Кристеро Война

Кристеро Война
Карта Мексики с указанием регионов, в которых произошли вспышки кристеро.   Масштабные вспышки   Умеренные вспышки   Спорадические вспышки
Дата 3 августа 1926 г. - 21 июня 1929 г. (2 года, 10 месяцев, 2 недели и 4 дня) Расположение Мексика Результат Прекращение огня Правительство Мексики и архиепископ Руис-и-Флорес подписывают при посредничестве США Арреглос пакт ; церковь отказывается от поддержки Кристероса Признание определенных требований Кристеро Католическая церковь восстановлена ​​в Мексике
Воюющие стороны
Правительство Мексики Мексиканская армия Поддерживать: Соединенные Штаты	Кристерос Поддерживать: Рыцари Колумба
Командиры и лидеры
Плутарко Элиас Кальес Эмилио Портес Хиль Хоакин Амаро Домингес Сатурнино Седильо Хелиодоро Харис Марселино Гарсиа Барраган Хайме Каррильо Геновево Ривас Гильен Альваро Обрегон   †	Энрике Горостиета Веларде   † Хосе Рейес Вега   † Альберто Б. Гутьеррес Аристео Педроса Андрес Салазар Букет Карлоса Каррансы † Дионисио Эдуардо Очоа † Барраса Дамасо Воскресенье Анайя † Хесус Деголладо Гисар Луис Наварро Оригинал † Лаура Роша Лукас Куэвас † Матиас Вилла Мишель Мигель Маркес Ангиано Мануэль Мишель Викториано Рамирес   † Викторино Барсенас †
Сила
~ 100 000 человек (1929)	~50 000 мужчин и женщин (1929 г.)
Жертвы и потери
56 882 погибших	30 000–50 000 погибших
По оценкам, 250 000 погибших. 250 000 бежали в США (в основном мирные жители)

Война Кристеро (исп. La Guerra Cristera ), также известная как Восстание Кристеро или Ла Кристиада [la kɾisˈtjaða] , была широкомасштабной борьбой в центральной и западной Мексике с 3 августа 1926 года по 21 июня 1929 года. в ответ на реализацию светских и антиклерикальных статей Конституции 1917 года . Восстание было спровоцировано в ответ на указ президента Мексики Плутарко Элиаса Кальеса о строгом соблюдении статьи 130 Конституции. известный как закон Каллеса . Кальес стремился ограничить власть Католической церкви в Мексике , ее дочерних организаций и подавить народную религиозность.

Сельское восстание в северо-центральной Мексике было молчаливо поддержано церковной иерархией, а ему помогли городские католики. Мексиканская армия получила поддержку со стороны США. Американский посол Дуайт Морроу выступил посредником в переговорах между правительством Каллеса и Церковью. Правительство пошло на некоторые уступки, Церковь прекратила поддержку борцов Кристеро, и конфликт закончился в 1929 году. Восстание по-разному интерпретировалось как крупное событие в борьбе между церковью и государством, которая началась в XIX веке с Войной за реформы , и как последнее крупное крестьянское восстание в Мексике после окончания военной фазы Мексиканской революции в Мексике. 1920.

Фон

Мексиканская революция

Мексиканская революция началась в 1910 году против диктатуры Порфирио Диаса и требований масс для крестьянства. Франсиско И. Мадеро был первым революционным лидером. Он был избран президентом в ноябре 1911 года, но был свергнут и казнен в 1913 году консервативным генералом Викториано Уэртой в ходе серии событий, ныне известных как « Десять трагических дней» . После того, как Уэрта захватил власть, архиепископ Леопольдо Руис-и-Флорес из Морелии опубликовал письмо, осуждающее переворот и дистанцирующее Церковь от Уэрты. Газета Национальной католической партии, представляющая взгляды епископов, резко напала на Уэрту, в результате чего новый режим заключил в тюрьму президента партии и прекратил издание газеты. Тем не менее, некоторые члены партии участвовали в режиме Уэрты, например Эдуардо Тамарис. Революционные генералы Венустиано Карранса , Франсиско Вилья и Эмилиано Сапата , победившие Федеральную армию Уэрты в соответствии с Планом Гваделупе , имели друзей среди католиков и местных приходских священников, которые им помогали. но также обвинил высокопоставленное католическое духовенство в поддержке Уэрты.

Конституция Мексики 1917 года

Основная статья: Конституция Мексики § Антиклерикальные статьи и поправки 1934.2C, 1946 и 1992 годов.

Конституция 1917 года была разработана Учредительным конгрессом, созванным Венустиано Каррансой в сентябре 1916 года, и одобрена 5 февраля 1917 года. Оно было основано на предыдущей Конституции 1857 года , которая была принята Бенито Хуаресом . Статьи 3, 27 и 130 Конституции 1917 г. содержали статьи, ограничивавшие власть и влияние католической церкви.

