulate the great civilizations of Antiquity and to present their own city as the successor of the Roman Republic. At the same time, the design respects many local building traditions and harmonizes with the gothic Doge's Palace through the common use of Istrian limestone, the two-storey arcades, the balustrades, and the elaborate rooflines.

Interior

The library historically occupied the upper floor, while the ground floor was let to shops, and later cafes, as sources of revenue to the procurators. The gilded interior rooms are decorated with oil paintings by the masters of Venice's Mannerist period, including Titian, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese, and Andrea Schiavone. Some of these paintings show mythological scenes derived from the writings of classical authors: Ovid's Metamorphoses and Fasti, Apuleius's The Golden Ass, Nonnus's Dionysiaca, Martianus Capella's The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, and the Suda. In many instances, these stories of the pagan divinities are employed in a metaphorical sense on the basis of the early Christian writings of Arnobius and Eusebius. Other paintings show allegorical figures and include Renaissance hieroglyphics, consisting in symbols of plants, animals, and objects with specific, but enigmatic, meanings. They reflect the particular interest in the esotericism of the Hermetic writings and the Chaldean Oracles that enthused many humanists following the publication in 1505 of Horapollo's Ἱερογλυφικά (Hieroglyphica), the book discovered in 1419 by Cristoforo Buondelmonti and believed to be the key for deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

The iconographic sources vary and include Pierio Valeriano's dictionary of symbols, Hieroglyphica (1556); popular emblem books such as Andrea Alciati's Emblematum Liber (1531) and Achille Bocchi's Symbolicarum quaestionum de universo genere (1555); the divination game Le ingeniose sorti (1540) by Francesco Marcolini da Forlì; as well as Vincenzo Cartari's mythographic manual for painters Imagini colla sposizione degli dei degli antichi (1556). The "Mantegna Tarocchi" were used as iconographic sources for the depictions of the liberal arts and the muses in the staircase.

Although several images have a specific pedagogical function aimed at forming temperate and stalwart rulers and inculcating qualities of dedication to duty and moral excellence in the noble youth who studied in the library, the overall decorative programme reflects the Venetian aristocracy's interest in philosophy as an intellectual pursuit and, in a broader sense, the growing interest in Platonic philosophy as one of the central currents in Renaissance thought. It is conceptually organized on the basis of the Neoplatonic ascent of the soul and affirms that the quest for knowledge is directed towards the attainment of divine wisdom. The staircase largely represents the life of the embodied soul in the early stages of the ascent: the practice of the cardinal virtues, the study and contemplation of the sensible world in both its multiplicity and harmony, the transcendence of mere opinions (doxa) through dialectic, and catharsis. The reading room corresponds to the soul's subsequent journey within the intellectual realm and shows the culmination of the ascent with the awakening of the higher, intellective soul, ecstatic union, and illumination. The programme culminates with the representation of the ideal Platonic State founded upon a transcendent understanding of a higher reality. By association, it is implied that the Republic of Venice is the very paradigm of wisdom, order, and harmony.

Staircase with the Dome of Poetics and the second flight (stuccoes by Alessandro Vittoria)

Staircase

The staircase consists of four domes (the Dome of Ethics, the Dome of Rhetoric, the Dome of Dialectic, and the Dome of Poetics) and two flights, the vaults of which are each decorated with twenty-one images of alternating quadrilinear stuccoes by Alessandro Vittoria and octagonal frescoes by Battista Franco (first flight) and Battista del Moro (second flight). At the entry and on the landings, Sansovino repeated the Serlian element from the façade, making use of ancient columns taken from the dilapidated sixth-century Byzantine Church of Santa Maria del Canneto in Pola on the Istrian peninsula.

Vestibule

The vestibule was conceived as a lecture hall for the public school of Saint Mark. Founded in 1446 to train civil servants for the Ducal Chancery, the school initially focused on grammar and rhetoric. With the addition of a second lectureship for poetry, oratory, and history in 1460, it evolved into a humanistic school, principally for the sons of the nobles and citizens. Among the Italian humanists who taught there were George of Trebizond, Giorgio Valla, Marcantonio Sabellico, Raphael Regius, Battista Egnazio, and Marco Musuro. The vestibule additionally hosted the meetings of the Accademia Veneziana from 1560 until the academy's dissolution for bankruptcy the following year.

Titian, "Wisdom" (c. 1560)

The room was originally lined with wooden benches, interrupted by a lectern that was located under the central window of the western wall. Beginning in 1591, it was transformed into the public Statuary Hall by Vincenzo Scamozzi in order to display the collection of ancient sculpture that Giovanni Grimani had donated to the Venetian Republic in 1587. Of the original decoration, only the ceiling remains with the illusionistic three-dimensional decoration by Cristoforo and Stefano De Rosa of Brescia (1559). Titian's octagonal painting in the centre has most often been identified as a personification of Wisdom or History. Other suggestions include Poetry, Philosophy, Rhetoric, and Love of Letters.

