Latvian grammar
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The Latvian language is an extensively inflected language, with complex nominal and verbal morphology. Word order is relatively free, but the unmarked order is subject–verb–object. Latvian has pre-nominal adjectives and both prepositions and postpositions. There are no articles in Latvian, but definiteness can be indicated by the endings of adjectives.
Nouns and adjectives
[edit]Latvian has two grammatical genders (masculine and feminine) and seven cases; there are no articles. Adjectives generally precede the nouns they modify, and agree in case, number, and gender. In addition, adjectives take distinct endings to indicate definite and indefinite interpretation:
- Viņa nopirka [vecu māju]. "She bought [an old house]."
- Viņš nopirka [veco māju]. "He bought [the old house]."
For details about the nominal morphology of Latvian (inflection of nouns, pronouns, numerals, and adjectives), see Latvian declension.
Verbs
[edit]Latvian has three simple tenses (present, past and future), and three compound perfect constructions: present perfect, past perfect, future perfect.
Latvian verbs are used in five moods:
- indicative;
- imperative;
- conditional;
- conjunctive (Latvian literature, however, does not make a distinction between conditional and conjunctive. Even if such a distinction is made both of them are morphologically identical – ending in -u.);
- quotative, also known as relative or inferential mood (some authors distinguish analytically derived jussive as a subset of quotative; others, however, insist that a simple addition of a conjunction (lai) is not sufficient basis for distinguishing this grammatical construction as a grammatical mood);[1] and
- debitive (for expressing obligation).
The relations between tenses and moods are shown in the following table. (The table does not include quotative.)
| Indicative | Imperative | Conditional | Conjunctive | Debitive | |
| Simple present | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Simple past | ✓ | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ |
| Simple future | ✓ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Present perfect | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Past perfect | ✓ | ✗ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ |
| Future perfect | ✓ | ✗ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ |
Latvian verbs have two voices, active and passive. The passive voice is analytic, combining an auxiliary verb (tikt "become", būt "be", or more rarely, tapt "become") and the past passive participle form of the verb. Reflexive verbs are marked morphologically by the suffix -s.
Conjugation classes
[edit]Unlike, for example, Romance languages where conjugation classes are assigned based on thematic vowels[2] (e.g., -are, -ere, -ire forming, respectively, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd conjugation in Italian) Latvian verbs are classified in conjugations regardless of whether they end in -āt, -ēt, -īt, -ot or -t. The classification depends on whether the verb stem has a thematic vowel, and if so, whether it is retained in present tense.[3]
- The first conjugation class is characterized by an absence of the thematic vowel in infinitive, present as well as past. Furthermore 1st conjugation verbs are always monosyllabic and their stems undergo sound shifts. Based on these sound shifts they are further divided in 5 subcategories.[4] Sound shifts bolded below
| INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) | IMPERATIVE (pavēles izteiksme) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present (tagadne) | Past (pagātne) | Future (nākotne) | |||
| 1st pers. sg. | es | ceļu | cēlu | celšu | — |
| 2nd pers. sg. | tu | cel | cēli | celsi | cel |
| 3rd pers. sg. | viņš, viņa | ceļ | cēla | cels | lai ceļ |
| 1st pers. pl. | mēs | ceļam | cēlām | celsim | celsim |
| 2nd pers. pl. | jūs | ceļat | cēlāt | celsiet, celsit | celiet |
| 3rd pers. pl. | viņi, viņas | ceļ | cēla | cels | lai ceļ |
| RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) | PARTICIPLES (divdabji) | ||||
| Present | ceļot | Present Active 1 (Adj.) | ceļošs | ||
| Past | esot cēlis | Present Active 2 (Adv.) | celdams | ||
| Future | celšot | Present Active 3 (Adv.) | ceļot | ||
| Imperative | lai ceļot | Present Active 4 (Obj.) | ceļam | ||
| CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) | Past Active | cēlis | |||
| Present | Present Passive | ceļams | |||
| Past | būtu cēlis | Past Passive | celts | ||
| DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) | NOMINAL FORMS | ||||
| Indicative | (būt) jāceļ | Infinitive (nenoteiksme) | |||
| Conjunctive 1 | esot jāceļ | Negative Infinitive | |||
| Conjunctive 2 | jāceļot | Verbal noun | celšana | ||
- The second conjugation class is characterized by retaining the thematic vowel in infinitive, past as well as present. 1st person singular present and past tenses match.
| INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) | IMPERATIVE (pavēles izteiksme) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present (tagadne) | Past (pagātne) | Future (nākotne) | |||
| 1st pers. sg. | es | strādāju | strādāju | strādāšu | — |
| 2nd pers. sg. | tu | strādā | strādāji | strādāsi | strādā |
| 3rd pers. sg. | viņš, viņa | strādā | strādāja | strādās | lai strādā |
| 1st pers. pl. | mēs | strādājam | strādājām | strādāsim | strādāsim |
| 2nd pers. pl. | jūs | strādājat | strādājāt | strādāsiet, strādāsit | strādājiet |
| 3rd pers. pl. | viņi, viņas | strādā | strādāja | strādās | lai strādā |
| RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) | PARTICIPLES (divdabji) | ||||
| Present | strādājot | Present Active 1 (Adj.) | strādājošs | ||
| Past | esot strādājis | Present Active 2 (Adv.) | strādādams | ||
| Future | strādāšot | Present Active 3 (Adv.) | strādājot | ||
| Imperative | lai strādājot | Present Active 4 (Obj.) | strādājam | ||
| CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) | Past Active | strādājis | |||
| Present | strādātu | Present Passive | strādājams | ||
| Past | būtu strādājis | Past Passive | strādāts | ||
| DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) | NOMINAL FORMS | ||||
| Indicative | (būt) jāstrādā | Infinitive (nenoteiksme) | |||
| Conjunctive 1 | esot jāstrādā | Negative Infinitive | |||
| Conjunctive 2 | jāstrādājot | Verbal noun | strādāšana | ||
- Verbs of the third conjugation class retain the thematic vowel in infinitive and past, however, it is absent in present and the stem takes on the full set of endings unlike 1st and 2nd conjugation where 2nd person singular and 3rd person present endings -i and -a are either absent or have given way to the thematic vowel.
| INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) | IMPERATIVE (pavēles izteiksme) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present (tagadne) | Past (pagātne) | Future (nākotne) | |||
| 1st pers. sg. | es | lasu | lasīju | lasīšu | — |
| 2nd pers. sg. | tu | lasi | lasīji | lasīsi | lasi |
| 3rd pers. sg. | viņš, viņa | lasa | lasīja | lasīs | lai lasa |
| 1st pers. pl. | mēs | lasām | lasījām | lasīsim | lasīsim |
| 2nd pers. pl. | jūs | lasāt | lasījāt | lasīsiet, lasīsit | lasiet |
| 3rd pers. pl. | viņi, viņas | lasa | lasīja | lasīs | lai lasa |
| RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) | PARTICIPLES (divdabji) | ||||
| Present | lasot | Present Active 1 (Adj.) | lasošs | ||
| Past | esot lasījis | Present Active 2 (Adv.) | lasīdams | ||
| Future | lasīšot | Present Active 3 (Adv.) | lasot | ||
| Imperative | lai lasot | Present Active 4 (Obj.) | lasām | ||
| CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) | Past Active | lasījis | |||
| Present | lasītu | Present Passive | lasāms | ||
| Past | būtu lasījis | Past Passive | lasīts | ||
| DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) | NOMINAL FORMS | ||||
| Indicative | (būt) jālasa | Infinitive (nenoteiksme) | |||
| Conjunctive 1 | esot jālasa | Negative Infinitive | |||
| Conjunctive 2 | jālasot | Verbal noun | lasīšana | ||
The 3rd conjugation is divided into 2 subgroups, the 1st one containing the thematic vowel ī, and the 2nd subgroup – all other vowels. The only difference between the two subgroups is that verbs belonging to the 2nd subgroup do not take on the 3rd person present tense ending -a. dziedāt, es dziedu, tu dziedi but viņš dzied unlike viņš lasa.
| INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) | IMPERATIVE (pavēles izteiksme) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present (tagadne) | Past (pagātne) | Future (nākotne) | |||
| 1st pers. sg. | es | dziedu | dziedāju | dziedāšu | — |
| 2nd pers. sg. | tu | dziedi | dziedāji | dziedāsi | dziedi |
| 3rd pers. sg. | viņš, viņa | dzied | dziedāja | dziedās | lai dzied |
| 1st pers. pl. | mēs | dziedam | dziedājām | dziedāsim | dziedāsim |
| 2nd pers. pl. | jūs | dziedat | dziedājāt | dziedāsiet, dziedāsit | dziediet |
| 3rd pers. pl. | viņi, viņas | dzied | dziedāja | dziedās | lai dzied |
| RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) | PARTICIPLES (divdabji) | ||||
| Present | dziedot | Present Active 1 (Adj.) | dziedošs | ||
| Past | esot dziedājis | Present Active 2 (Adv.) | dziedādams | ||
| Future | dziedāšot | Present Active 3 (Adv.) | dziedot | ||
| Imperative | lai dziedot | Present Active 4 (Obj.) | dziedam | ||
| CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) | Past Active | dziedājis | |||
| Present | dziedātu | Present Passive | dziedams | ||
| Past | būtu dziedājis | Past Passive | dziedāts | ||
| DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) | NOMINAL FORMS | ||||
| Indicative | (būt) jādzied | Infinitive (nenoteiksme) | |||
| Conjunctive 1 | esot jādzied | Negative Infinitive | |||
| Conjunctive 2 | jādziedot | Verbal noun | dziedāšana | ||
Beside the three conjugations, there are three verbs characterized by different stems in present, past as well as infinitive. These verbs are referred to as "irregular" (nekārtni or neregulāri.) Irregular verbs and their stem changes are:
- būt (esmu, biju) – to be (I am, I was)
- iet (eju, gāju) – to go (I go, I went)
- dot (dodu, devu) – to give (I give, I gave)
A verb's conjugation pattern can be deduced from three base forms: the infinitive form, the present stem and the past stem. The following table shows the correspondence between the base stem and the tense/mood.
| stem | moods and tenses derived from this stem |
|---|---|
| present stem | present indicative, imperative mood, debitive mood, present participles (except participle present active 2) |
| past stem | imperfect, past active participle |
| infinitive stem | infinitive, future indicative, conditional mood, future conjunctive, participle present active 2, past passive participle |
References
[edit]- ^ Krautmane, Ērika (2006). "Evidenciālis latviešu, igauņu un lībiešu valodā (Ieskats problemātikā)" [The Evidential in the Latvian, Estonian and Livonian Languages (Introduction to the Topic)]. Linguistics Finno-Ugristics / Valodniecība Somugristika (PDF). Scientific Papers University of Latvia Volume 708 / Latvijas Universitātes Raksti 708. Sējums (in Latvian). Latvijas Universitāte. pp. 66–72.
Mūsdienu latviešu literārajā gramatikā (..) tiek šķirts atstāstījuma izteiksmes pavēles paveids, uzskatot, ka atstāstījuma izteiksmes tagadnes forma saistījumā ar partikulu lai iegūst atstāstījuma izteiksmes pavēles paveida nozīmi. (..) Vairākās jaunākajās latviešu gramatikās šis viedoklis netiek atbalstīts (..) un palīgvārds lai tiek uzskatīts par pakārtojuma saikli, kas kopā ar verbu atstāstījuma izteiksmē nevar veidot gramatisku formu.
- ^ Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel, eds. (2003) [first published 1988]. Romance Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16417-6.
Verbs [in Romance languages] are traditionally divided into three conjugation classes on the basis of which thematic vowels are maximally distinguished.
- ^ Hewson, John; Bubeník, Vít (1997). Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages: Theory, Typology, Diachrony. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 144–147. ISBN 9789027236494.
- ^ "Darbības vārdu konjugācijas" [Verb Conjugation]. liis.lv (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 2012-04-13.
Literature
[edit]- Ceplīte, B.; Ceplītis, L. (1991). Latviešu valodas praktiskā gramatika [Practical Grammar of the Latvian Language] (in Latvian). Rīgā: Zvaigzne ABC.
- Dini, Pietro U. (1997). Le Lingue Baltiche [The Baltic Languages] (in Italian). Scandicci (Florence): La Nuova Italia Editrice.
- Endzelīns, J. (1951). Latviešu valodas gramatika [Latvian Grammar] (in Latvian). Rīgā: Latvijas Valsts Izdevniečiba.
- Akademija Andreja Upisa Valodas un Literaturas (1959). Mūsdienu latviešu literārās valodas gramatika [Modern Literary Latvian Language Grammar] (in Latvian). Riga: LPSR ZA izdevniecība.
- Fennell, T. G.; H. Gelsen (1980). A Grammar of Modern Latvian (Vols. 1–3). Mouton.
- Kalnača, Andra; Lokmane, Ilze (2021). Latvian Grammar. Rīga: University of Latvia Press. doi:10.22364/latgram.2021. ISBN 978-9934-18-635-6.
- Karulis, K. (2001). Latviešu etimoloģijas vārdnīca [Latvian Etymology Dictionary]. Rīga: Avots.
- Mathiassen, Terje (1996). A Short Grammar of Latvian. Columbus, OH: Slavica. ISBN 0-89357-270-5.
- Petit, Justyna; Petit, Daniel (2004). Parlons letton [Let's Speak Latvian] (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7475-5910-6.
- Prauliņš, Dace (2012). Latvian: An Essential Grammar. London: Routeledge. ISBN 9780415576925.