Первые два раздела статьи 3 гласили: «I. Согласно религиозным свободам, установленным статьей 24, образовательные услуги должны быть светскими и, следовательно, свободными от какой-либо религиозной ориентации. II. Образовательные услуги должны основываться на научном прогрессе и должны бороться с невежеством, его последствиями, рабством, фанатизмом и предрассудками». Второй раздел статьи 27 гласил: «Все религиозные объединения, организованные в соответствии со статьей 130 и производным от нее законодательством, имеют право приобретать, владеть или управлять только тем имуществом, которое необходимо для достижения своих целей».

В первом пункте статьи 130 говорилось: «Правила, установленные в этой статье, руководствуются историческим принципом, согласно которому государство и церкви являются отдельными образованиями друг от друга. Церкви и религиозные общины должны быть организованы в соответствии с законом».

Конституция также предусматривала обязательную регистрацию всех церквей и религиозных общин и запрещала священникам заниматься политикой или наследовать имущество от кого-либо, кроме близких родственников. Он также позволил каждому штату контролировать количество священников на своей территории (некоторые сократили его до нуля), запретил ношение религиозной одежды за пределами церковных помещений и исключил правонарушителей из суда присяжных. Карранса заявил, что выступает против окончательного проекта статей 3, 5, 24, 27, 123 и 130, но в Конституционном конгрессе было всего 85 консерваторов и центристов, близких к умеренному либерализму Каррансы. Против них выступили 132 делегата более радикального и антиклерикального мировоззрения.

Статья 24 гласила: «Каждый человек имеет право выбирать и исповедовать любые религиозные убеждения, если они законны и не подлежат уголовному наказанию. Конгресс не имеет права принимать законы, устанавливающие или запрещающие ту или иную религию. Церемонии публичного характера обычно проводятся в храмах. Церемонии, проводимые на открытом воздухе, регулируются законом».

Конфликт между церковью и государством

Мексиканская революция была самым дорогостоящим конфликтом в истории Мексики . Свержение диктатора Порфирио Диаса вызвало политическую нестабильность, возникшую из-за множества конкурирующих фракций и регионов. Католическая церковь и правительство Диаса пришли к неформальному модусу вивенди , при котором государство формально сохраняло антиклерикальные статьи либеральной конституции 1857 года , но не обеспечивало их соблюдение. A change of leadership or a wholesale overturning of the previous order were potential sources of danger to the Church's position. In the democratizing wave of political activity, the National Catholic Party (Partido Católico Nacional) was formed.

After president Francisco I. Madero was overthrown and assassinated in a February 1913 military coup which was led by General Victoriano Huerta, supporters of the Porfirian regime were returned to their posts. After the ouster of Huerta in 1914, members of the National Catholic Party and high-ranking Church figures were accused of collaborating with the Huerta regime, and the Catholic Church was subjected to revolutionary hostilities and fierce anticlericalism by many northern revolutionaries. The Constitutionalist faction won the revolution and its leader, Venustiano Carranza, had a new constitution drawn up, the Constitution of 1917. It strengthened the anticlerical provisions of the previous document, but President Carranza and his successor, General Alvaro Obregón, were preoccupied by their struggles with their internal enemies and as a result, they were lenient in their enforcement of the Constitution's anticlerical articles, especially in areas where the Church was powerful.

Carranza was the first president under the 1917 Constitution but he was overthrown by his former ally Álvaro Obregón in 1919. Obregón took over the presidency in late 1920 and effectively applied the Constitution's anticlerical laws in areas in which the Church was fragile. The uneasy truce with the Church ended with Obregón's 1924 handpicked succession of the atheist Plutarco Elías Calles. Mexican Jacobins, supported by Calles's central government, engaged in secularization campaigns to eradicate what they called "superstition" and "fanaticism", which included the desecration of religious objects as well as the persecution and the murder of members of the clergy.

When Calles and his Labor Party came to power in 1924, the administration believed that the Church was challenging its revolutionary initiatives and legal basis and resolved to strictly enforce the Constitution's secularist articles. To confront the Church's influence, laws were brought into force to execute on the constitutional provisions, which triggered a ten-year-long religious conflict in which thousands of armed civilians were killed by the Mexican Army. Some have characterized Calles as the leader of an atheist state and his program as being one to eradicate religion in Mexico, although Calles also supported the creation of the Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church in 1925, a national church independent from the Vatican and accepting of the secularist Constitution. Calles applied the anticlerical laws stringently throughout the country and added his own anticlerical legislation. In June 1926, he signed the "Law for Reforming the Penal Code," which was popularly called the Calles Law. It provided specific penalties for priests and individuals who violated the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. For instance, wearing clerical garb in public, outside church buildings, earned a fine of 500 pesos (then the equivalent of US$250), and priests who criticized the government could be imprisoned for five years. Some states enacted their own anticlerical measures. Chihuahua enacted a law permitting only one priest to serve all Catholics in the state. To help enforce the law, Calles expropriated church property, expelled all foreign priests and closed monasteries, convents and religious schools.