Tintoretto, Diogenes

Reading Room

The adjacent reading room originally had 38 desks in the centre, arranged in two rows, to which the valuable codices were chained according to subject matter. Between the windows were imaginary portraits of great men of Antiquity, the 'philosophers', each originally accompanied by an identifying inscription. Similar portraits were located in the vestibule. Over time, however, these paintings were moved to various locations within the library and eventually, in 1763, to the Doge's Palace in order to create the wall space necessary for more bookshelves. As a result, some were lost along with all of the identifying inscriptions. The ten that survive were returned to the library in the early nineteenth century and integrated with other paintings in 1929. Of the 'philosophers', only Diogenes by Tintoretto has been credibly identified.

Battista Franco, Actaeon and Diana and grotesques

The ceiling of the reading room is decorated with 21 roundels, circular oil paintings, by Giovanni de Mio, Giuseppe Salviati, Battista Franco, Giulio Licinio, Bernardo Strozzi, Giambattista Zelotti, Alessandro Varotari, Paolo Veronese, and Andrea Schiavone. They are inserted into a gilded and painted wooden framework along with 52 grotesques by Battista Franco. The roundels by Bernardo Strozzi and Alessandro Varotari are replacements from 1635 of earlier roundels, respectively by Giulio Licinio and Giambattista Zelotti, which were irreparably damaged by water infiltrations. The original roundels were commissioned in 1556.

Although the original seven artists were formally chosen by Sansovino and Titian, their selection for an official and prestigious commission such as the library was indicative of the ascendancy of the Grimani and of those other families within the aristocracy who maintained close ties with the papal court and whose artistic preferences consequently tended towards Mannerism as it was developing in Tuscany, Emilia, and Rome. The artists were mostly young and innovative. They were primarily foreign-trained and substantially outside the Venetian tradition in their artistic styles, having been influenced by the trends in Florence, Rome, Mantua, and Parma, particularly by the work of Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, and Parmigianino. To varying degrees, the roundels that they produced for the ceiling of the reading room are consequently characterized by the emphasis on line drawing, the greater sculptural rigidity and artificial poses of the figures, and the overall dramatic compositions. They nevertheless show the influence of the Venetian painting tradition in both the colouring and brushwork.

For the single roundels, various and conflicting titles have been proposed over time. The earliest titles that Giorgio Vasari suggested for the three roundels by Veronese contain conspicuous errors, and even the titles and visual descriptions given by Francesco Sansovino, son of the architect, for all 21 roundels are often imprecise or inaccurate.

CEILING OF THE READING ROOM

with Francesco Sansovino's titles/descriptions and the more recent proposals

KEY: (S) = Sansovino, 1581    (I) = Ivanoff, 1967    (P) = Paolucci, 1981    (H) = Hope, 1990    (B) = Broderick, 2016

1 – Giovanni de Mio (S) Nature before Jupiter, asking permission to bring forth all things, and Pallas advises Jupiter on the sequence (P) Nature between Pallas and Jupiter (H) Jupiter, Minerva, and Nature (B) The Logos	2 – Giovanni de Mio (S) Theology before the gods, to whom Ganymede presents ambrosia & nectar, demonstrating what Theology does for Faith, Hope, and Charity (I) Theology (P) Theological Virtues before the Divinity (H) Theology and the Theological Virtues before Jupiter (B) The One	3 – Giovanni de Mio (S) Natural Philosophy, in the middle of the world, with the Elements, with herbs, with animals, and with humans around (P) Nature and the Seasons (H) Nature and the Seasons (B) Nature and the Seasons
4 – Giuseppe Salviati (S) Virtue, spurning Fortune, turns to Prudence, to Justice, to Fortitude, to Temperance, and to other companions (I) Virtue, spurning Fortune, turns to Prudence, to Justice, to Fortitude, to Temperance, and to other companions (P) Pallas between Fortune and Virtue (H) Wisdom prefers Virtue to Fortune (B) Minerva between Fortune and the Virtues	5 – Giuseppe Salviati (S) Art with the physiognomy that shows ingenuity, acuity, & alacrity, with Mercury nearby and Pluto (I) Eloquence (P) Mercury and Pluto and the arts (H) Art, Mercury, and Pluto (B) The Marriage of Philology and Mercury	6 – Giuseppe Salviati (S) Militia (I) Militia (P) Pallas and Hercules (H) Militia and Masculine Virtue (B) Minerva and Hercules
7 – Battista Franco (S) Agriculture with Pomona, Ceres, and Vertumnus (I) Agriculture (P) Vertumnus, Ceres and Pomona (H) Agriculture with Pomona, Ceres, and Vertumnus (B) Attis and Cybele with Nana and Sangaritis	8 – Battista Franco (S) Hunting where are Diana & Actaeon, with dogs, nets, & other things necessary for that art (I) Hunting (P) Diana and Actaeon (H) The Choice between Study and Worldly Pleasure (B) Actaeon and Diana	9 – Battista Franco (S) Celerity, Toil, and Practice & other things (I) Physical Exercise (P) Celerity between Toil and Exercise (H) Industry and Exercise (B) Prudent Reflection and Mutual Aid
10 – Giulio Licinio (S) Vigil, fasting, patience & other things that followers of virtue seek (I) Allegory of Time (P) Allegory of Vigil and Sacrifice (H) Vigil and Sacrifice (B) Vigil and Exercise	11 – Giulio Licinio (S) Glory, beatitude, & other ecstasies that are acquired by means of hard work aimed at obtaining virtue (I) Beatitude & other ecstasies that are acquired by means of hard work aimed at obtaining virtue (P) Glory and Beatitude (H) Glory and Beatitude (B) Ecstasy	12 – Bernardo Strozzi (S) The delight that comes from various disciplines, aptitude, and the good habits of study and virtue (note: the description refers to the original roundel by Giulio Licinio) (I) Sculpture (P) Allegory of Sculpture (B) Measure of Self
13 – Giambattista Zelotti (S) Various elements that are necessary to learning (P) Allegory of Study that casts out Distraction (H) The Choice between Study and Sensual Indulgence (B) Diligence opposite Lust	14 – Giambattista Zelotti (S) The delight that comes from various disciplines, aptitude, and the good habits of study and virtue (I) Measure (P) Allegory of Modesty (H) Virtue and Knowledge? (B) The Soul before Divine Wisdom Enthroned	15 – Alessandro Varotari (S) Mathematics with their instruments (note: the title refers to the original roundel by Giambattista Zelotti) (P) Atlas (B) Atlas Shouldering the World
16 – Paolo Veronese (S) Honour, in the ancient manner, with people around who offer incense and make sacrifice (I) Honour with people around who offer incense and make sacrifice (P) Honour (H) Honour (B) Genius of the Venetian People	17 – Paolo Veronese (S) Geometry & Arithmetic with their symbols (I) Geometry and Arithmetic (P) Arithmetic and Geometry (H) Astronomy, Music, and Deceit (B) Mathematical Sciences and Intellection	18 – Paolo Veronese (S) Music with various instruments and bizarre inventions (I) Music (P) Music (H) Music (B) Harmony and Beauty
19 – Andrea Schiavone (S) Priesthood (I) Priesthood (P) Priesthood (B) The People	20 – Andrea Schiavone (S) The Dignity of Empires and Kingdoms (I) The Dignity of Empires and Kingdoms (P) The Dignity of Empires and Kingdoms (B) The Philosopher-Kings	21 – Andrea Schiavone (S) The Triumph of Captains (I) The Triumph of Captains (P) The Triumph of Captains (B) The Warriors
Note: The roundels by Andrea Schiavone are shown in their original positions. The inversion of roundels 19 and 20 occurred between 1819 and 1839, probably following structural work or restoration.