Protests and radicalization

In response to the measures, Catholic organizations began to intensify their resistance. The most important Catholic group was the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty, founded in 1924, which was joined by the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth, founded in 1913, and the Popular Union, a Catholic political party founded the previous year.

Later in 1926, Calles intensified tensions against the clergy by ordering all local churches in and around Jalisco to be bolted shut. The places of worship remained shut for two years. On 14 July, Catholic bishops endorsed plans for an economic boycott against the government, which was particularly effective in west-central Mexico (the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas). Other states that saw minor uprising were the following Oaxaca, Colima, Sonora, and Nayarit. Catholics in those areas stopped attending movies and plays and using public transportation, and Catholic teachers stopped teaching in secular schools.

The fomenting conflict attracted the attention of Pope Pius XI, who issued a series of papal encyclicals from 1925 to 1937. On 18 November 1926, he issued Iniquis afflictisque ("On the Persecution of the Church in Mexico") to denounce the violent anticlerical persecution in Mexico. Despite the government's promises, the persecution of the Church continued. In response, Pius issued Acerba animi on 29 September 1932.

The bishops asked to have the offending articles of the Constitution amended. Pope Pius XI explicitly approved the plan. The Calles government considered the bishops' activism to be sedition and had many more churches closed. In September 1926, the episcopate submitted a proposal to amend the Constitution, but the Mexican Congress rejected it on 22 September.

A modern reproduction of the flag used by the Cristeros with references to "Viva Cristo Rey" and "Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe"

Government forces publicly hanged Cristeros on main thoroughfares throughout Mexico, including in the Pacific states of Colima and Jalisco, where bodies often remained hanging for extended lengths of time.

Rebellion

The government called the rebels Cristeros since they invoked the name of Jesus Christ under the title of "Cristo Rey" or Christ the King, and the rebels soon took to using the name themselves. The rebellion is known for the Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc, a brigade of women who assisted the rebels in smuggling guns and ammunition, and for certain priests who were tortured and murdered in public and later canonized by Pope John Paul II. The rebellion eventually came to an end following a settlement brokered by the American Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow, with financial relief and logistical assistance provided by the Knights of Columbus.

Beginning of violence

Cristero Victoriano Ramirez

On 3 August, four days after the Calles Law came into force, in Guadalajara, Jalisco, some 400 armed Catholics shut themselves in the Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe ("Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe"). They exchanged gunfire with federal troops and surrendered when they ran out of ammunition. According to American consular sources, the battle resulted in 18 dead and 40 wounded. The following day, in Sahuayo, Michoacán, 240 government soldiers stormed the parish church. The priest and his vicar were killed in the ensuing violence.

On 14 August, government agents staged a purge of the Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, chapter of the Association of Catholic Youth and executed its spiritual adviser, Father Luis Bátiz Sainz. The execution caused a band of ranchers, led by Pedro Quintanar, to seize the local treasury and to declare themselves in rebellion. At the height of the rebellion, they held a region including the entire northern part of Jalisco. Luis Navarro Origel, mayor of Pénjamo, Guanajuato, led another uprising on 28 September. His men were defeated by federal troops in the open land around the town but retreated into the mountains, where they engaged in guerrilla warfare. In support of the two guerrilla Apache clans, the Chavez and Trujillos helped smuggle arms, munitions and supplies from the U.S. state of New Mexico.

That was followed by a 29 September uprising in Durango, led by Trinidad Mora, and an 4 October rebellion in southern Guanajuato, led by former General Rodolfo Gallegos. Both rebel leaders adopted guerrilla tactics since their forces were no match for federal troops. Meanwhile, rebels in Jalisco, particularly the region northeast of Guadalajara, quietly began assembling forces. Led by 27-year-old René Capistrán Garza, the leader of the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth, the region would become the main focal point of the rebellion.

The formal rebellion began on 1 January 1927, with a manifesto sent by Garza, A la Nación ("To the Nation"). It declared that "the hour of battle has sounded" and that "the hour of victory belongs to God." With the declaration, the state of Jalisco, which had been seemingly quiet since the Guadalajara church uprising, exploded. Bands of rebels moving in the "Los Altos" region northeast of Guadalajara began seizing villages and were often armed with only ancient muskets and clubs. The rebels had scarce logistical supplies and relied heavily on the Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc and raids on towns, trains, and ranches to supply themselves with money, horses, ammunition, and food. By contrast, the Calles government was supplied with arms and ammunition by the American government later in the war. In at least one battle, American pilots provided air support for the Federal Army against the Cristero rebels.

The Calles government failed at first to take the threat seriously. The rebels did well against the agraristas, a rural militia recruited throughout Mexico, and the Social Defense forces, the local militia, but were at first always defeated by regular federal troops, who guarded the main cities. The Federal Army then had 79,759 men. When the Jalisco federal commander, General Jesús Ferreira, moved in on the rebels, wired to army headquarters that "it will be less a campaign than a hunt". That sentiment was held also by Calles.

A photo of officers and family members from the Cristeros Castañón fighting regiment.

However, the rebels planned their battles fairly well considering that most of them had little to no previous military experience. The most successful rebel leaders were Jesús Degollado, a pharmacist; Victoriano Ramírez, a ranch hand; and two priests, Aristeo Pedroza and José Reyes Vega. Reyes Vega was renowned, and Cardinal Davila deemed him a "black-hearted assassin". At least five priests took up arms, and many others supported them in various ways.

Many of the rebel peasants who took up arms in the fight had different motivations from the Catholic Church. Many were still fighting for agrarian land reform, which had been years earlier the focal point of the Mexican Revolution. The peasantry was still upset of the usurpation of its rightful title to the land.

The Mexican episcopate never officially supported the rebellion, but the rebels had some indications that their cause was legitimate. Bishop José Francisco Orozco of Guadalajara remained with the rebels. Although he formally rejected armed rebellion, he was unwilling to leave his flock.

Cristero General Enrique Gorostieta.

On 23 February 1927, the Cristeros defeated federal troops for the first time at San Francisco del Rincón, Guanajuato, followed by another victory at San Julián, Jalisco. However, they quickly began to lose in the face of superior federal forces, retreated into remote areas, and constantly fled federal soldiers. Most of the leadership of the revolt in the state of Jalisco was forced to flee to the U.S. although Ramírez and Vega remained.

In April 1927, the leader of the civilian wing of the Cristiada, Anacleto González Flores, was captured, tortured, and killed. The media and the government declared victory, and plans were made for a re-education campaign in the areas that had rebelled. As if to prove that the rebellion was not extinguished and to avenge his death, Vega led a raid against a train carrying a shipment of money for the Bank of Mexico on 19 April 1927. The raid was a success, but Vega's brother was killed in the fighting.

The "Reconcentración" policy, was a policy of forced resettlement by the government during the cristero period of villages destroyed during the numerous battles . rather than suppressing the revolt, gave it new life, as thousands of men began to aid and join the rebels in resentment for their treatment by the government. When rains came, the peasants were allowed to return to the harvest, and there was now more support than ever for the Cristeros. By August 1927, they had consolidated their movement and had begun constant attacks on federal troops garrisoned in their towns. They would soon be joined by Enrique Gorostieta, a retired general hired by the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty.

On 21 June 1927, the first Women's Brigade was formed in Zapopan. It began with 16 women and one man, but after a few days, it grew to 135 members and soon came to number 17,000. Its mission was to obtain money, weapons, provisions, and information for the combatant men and to care for the wounded. By March 1928, some 10,000 women were involved in the struggle, with many smuggling weapons into combat zones by carrying them in carts filled with grain or cement. By the end of the war, it numbered some 25,000. Several female Catholic activists groups formed during this women were instrumental in the formation of activist groups to promote a movement in response to the anticlerical campaigns of the period.

With close ties to the Church and the clergy, the De La Torre family was instrumental in bringing the Cristero Movement to northern Mexico. The family, originally from Zacatecas and Guanajuato, moved to Aguascalientes and then, in 1922, to San Luis Potosí. It moved again to Tampico for economic reasons and finally to Nogales (both the Mexican city and its similarly named sister city across the border in Arizona) to escape persecution from authorities because of its involvement in the Church and the rebels. The Cristeros maintained the upper hand throughout 1928, and in 1929, the government faced a new crisis: a revolt within army ranks that was led by Arnulfo R. Gómez in Veracruz. The Cristeros tried to take advantage by a failed attack on Guadalajara in late March 1929. The rebels managed to take Tepatitlán on 19 April, but Vega was killed. The rebellion was met with equal force, and the Cristeros were soon facing divisions within their own ranks. Another difficulty facing the Cristeros and especially the Catholic Church was the extended period without a place of worship. The clergy faced the fear of driving away the faithful masses by engaging in war for so long. They also lacked the overwhelming sympathy or support from many aspects of Mexican society, even among many Catholics.

Diplomacy

Armed Cristeros congregating in the streets of Mexico.