Later history

Venetian administration

Although the procurators retained responsibility for the library building, in 1544 the Council of Ten assigned the custodianship of the collection to the riformatori dello studio di Padova, the educational committee of the Senate. Created in 1517, the riformatori had initially been tasked with reopening the University of Padua after its closure during the years of the War of Cambrai. This involved repairing physical damage to the buildings, hiring new professors, and organizing courses. Over time, their role came to encompass virtually all aspects of public education. Under the riformatori, the collection was first catalogued (1545). Preparations were made to move the manuscripts and books from the upper floor of Saint Mark's to the new building: the effective date of the transfer is not known from any surviving documents, but it must have occurred between 1559 and 1565, probably prior to July 1560. For the loaning of the valuable codices, the Council of Ten established stricter conditions which included the requirement of a deposit in gold or silver in the amount of 25 ducats. The sum, already substantial, was increased to 50 ducats in 1558.

The ex libris of the Marciana Library with the motto "custos vel ultor" (custodian or vindicator), engraved in 1722 and affixed to the collection during the tenure of Girolamo Venier as librarian (1709–1735)

Beginning in 1558, the riformatori nominated the librarian, a patrician chosen for life. But in 1626, the Senate once again assumed direct responsibility for the nomination of the librarian, whose term was limited by the Great Council in 1775 to three years. With few exceptions, the librarians were typically chosen from among the procurators of Saint Mark.

The reform of 1626 established the positions of custodian and attendant, both subordinate to the librarian, with the requirement that the custodian be fluent in Latin and Greek. The attendant was responsible for the general tidiness of the library and was chosen by the procurators, the riformatori, and the librarian. No indications were given regarding the nomination of the custodian, a lifetime appointment, until 1633 when it was prescribed that the election was to be the purview of the riformatori in concert with the librarian. To the custodian fell the responsibility for opening and closing the library: opening days (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings) were also fixed whereas access had previously been by appointment only. The custodian assisted readers, including the international scholars attracted by the importance of the manuscripts. Among these were Willem Canter, Henry Savile, Jacques Gaffarel, and Thomas van Erpe.

The custodian was additionally tasked with showing the library to foreigners who visited primarily to admire the structure and the manuscripts, commenting in their travel diaries on the magnificence of the building, the ancient statuary, the paintings, and on the codices themselves. Notably among these were the English travel-writer Thomas Coryat, the French archaeologist Jacob Spon, the French architect Robert de Cotte, and the German art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann.