In October 1927, the American ambassador, Dwight Morrow, initiated a series of breakfast meetings with Calles at which they would discuss a range of issues from the religious uprising to oil and irrigation. That earned him the nickname "the ham and eggs diplomat" in U.S. papers. Morrow wanted the conflict to end for regional security and to help find a solution to the oil problem in the U.S. He was aided in his efforts by Father John J. Burke of the National Catholic Welfare Conference. Calles's term as president was coming to an end, and ex-President Álvaro Obregón had been elected president and was scheduled to take office on 1 December 1928. Obregón had been more lenient to Catholics during his time in office than Calles, but it was also generally accepted among Mexicans, including the Cristeros, that Calles was his puppet leader. Two weeks after his election, Obregón was assassinated by a Catholic radical, José de León Toral, which gravely damaged the peace process.

Cristero union.

In September 1928, Congress named Emilio Portes Gil as interim president with a special election to be held in November 1929. Portes was more open to the Church than Calles had been and allowed Morrow and Burke to restart the peace initiative. Portes told a foreign correspondent on 1 May 1929, that "the Catholic clergy, when they wish, may renew the exercise of their rites with only one obligation, that they respect the laws of the land." The next day, the exiled Archbishop Leopoldo Ruíz y Flores issued a statement that the bishops would not demand the repeal of the laws but only their more lenient enforcement.

Mexican Army General Heliodoro Charis.

Morrow managed to bring the parties to agreement on 21 June 1929. His office drafted a pact called the arreglos ("agreement"), which allowed worship to resume in Mexico and granted three concessions to the Catholics. Only priests who were named by hierarchical superiors would be required to register; religious instruction in churches but not in schools would be permitted; and all citizens, including the clergy, would be allowed to make petitions to reform the laws. However, the most important parts of the agreement were that the Church would recover the right to use its properties, and priests would recover their rights to live on the properties. Legally speaking, the Church was not allowed to own real estate, and its former facilities remained federal property. However, the Church effectively took control over the properties. In the convenient arrangement for both parties, the Church ostensibly ended its support for the rebels.

Cristeros bosses interview and the head of Military Operations of the State of Colima on 21 June 1929.

Over the previous two years, anticlerical officers, who were hostile to the federal government for reasons other than its position on religion, had joined the rebels. When the agreement between the government and the Church was made known, only a minority of the rebels went home, mainly those who felt their battle had been won. On the other hand, since the rebels themselves had not been consulted in the talks, many felt betrayed, and some continued to fight. The Church threatened those rebels with excommunication and the rebellion gradually died out. The officers, fearing that they would be tried as traitors, tried to keep the rebellion alive. Their attempt failed, and many were captured and shot, and others escaped to San Luis Potosí, where General Saturnino Cedillo gave them refuge.

The war had claimed the lives of some 90,000 people: 56,882 federals, 30,000 Cristeros, and numerous civilians and Cristeros who were killed in anticlerical raids after the war had ended. As promised by Portes Gil, the Calles Law remained on the books, but there were no organized federal attempts to enforce it. Nonetheless, in several localities, officials continued persecution of Catholic priests, based on their interpretation of the law.

In 1992, the Mexican government amended the constitution by granting all religious groups legal status, conceding them property rights, and lifting restrictions on the number of priests in the country.

American involvement

Mexican American resistance

While the war was raging on in Mexico, Cristero exiles and other Mexican immigrants and refugees would attend sermons by banished Cristero priests denouncing President Plutarco Elías Calles' regime and the Cristero War. These attendees would also help generate sympathy in the United States for the Cristero War by printing newspaper articles about the war and would create religious nationalistic organizations such as Unión Nacionalista Mexicana (Nationalist Mexican's Union in English) to gather funds for the war effort. There were some within these groups that would contribute more military aid to the Cristeros, with actions including smuggling arms across the U.S.-Mexican border, providing espionage against the Mexican government, recruiting new troops to aid the Cristeros, and inciting armed revolts within Mexico. Despite all of these efforts, their contribution to the war was largely limited due to distrust from the United States government who saw an armed Catholic movement as dangerous and would send more troops to the border, which would cause more persecution and discrimination to Mexican Catholics, Cristero exiles, and refugees.

Knights of Columbus

Created in Massachusetts in 1882, the Knights of Columbus would establish its first chapter in Mexico called Caballeros de Colón (Knights of Columbus in Spanish) in Mexico City in 1905. Established by California railroad mogul and Knight John B. Frisbie, a resident of Mexico City, the first chapter would be made up of mostly Irish and Irish-Mexicans before more Mexicans would join the organization. The Knights of Columbus would eventually become one of Mexico's biggest and most monumental Catholic organizations, with a total of 5,102 members across 45 councils nationwide. The Knights of Columbus would start out in western states, an area where the Catholic Church was widespread, such as Puebla, Hidalgo, Michoacán, Guanajuato, and Jalisco, before spreading to Nayarit, Veracruz, Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua. Mexican members of the Knights of Columbus would also be involved with other Catholic organizations such as the Young Men's Catholic Association and La Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa (National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty in English). The Knights of Columbus would create religious schools throughout Mexico in 1923 as a way to create a "National Crusade in Defense of Catholicism". Furthermore, La Liga would create a popular, nationwide boycott in 1925 to protest the government's treatment of Catholics and the ongoing anti-religious sentiment present throughout the government. The Knights of Columbus also helped to generate propaganda and support for the Cristero War, framing the war as a story of martyrs and heroes, standing up for their religion in the face of an oppressive government.

American councils and Mexican councils, mostly newly formed, of the Knights of Columbus, both opposed the persecution by the Mexican government. So far, nine of those who were beatified or canonized were Knights. The American Knights collected more than $1 million to assist exiles from Mexico, fund the continuation of the education of expelled seminarians, and inform U.S. citizens about the oppression. They circulated five million leaflets about the war in the United States, held hundreds of lectures, spread the news via radio, and paid to "smuggle" a friendly journalist into Mexico so he could cover the war for an American audience.

In addition to lobbying the American public, the Knights met United States President Calvin Coolidge and pressed him for US intervention on behalf of the rebels. According to former Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus, Carl A. Anderson, two-thirds of Mexican Catholic councils were shut down by the Mexican government. In response, the Knights of Columbus published posters and magazines which presented Cristero soldiers in a positive light. In the mid-1920s, the anti-Catholic Ku Klux Klan denounced the Knights of Columbus's Mexican Fund.

Aftermath

Amnesty with the Federal Army in San Gabriel, Jalisco, under Manuel Michel.

The government often did not abide by the terms of the truce. For example, it executed some 500 Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros. Catholics continued to oppose Calles's insistence on a state monopoly on education, which suppressed Catholic education and introduced secular education in its place: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth." Calles's military persecution of Cristeros after the truce would be officially condemned by Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas and the Mexican Congress in 1935. Between 1935 and 1936, Cárdenas had Calles and many of his close associates arrested and forced them into exile soon afterwards. Freedom of worship was no longer suppressed, but some states refused to repeal Calles's policy. Relations with the Church improved under President Cárdenas.

The government's disregard for the Church, however, did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho, a practicing Catholic, took office. During Cárdenas presidency, Church buildings in the country continued in the hands of the Mexican government, and the nation's policies regarding the Church still fell into federal jurisdiction. Under Camacho, bans against Church anticlerical laws were no longer enforced anywhere in Mexico.

The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934, at least 40 priests were killed. There were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, but by 1934, there were only 334 licensed by the government to serve 15 million Catholics. The rest had been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, assassination, or not obtaining licenses. In 1935, 17 states had no registered priests.

The end of the Cristero War affected emigration to the United States. "In the aftermath of their defeat, many of the Cristeros – by some estimates as much as 5 percent of Mexico's population – fled to the United States. Many of them made their way to Los Angeles, where they were received by John Joseph Cantwell, bishop of what was then the Los Angeles-San Diego diocese." Under Archbishop Cantwell's sponsorship, the Cristero refugees became a substantial community in Los Angeles, California, in 1934 staging a parade some 40,000-strong throughout the city. Additionally, several other cites such as Chicago, Illinois, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and San Antonio, Texas. Many cities saw an increase in Mexican Catholics fleeing because of the war. Immigration to other countries such as Canada, Rome, Cuba occurred as well.

Cárdenas era

The Calles Law was repealed after Cárdenas became president in 1934. Cárdenas earned respect from Pope Pius XI and befriended Mexican Archbishop Luis María Martínez, a major figure in Mexico's Catholic Church who successfully persuaded Mexicans to obey the government's laws peacefully. The Church refused to back Mexican insurgent Saturnino Cedillo's failed revolt against Cárdenas although Cedillo endorsed more power for the Church.

Cárdenas's government continued to suppress religion in the field of education during his administration. The Mexican Congress amended Article 3 of the Constitution in October 1934 to include the following introductory text: "The education imparted by the State shall be a socialist one and, in addition to excluding all religious doctrine, shall combat fanaticism and prejudices by organizing its instruction and activities in a way that shall permit the creation in youth of an exact and rational concept of the Universe and of social life."

The implementation of socialist education met with strong opposition in some parts of academia and in areas that had been controlled by the Cristeros. Pope Pius XI also published the encyclical Firmissimam constantiam on 28 March 1937, expressing his opposition to the "impious and corruptive school" (paragraph 22) and his support for Catholic Action in Mexico. That was the third and last encyclical published by Pius XI that referred to the religious situation in Mexico. The amendment was ignored by President Manuel Ávila Camacho and was officially repealed from the Constitution in 1946. Constitutional bans against the Church would not be enforced anywhere in Mexico during Camacho's presidency.