Truly the beauty of this Librarie is such both for the notable magnificence of the building, and the admirable variety of bookes of all sciences and languages, that I beleeve none of those notable Libraries in ancient times so celebrated by worthy historians, neither that of the royall Ptolomies of Alexandria, burnt by Iulius Cæsar, not that of King Eumenes at Pergamum in Greece, nor Augustus his Palatine in Rome, nor Traians Ulpian, nor that of Serenus Sammonicus, which he left to the Emperor Gordianus the yonger, nor any other whatsoever in the whole world before the time of the invention of printing, could compare with this Palatine. Also I attribute so much unto it that I give it precedence above all the noble Libraries I saw in my travels.

— Thomas Coryat, Coryat's Crudities

В 1680 году Сенат принял рекомендацию библиотекаря, будущего Доже Сильвестро Валье ( библиотекарь 1679–1694 , Doge 1694–1700 ), чтобы лучше защитить кодексы, удаляя их из цепей и положив их в шкафы. Вместо более ранних скамей было установлено четыре больших стола для консультации. Кроме того, было решено ограничить ссуды, но библиотека должна была быть открыта ежедневно.

Каталоги библиотеки, составленные Антонио Марией Занетти и Антонио Бонгиованни и опубликовано в 1740 и 1741 годах

События в области библиотечной науки в восемнадцатом веке привели к увеличению усилий по организации и защите рукописей. Под влиянием важных королевских библиотек, в частности в Париже и Вене, были стандартизированы привязки всех рукописей, и была добавлена ​​идентифицирующая бывшая libris , чтобы подчеркнуть единство и престиж общего сбора и ее владения республикой. Современные каталоги были составлены научным хранителем Антонио Мария Занетти . Эти каталоги, напечатанные в 1740 и 1741 годах, в значительной степени придерживались библиографических руководящих принципов Бернарда де Монфаукон для библиотеки Генри-Чарль-де-Койслин , епископа Мец и определили знак шельфа каждой рукописи вместе с указанием его возраста и происхождения и происхождения , физическое описание и список текстов, которые он содержал.

Французские и австрийские администрации

После падения венецианской Республики в 1797 году позиция библиотекаря, как и во всех правительственных учреждениях, прекратилась. Хранитель Якопо Морелли стал библиотекарем по умолчанию. Название библиотеки было кратко изменено на Biblioteca Nazionale под французской оккупацией (май 1797 - январь 1798 года), но вернулось к Libreria pubblica di San Marco во время первого периода австрийского правления (1798–1805). В течение второго периода французского доминирования (1805–1814) он был обозначен Regia Biblioteca di Venezia (Королевская библиотека Венеции).

во дворце Дони, когда библиотека, как здание, была преобразована вместе с Прокурати . В 1811 году вся коллекция была перенесена в бывший Зал Великого Совета соседним Нюоу Италия . Названная как « Библиория Веккия » (старая библиотека), здание продолжало использоваться в этом качестве во втором периоде австрийского правления (1814–1866), тогда как коллекция, все еще внутри дворца дож С. Марко ди Венеция (Королевская библиотека Сен -Марка Венеции).

Итальянская администрация

См. Также: Zecca of Venice § Позже адаптации

В 1876 году, после третьей итальянской войны за независимость и аннексии Венеции к Королевству Италии , Марсиана была обозначена как национальная библиотека, название, которое признает историческое значение библиотеки, но не связана с конкретной юрисдикцией в итальянской библиотеке Полем Несколько других библиотек разделяют это название, но только два, библиотеки в Риме и во Флоренции , составляют Национальную центральную библиотеку с требованием юридического депозита для всех публикаций, напечатанных в Италии. Марциана получает копии книг, которые напечатаны местными издателями.

Коллекция была перенесена из дворца Дожа в Зекку , бывшую монету, в 1904 году. Это итальянская национальная собственность, и библиотека является государственной библиотекой, которая зависит от общего направления для библиотек и прав авторов ( общее управление библиотеками и авторским правом ) Министерства культурного наследия и деятельности и туризма ( Министерство наследия и культурной деятельности и для туризма ). Общее руководство обеспечивает финансовую поддержку и административную помощь. Центральный институт архива и патологии книг ( Istituto Centrale Per La Patologia Degli Archivi E Del Libro ) специально дает руководство в отношении сохранения и восстановления пергамента и бумаги. Марциана также участвует в Национальной библиотечной службе Италии , которая стремится стандартизировать каталогизацию между общественными, частными и университетскими библиотеками через Центральный институт по каталогу союза итальянских библиотек и библиографической информации ( Istituto Centrale Per IL Biblioteche Italiane E в соответствии с Le Informazioni Bibliografiche ). Это включает в себя создание одной базы данных для коллекций, проводимых различными учреждениями.

Под Италией « Библиория Веккия » перешла к итальянской короне, которая уступила владельцу государству в 1919 году. Марциана пришла во владение историческими комнатами библиотеки в 1924 году. Они перенесли обширное восстановление и были вновь открыты для публики в 1929 году в качестве музея.

Коллекция

См. Также: Рукописи в библиотеке Марсианы

Венецианское правительство рассматривало владение ценными кодами как источник гражданской гордости и престижа для Республики. Первоначально мало что было сделано, чтобы облегчить публичный доступ к библиотеке или улучшить услуги для читателей. Инвентаризация проводилась спорадически, но политика приобретения не была создана для дальнейшего увеличения сбора. Только две новые рукописи, оба пожертвования, вошли в библиотеку до инвентаря 1575 года. Несмотря на то, что в 1603 году была предпринята попытка увеличить активы библиотеки, юридически требуя, чтобы копия всех книг, напечатанных на территории Венецианской Республики, была впредь депонирована на Марчиане, закон оказал мало первоначального влияния из -за отсутствия соблюдения. Аналогичным образом игнорировалось, что в 1650 году был указатель Сената, который требовал, чтобы прокураторы ежегодно выделяли средства на приобретение новых книг. Тем не менее, серия отдельных завещаний началась в 1589 году и значительно расширила коллекцию с течением времени. Требование для принтеров внести копии новых книг также все больше соблюдалось, начиная с начала восемнадцатого века. Кроме того, с 1724 года Сенат присвоил ежегодное финансирование для приобретения недавно печатных иностранных книг, чтобы гарантировать, что коллекция оставалась актуальной. Одновременно библиотека начала продавать книги, имеющие предельный интерес, или небольшую ценность, в первую очередь книги, обязательно депонированные принтерами, а затем используют вырученные средства для покупки работ, имеющих культурное значение, для поддержания качества общей коллекции.

Библиотека Бессариона

См. Также: греческие ученые в эпохи Возрождения

Герб Кардинала Бессариона

Частная библиотека кардинала Бессариона представляет собой историческое ядро ​​Марсианы. В дополнение к литургическим и богословским текстам для справки, библиотека Бессариона первоначально отражала его особые интересы в истории древней греческой, платонической философии и науки, особенно астрономии. Некоторые из этих текстов были принесены Бессарионом, когда он прибыл в Италию (1438) для Совета Феррара-Флоренции ; Другие были отправлены на неизвестный позже в венецианском городе Модон ( Methoni ), недалеко от Mystras , где Бессарион учился под Gemistus Pletho . Среди ранних кодексов были работы Кирилла Александрии , Евклида , Птолемея и Страбона , некоторые из которых были редкими, если не неизвестны, в Западной Европе. Повышенный до кардинала в 1440 году, Бессарион пользовался большими финансовыми ресурсами, и он добавил заметные кодексы, в том числе драгоценные рукописи десяти века Александра Афродизисских Птолемея произведений и Альмейг , которые когда-то принадлежали библиотеке Папеп Бонифейс .

«Венет А», Bnm MS Gr. Z. 454 (= 822), fol. 24R. Гомера Рукопись, содержащая самый старый полный текст эпической Илиады , была приобретена кардиналом Бессарионом, возможно, у Джованни Ауриспа.

Около 1450 года Бессарион начал размещать свой церковный герб на свои книги и назначать следы полки, что указывает на то, что коллекция больше не ограничивалась личными консультациями, а намеревалась создать прочную библиотеку для ученых. В 1454 году, после падения Константинополя в Османские турки (1453) и последующее опустошение, он обвинил Майкла Апостолия и Теофана, епископа Афин, с задачей найти и приобретать конкретные работы по всей Греции, прежде всего в Адрианополе, Афен, Тессалоники , Aenos, Gallipoli и Constantinople, с целью сохранения сочинений классических греческих авторов и литературы Византии . Он также установил сценарий на Крите под руководством Апостолия, где наемные книжники скопировали тексты, которые нельзя было найти для покупки. Аналогичный сценарий существовал в его римской резиденции, где были скопированы другие тексты. Многие из оригиналов были заимствованы для этой цели у монастыря Санта -Кроче ди Фонте Авеллана (Марч) и из нескольких базилийских монастырей на юге Италии, из которых Бессарион был назначен защитником и апостольским посетителем в 1446 году. Они включали его открытия Posthomerica Quintus Smyrnaeus и похищение Хелена Колутха Сан , которое в противном случае было бы потеряно в результате вторжения османской Отранто и разрушения монашеской библиотеки -Никола -ди -Касоле (Apulia ) в 1480 году. Копии полных работ Августина были заказаны от продавца книг Vespasiano da Bisticci .

Бессарион приобрел несколько работ от Джованни Аурипа , а затем у своего племянника и наследника Нардо Пальмиери. Эти работы включают антологию Planudea , содержащую 2400 греческих стихов, единственную автогральную копию комментария к одиссеи Гомера Фессалоники , речи демосфенов , римской истории Кассия Дио , Библиотека Фотса Евстатиусом и единственная выжившая копия Дейпнософистей со стороны Афиней . « Venetus A » и «Venetus B», самые старые тексты Homer 's Iliad , с столетиями Scholia , также были приобретены у Aurispa.

Одновременно Бессарион собрал параллельную коллекцию латиноамериканских кодексов с относительным преобладанием работ о патриологии , философии (в первую очередь средневековые платонические и аристотелевские традиции), историю, математику и литературу. Некоторые из них были приобретены во время его проживания в Болонье (1450–1455) или скопированы из оригиналов в Сан -Джованни Евангелиста (Равенна), в том числе работы Квинтилиана , Лактантиуса , Августина и Иерома . Особый интерес для Бессариона представляли латинские историографы. Среди них были Ливия и Тацит . Латинские кодексы также включали переводы греческих работ, заказанные Бессарионом. Другие латинские кодексы были приобретены во время его устранения в Германии (1460–1461), в частности, экзегетические и богословские работы Николаса из Лиры и Уильяма Ауверн .