Cristeros' violence against school teachers

Main article: Saints of the Cristero War

On 23 November 1927, Miguel Agustín Pro, a Mexican Jesuit, was executed by a firing squad in Mexico City.

Many former Cristeros took up arms again and fought as independent rebels and some Catholics joined them. They targeted unarmed public school teachers who implemented secular education and committed atrocities against them. Government supporters blamed the atrocities on the Cristeros in general. Some of the teachers who were paid by the government refused to leave their schools and communities, and as a result, they sustained mutilations when Cristeros cut their ears off. Thus, the teachers who were murdered during the conflict are frequently referred to as maestros desorejados ("teachers without ears").

In some cases, teachers were tortured and killed by former Cristero rebels. It is calculated that approximately 300 rural teachers were killed between 1935 and 1939, and other authors calculate that at least 223 teachers were victims of the violence which occurred between 1931 and 1940, the acts of violence which occurred during this period included the assassinations of Carlos Sayago, Carlos Pastraña, and Librado Labastida in Teziutlán, Puebla, the hometown of President Manuel Ávila Camacho; the execution of a teacher, Carlos Toledano, who was burned alive in Tlapacoyan, Veracruz; and the lynching of at least 42 teachers in the state of Michoacán.

The Catholic Church has recognized several of those who were killed in the Cristero War as martyrs, including Miguel Pro, a Jesuit who was shot dead without trial by a firing squad on 23 November 1927, for his alleged involvement in an assassination attempt against former President Álvaro Obregón, though his supporters maintained that he was executed for carrying out his priestly duties in defiance of the government. His beatification occurred in 1988.

On 21 May 2000, Pope John Paul II canonized a group of 25 martyrs who were killed during the Cristero War. They had been beatified on 22 November 1992. Of this group, 22 were secular clergy, and three were laymen. They did not take up arms but refused to leave their flocks and ministries and were shot or hanged by government forces for offering the sacraments. Most were executed by federal forces. Although Pedro de Jesús Maldonado was killed in 1937, after the war ended, he is considered a member of the Cristeros.

The Catholic Church recognized 13 additional victims of the war as martyrs on 20 November 2005, thus paving the way for their beatifications. This group was mostly lay people, including Luis Magaña Servín and 14-year-old José Sánchez del Río. On 20 November 2005, at Jalisco Stadium in Guadalajara, José Saraiva Cardinal Martins celebrated the beatifications. Furthermore, some religious relics have been brought to the United States from Jalisco and are currently located at Our Lady of the Mount Church in Cicero, Illinois.

The war would lead to refugees and exiles to flee to the United States, mostly from the central-Pacific region, as state-enforced violence towards Catholics would lead religious Mexicans from states such as Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Guanajuato to leave for the United States. Within these new arrivals, there were 2,500 exiles with positions within the Catholic Church in Mexico, creating a Cristero Diaspora alongside other refugees, immigrants, and non-clergy exiles. Most of these refugees were also farmers, ranchers, and laborers, and due to increased transportation services between the United States and Mexico, immigration was easier than ever before. These immigrants would take industrial and labor-intensive jobs within the United States, particularly in California, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico. Leading to the creation of many churches and religious institutions in many states with Cristo Rey and Our Lady of Guadalupe as names. Building seminary's to house displaced clergy members and several convents housing nuns .

Баннер группы сторонников Кристеро в Центре исследований Кристерос в Энкарнасьон-де-Диас , Халиско .

In popular culture

For Greater Glory is a 2012 film based on the events of the Cristero War.

The novel José Trigo by Fernando del Paso partly centers on the Cristero War. Graham Greene's 1940 novel The Power and the Glory deals with the Mexican government's attempt to suppress the Catholic Church during the war.

Many films, shorts, and documentaries about the war have been produced since 1929 such as Cristiada (aka For Greater Glory) from 2012.

Several ballads, or corridos, were composed in the period of the war by federal troops and Cristeros.

Кристерос также упоминаются в Джеймса Эллроя романе 2019 года «Этот шторм».

Война Кристеро также упоминается в Хуана Рульфо романе 1955 года «Педро Парамо» .

См. также

• Юридические улицы
• Католическая церковь в Латинской Америке
• Католическая церковь в Мексике
• Национальный синархический союз
• Женские бригады Святой Жанны Д'Арк
• Столкновение культур
• Список войн с участием Мексики
• Мексиканская революция
• Реформаторская война

Первоисточники

Аурелио Асеведо, изд. Дэвид: иллюстрированный ежемесячный журнал, история Кристеро, информация и гражданское право. 7 томов. Мексика, Германия: Легион Христа-Царя и Санта-Мария-де-Гуадалупе — ветераны Национальной гвардии Кристерос, 1952 год.