В конце своей жизни печатные книги стали все более доступными, и Бессарион начал добавлять инкунабулу в свою библиотеку, в первую очередь из печатного дома Арнольда Паннарца и Конрада Свейнхейма в Риме. Эти книги включали в себя работы Цицерона , Плутарха , Плиния , Квинтилиана и Томаса Аквинского , а также латинского перевода собственной работы Бессариона в защиту Платона, вращающегося Calumniatorem Platonis (1469).

В библиотеке Маркианы теперь есть 548 греческих кодексов, 337 латинских кодов и 27 инкунабулы , которые когда -то принадлежали кардиналу Бессариону. Среди них - кодексы с произведениями средних платонических и неоплатонических авторов, многие из которых являются наиболее важным, если не единственным, выжившим источником для их писаний.

Дополнения

Аллегория музыки в браке Philologiae и в среду от Capella, Bnm Ms. 14, 35 (4054), Sol. 149 В. Рукопись была сделана во Флоренции, а затем приобретена для Доминиканской библиотеки Санти Джованни Е в Паоло в Венеции. В 1789 году он был реквизирован по приказу Совета десяти и переведен в Марциана.

Основные дополнения включают:

• 1589-Мелхиорре Гиландино из Мариенбурга: завещание доктора и ботаниста, родившегося в прусском, директора ботанических садов в Университете Падуи и профессора ботаники и фармакогнозии, состоял из 2200 напечатанных книж богословие, литература, поэзия и история.
• 1595 - Якопо Контарини да С. Самуэле: Завещание венецианского патрициана, отложенное до исчезновения мужской линии контарини в 1713 году, состояло из 175 греческих и латинских рукописей и 1500 напечатанных книг и включено произведения по истории венецианского языка, законы, закона, закон, закон, закон, закон, право Поэзия, военно -морские и военные вопросы, астрономия, физика, оптика, архитектура и философия.
• 1619- Джироламо Fabrici d'Acpapendene : Завещание хирурга и профессор анатомии в Университете Падуи состоял из 13 томов с анатомическими иллюстрациями ручного цвета.
• 1624 - Giacomo Gallicio: Пожертвование состояло из 21 греческого кодекса, состоящего из более чем 90 работ, в основном с экзегетикой, филологией и философией.
• 1734-Джамбаттиста Реканати: Завещание венецианского благородного поэта и человека писем, член Флорентийской академии и Королевского общества Лондона, состоял из 216 греческих, латинских, итальянских, французских, франко-венедовых и неверных рукописей. которые были несколькими средневековыми освещенными рукописями, когда -то принадлежащими к дому Гонзаги .
• 1792 - Томмазо Джузеппе Фарсетти: Завещание венецианских патрицигов состояло из 386 латинских и итальянских рукописей и более 1600 печатных книг, в основном литературы.
• 1794-Amedeo Schweyer, называемый «Svajer»: покупка коллекции антиквара Германии включала в себя более 340 рукописей и включала генеалогии и венецианские и иностранные документы, среди которых последняя воля и завещание Марко Поло .
• 1797 - Якопо Нани: Завещание венецианского коллекционера состояло из 716 греческих, латинских, итальянских, французских, арабских, египетских, персидских, сирийских и турецких рукопис и религия.
• 1814 - Джироламо Асканио Молин: завещание венецианского дворянина, коллекционера и автора, включал 2209 книг из мелкой печати и инкунабула , 3835 принтов, 408 рисунков и 136 карт.
• 1843 - Джироламо Контарини: Завещание венецианского дворянина состояло из 4000 печатных книг и 956 рукописей, в том числе 170 музыкальных кодексов.
• 1852 - Джованни Росси: Завещание состояло из 470 рукописей, имеющих дело, в основном с венецианской историей и коллекцией венецианских опер.

Триста три драгоценных рукописей вместе с 88 редкими печатными книгами были переведены в Марциана в 1789 году из религиозных библиотек Санти Джованни Э. Паоло , Сант -Андреа Делла Сертоса и С. Пьетро Мартир ди Мурано по приказу Совета десяти после Расследование кражи выявило неудовлетворительные условия безопасности. Между 1792 и 1795 годами Совет Десяти также перешел в маркиана из своих секретных архивов, которые больше не считались политически чувствительными. Они включали в себя научные сочинения Tycho Brahe и Cesare Cremonini , первоначально представленные Inquisition за обеспокоенность по поводу религиозного православия, а также политические документы, представляющие исторический интерес.