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Мендоса Барраган Эсекьель. Свидетельства Кристеро: Мемуары автора. 1-е изд. Издательство Юс, 1990.

Свергнутый с престола Гизар, Иисус. Мемуары Хесуса Дегольядо Гисара, последнего генерала, главнокомандующего армией Кристеро. [1. ред.]. Сборник воспоминаний, сер. А. Мексика: Редакция Jús, 1957.

Галерея мексиканских мучеников: правдивые рассказы . 1927. Сан-Антонио Текс: Универсальная типография.

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Наваррете Эриберто. Для Бога и для страны: воспоминания о моем участии в защите свободы совести и вероисповедания во время религиозных преследований в Мексике с 1926 по 1929 годы . 1а. ред. Юс 1961 года.

Регер, Консуэло. Бог и мое право: 1932 год – 1933 год – Положение Национальной лиги защиты свободы Второе восстание – 1934 год – 1935 год – 1936 год – Последние годы. 1-е изд. Том 4. 4 т. Мексика: Редакция Jus, 1997.

Бог и мое право: Предыстория - Cristera Epic - Кульминация Cristera Epic Епископы - Бюллетени и документы. 1-е изд. Том 1. 4 т. Мексика: Editorial Jus, 1997. Бог и мое право: Los Arreglos. (Часть первая)-Аранжировки. (Вторая часть) Конец 1930 года-1931 год-Образование. 1-е изд. Том 3. 4 т. Мексика: Editorial Jus, 1997. Бог и мое право: Луис Сегура Вильчис – Аргументы – 1927 год – 1928 год Убийство Обрегона – 1928 год (продолжение) – 1929 год. 1. изд. Том 2. 4 т. Мексика: Редакция Jus, 1997.

Риус Фациус, Антонио. Мексика Кристеро: История ACJM с 1925 по 1931 год. Мексика, DF: Editorial Patria, 1960.

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Историография

• Мабри, ди-джей (1 января 1978 г.). «Мексиканские антиклерикалы, епископы, кристерос и набожные в 1920-е годы: научные дебаты». Журнал церкви и государства . 20 (1): 81–92. дои : 10.1093/jcs/20.1.81 .
• Лопес, Дамиан (8 января 2018 г.). «Война Кристеро (Мексика, 1926-1929 гг.). Историографический подход / Война Кристеро (Мексика, 1926-1929 гг.). Историографический обзор» . Историографии : 35–52. doi : 10.26754/ojs_historiografias/hrht.201112523 . S2CID   187566026 .
• Батлер, Мэтью. «Кристерос и аграристы в Халиско: новый вклад в историографию Кристеры». История Мексики , том. 52, № 2, октябрь 2002 г., с. 493–30, https://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/1378.

В художественной литературе

• Грин, Грэм . Сила и слава (роман). Нью-Йорк: Viking Press, 1940 (как «Пути лабиринта »).
• Рульфо, Хуан Эль Льяно в ламах, переведенный на английский как «Пылающая равнина» (роман). Фонд экономической культуры , 1953 г.

На испанском языке

• Де Ла Торре, Хосе Луис. Из Соноры в рай: биография Его Превосходительства г-на генерального викария архиепархии Эрмосильо, Сонора Пбро. Дон Игнасио Де Ла Торре Урибаррен (испанское издание) [1]

Внешние ссылки

• Кристерос (Солдаты Христа) - документальный фильм , заархивировано 24 марта 2012 г. в Wayback Machine.
• Статья AP о канонизациях 2000 года
• Биография Мигеля Про. Архивировано 17 ноября 2011 года в Wayback Machine.
• Испанская статья о войне
• Испанские биографии святых, канонизированных в 2000 году.
• Феррейра, Корнелия Р. Блаженный Хосе Луис Санчес дель Рио: мальчик-мученик Кристеро , биография (Canisius Books, 2006).
• Iniquis Afflictisque - энциклика Папы Пия XI о преследовании Церкви в Мексике (18 ноября 1926 г.)
• Мисс Мексика в платье с изображением Кристероса на конкурсе Мисс Вселенная 2007.
• Catholicism.org: «Доблесть и предательство – историческая справка и история кристерос» – статья Гэри Поттера .
• Ла Кристиада - мини-документальный фильм о войне о гражданской войне, снятый Кентским университетом на YouTube
• Онлайн-дискуссия «Конфликты во время правления Плутарко Элиаса Кальеса » | Доктор Ив Солис Никот из Кристеро Войны Ибероамериканского университета