После падения Венецианской Республики в Наполеон в 1797 году 470 драгоценных рукописей, отобранных из общественных, религиозных и частных библиотек по всей Венеции, были переданы французам как призы войны. Из них 203 были вычтены из Марсианы вместе с двумя музыкальными оценками. Аналогичным образом, в течение первого периода австрийской оккупации (1798–1805) шесть редких инкунабулы и 10 важных рукописей. были удалены многочисленные монастыри Тем не менее, Марсиана получила 4407 томов, включая 630 рукописей, когда во время второго периода французской оккупации (1805–1815) были подавлены и их библиотеки рассеялись. В 1811 году карта Фра Мауро была перенесена из подавленного камальдольного монастыря Сан -Мишель в Изоле .

По состоянию на 2019 год коллекция состоит из 13 117 рукописей; 2887 Incunabula ; 24 060 Cinquecentine ; и 1 000 000 ( около ) книг после шестнадцатого века. В целом, Марчиана остается специализированной на классике, гуманитарных науках и венецианской истории.

Смотрите также

• Лаурентская библиотека
• Малатестская библиотека
• Ватиканская библиотека

Ссылки

Библиография

• Государственные публичные библиотеки: история и местоположения в 150 лет национального объединения: Vademecum государственных публичных библиотек и культурных учреждений , изд. Генеральным директоратом по наследию библиотекаря, культурным институтам и авторским правам (Рим: Гангеми, 2011)
• Бродерик, Джаррод М., «Восхождение к мудрости: лестница Маркиана и идеал патрициана», Studi Veneziani , Lxxvii (2018), 15–171 ISSN   0392-0437
• Бродерик, Джаррод М., «Хранитель мудрости: читаемая комната Марсианы и трансцендентное знание Бога», Studi Veneziani , Lxxiii (2016), 15–94 ISSN   0392-0437
• Буркхардт, Джейкоб , Цицерон, путеводитель по наслаждению произведениями искусства Италии, том 1, Архитектура (Лейпциг: Верлаг Эа -Си -Энн, 1869)
• Chambers, David, Имперская эпоха Венеции 1380–1580 (Лондон: Thames & Hudson, 1970) ISBN   0155408917
• Кориат, Томас , «Серьезные» Кориата: поспешно поднялись в пяти Монтетсе Травеллы во Франции, Савой, Италия ... , 3 тома (Лондон: WS, 1611; Repr. London: W. Cater, 1776)
• Керл, Джеймс Стивенс, Оксфордский словарь архитектуры и ландшафтной архитектуры , 2 -е изд (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006)
• Грендлер, Пол, школа в Ренессансе Италия: грамотность и обучение 1300–1600 (Балтимор: издательство Университета Джона Хопкинса, 1989) ISBN   9780801842290
• Хартт, Фредерик , История итальянского эпохи Возрождения: живопись, скульптура, архитектура , новое пересмотренное издание (Лондон: Thames & Hudson, 1987) ISBN   0500235104
• Хирт, Томас, «Библиория Якопо Сансовино: Исследования по архитектуре и оборудованию общественного здания в Венеции», Мюнхенский ежегодник изобразительного искусства , 37 (1986), 131–176
• Надежда, Чарльз , «Потолочные картины в библиотеке Маркиана», в Massimo Gemin, ed., Новые исследования на Паоло Веронезе (Венеция: Arsenale Editrice, 1990), стр. 290–298 ISBN   8877430567
• Говард, Дебора , Архитектурная история Венеции (Лондон: BT Batsford, 1980) ISBN   9780300090291
• Говард, Дебора , Якопо Сансовино: Архитектура и покровительство в Венеции Ренессанс (Нью -Хейвен: издательство Йельского университета, 1975) ISBN   9780300018912
• Хамфри, Питер, живопись в эпохи Возрождения Венеции (Нью -Хейвен: издательство Йельского университета, 1995) ISBN   0300067151
• Ivanooff, Никола, «Статочная коронация Маркианы», Университет Венето , NS, Vol. 2 (1964), 101–112 ISSN   0004-6558
• Ивануфф, Никола, «Библиотека Маркиана: искусство и иконология», Эссе и воспоминания об истории искусства , 6 (1967), 33–78 OCLC   929872434
• Лабоуски, Лотте , Библиотека Бессариона и библиотека Марсианы, шесть ранних запасов (Рим: История и литература, 1979) ISBN   9788884985699
• Лотц, Вольфганг , «Библиотека С. Марко и городское планирование Ренессанса», в Бюллетене Международного центра архитектурных исследований »А. Palladio ', III (I961), 85–88 ISSN   0577-3008
• Лотц, Вольфганг , Сансовинский трансформация Пьяцца С. Марко и городское планирование шестнадцатого века (Висенца: Международный центр архитектурных исследований Андреа Палладио, 1966) SBN VEA1200235
• Лотц, Вольфганг , «Римское наследие в венецианских зданиях Сансовино», Журнал Общества архитектурных историков , Vol. 22, № 1 (март 1963 г.), 3–12 ISSN   0037-9808
• Маркон, Сьюзи, «Подписания рукописей Марсиани», в Filippomaria Pontani, ed., Certissima Signa (Венеция, Edizioni CA 'Foscari, 2017), стр. 11–39 ISBN   9788875434403
• Моролли, Габриэле, «Винченцо Скамоззи и фабрика нового Procuratie», в Габриэле Моролли, изд., Новые прокуаты на Пьяцца Сан -Марко (Рим: Эдиталия, 1994), с. 11–116 ISBN   9788870603095
• Моррези, Мануэла, Якопо Сансовино (Милан: Electa, 2000) ISBN   8843575716
• Палладио, Андреа , Четыре книги архитектуры (Венеция: Бартоломео Карапелло, 1581)
• Паолуччи, Антонио , «Комната библиотеки и графический цикл», в Родольфо Паллуккини, изд., От Тидзиано до Эль Греко. Для истории манеры в Венеции 1540–1590 (Милан: Electa, 1981), стр. 287–299 OCLC   1126366636
• Питтони, Лора, Библиотека Сан -Марко (Pistoia: Джузеппе Флори, 1903)
• Рейнс, Дорит, Книжный музей или научная библиотека? «Книжный магазин Сан -Марко» в республиканском контексте », Университет Венето , CXCVII, третья серия, 9/1E (2010), 31–50 ISSN   0004-6558
• Клаудия , «Бессарион Никей», в Энтони Графтоне , Гленн У. Большинство , и Сальваторе Сеттетис изд. , Рапп , ISBN   0674072278
• Ридольфи, Карло , «Чудес искусства», «Оверну жизнь прославленных венецианских художников» и штата (Венеция: Gio. Battista Sgava, 1648)
• Розанд, Дэвид , Мифы Венеции: население штата (Чапел -Хилл: Университет Северной Каролины Пресс, 2001) ISBN   0807826413
• Росс, Джеймс Брюс, «Венецианские школы и учителя с четырнадцатым и начале шестнадцатого века: опрос и исследование Джованни Баттиста Эгназио», Ренессанс Ежеквартал , том 29, выпуск 4 (зима 1976), 521–566 ISSN   0034-4338
• Ruggeri, Ugo, «Изображенное украшение библиотеки Марсианы», в Виттере Бранке и Карло Оссоле, культура и общество в эпоху Возрождения между реформами и манерами (Флоренция: LS Olschki, 1984), с. 313–333
• Сансовино, Франческо , Венеция очень благородный и единственный город, описанный в 14 книгах (Венетия: Якомо Сансовино, 1581)
• Шульц, Юрген, венецианские нарисованные потолки эпохи Возрождения (Беркли-Лос-Анджелес: Университет Калифорнийской Прессы, 1968) ISBN   1135682291
• Серлио, Себастьяно , Общие правила архитектуры выше пяти способов зданий: то есть, Тоскано, Дорико, Ионико, Коринтио и Композит, с Эмпи -делл'Некитой, который для Магорника согласен с доктриной Витрувия , вып. Полем IV (Венеция: Франческо Марколини, 1537)
• Sperti, Luigi, «Овидианские темы в Сансовинской библиотеке в Венеции», Eidola: Международный журнал истории древнего искусства , 8 (2011), 155–178 ISSN   1826-719x
• Саммерсон, Джон , классический язык архитектуры , серия World of Art, пересмотренное и увеличенное издание (Лондон: Темза и Хадсон, 1980) ISBN   0500201773
• Тафури, Манфредо, Реноватио Урбис: Венеция в эпоху Андреа Гритти (1523–1538) (Рим: офицер, 1984) OCLC   929859214
• Тавернор, Роберт, Палладио и Палладианизм (Лондон: Thames & Hudson, 1991) ISBN   9780500202425
• Wittkower, Rudolf , Архитектурные принципы в эпоху гуманизма (Лондон: Tiranti, 1952) ISBN   0393005992
• Zanetti, Antonio Maria , ed., Греческий D. Marcus Bibliotheca Books Hand, написанный The Titles Digest (Нью -Йорк: Caspar Ghirardi & Simon Occhi, 1740)
• Zanetti, Antonio Maria , ed., Английский и итальянский D. Marcus Bibliotheca Books Рука, написанная Digest Digest (Венеция: Caspar Ghirardi & Simon Occhi, 1741)
• Зорзи, Марино, «Бессарион и Венеция», в Джанфранко Свеккадори , изд., Бессарионе и гуманизм: каталог выставок (Неаполь: Vivarium, 1994), с. 197–228 ISBN   8885239099
• Зорзи, Марино, библиотека Марчиана Венеции (Флоренция: Нардини, 1988) ISBN   8840410031
• Зорзи, Марино, «Заметки о жизни и на фигуре Бессарионе», в Gianfranco Scancadori , ed., Bessarione и гуманизм: каталог выставки (Неаполь: Vivarium, 1994), с. 1–19 ISBN   8885239099
• Зорзи, Марино, Библиотека Сан -Марко: книги, читатели, клубы в Венеции Доми (Милан: Мондадори, 1987) ISBN   8804306866
• Зорзи, Марино, «Национальные библиотеки Италии», в Дэвиде Х. Стэме, изд., Международный словарь историй библиотеки , 2 тома (Чикаго: Фицрой Дирборн, 2001), I, с. 472–481 ISBN   9781579582449

Внешние ссылки

• Официальный сайт (на итальянском языке)
• Каталог греческих кодексов (на латыни)
• Каталог латинских кодексов (включает французские и итальянские кодексы) (на латыни)