Скайлэб

Чтобы узнать о других значениях, см. Скайлэб (значения) .

Скайлэб

Скайлэб, сфотографированный уходящей последней командой ( Скайлэб 4 ).
Skylab program insignia
Station statistics
COSPAR ID	1973-027A
SATCAT no.	6633
Call sign	Skylab
Crew	3 per mission (9 total)
Launch	May 14, 1973 17:30:00 UTC (51 years ago)
Carrier rocket	Saturn V AS-513
Launch pad	Kennedy LC-39A
Reentry	July 11, 1979 16:37:00 UTC
Mission status	Deorbited
Mass	168,750 pounds (76,540 kg) w/o Apollo CSM
Length	82.4 feet (25.1 m) w/o Apollo CSM
Width	55.8 feet (17.0 m) w/ one solar panel
Height	36.3 feet (11.1 m) w/ telescope mount
Diameter	21.67 feet (6.61 m)
Pressurised volume	12,417 cubic feet (351.6 m3)
Atmospheric pressure	5.0 pounds per square inch (34 kPa) Oxygen 74%, nitrogen 26%
Perigee altitude	269.7 miles (434.0 km)
Apogee altitude	274.6 miles (441.9 km)
Orbital inclination	50.0°
Orbital period	93.4 minutes
Orbits per day	15.4
Days in orbit	2249 days (6.6 years)
Days occupied	171 days
No. of orbits	34,981
Distance travelled	~890,000,000 mi (1,400,000,000 km)
Statistics as of Re-entry July 11, 1979
Configuration
Skylab configuration as planned

Скайлэб США — первая космическая станция , запущенная НАСА . был занят около 24 недель с мая 1973 года по февраль 1974 года. Им управляли три трио экипажей астронавтов: «Скайлэб-2» , «Скайлэб-3» и «Скайлэб-4» . Операции включали орбитальную мастерскую, солнечную обсерваторию , наблюдение Земли и сотни экспериментов . Орбита Скайлэба в конечном итоге распалась, и 11 июля 1979 года он распался в атмосфере, разбросав обломки по Индийскому океану и Западной Австралии .

Обзор

По состоянию на 2024 год Скайлэб была единственной космической станцией, управляемой исключительно Соединенными Штатами. планировалось Создание постоянной станции начать в 1988 году, но ее финансирование было отменено, а в 1993 году участие США перешло на Международную космическую станцию .

Skylab had a mass of 199,750 pounds (90,610 kg) with a 31,000-pound (14,000 kg) Apollo command and service module (CSM) attached and included a workshop, a solar observatory, and several hundred life science and physical science experiments. It was launched uncrewed into low Earth orbit by a Saturn V rocket modified to be similar to the Saturn INT-21, with the S-IVB third stage not available for propulsion because the orbital workshop was built out of it. This was the final flight for the rocket more commonly known for carrying the crewed Apollo Moon landing missions. В трех последующих миссиях экипажи из трех астронавтов были доставлены на Apollo CSM, запущенном меньшей ракетой Saturn IB .

Configuration

Skylab included the Apollo Telescope Mount (a multi-spectral solar observatory), a multiple docking adapter with two docking ports, an airlock module with extravehicular activity (EVA) hatches, and the orbital workshop, the main habitable space inside Skylab. Electrical power came from solar arrays and fuel cells in the docked Apollo CSM. The rear of the station included a large waste tank, propellant tanks for maneuvering jets, and a heat radiator. Astronauts conducted numerous experiments aboard Skylab during its operational life.

Component data

Component	Mass		Habitable volume		Length		Diameter		Image
	lb	kg	ft3	m3	ft	m	ft	m
Payload shroud	25,600	11,600	—		56.0	17.1	21.6	6.6
Apollo Telescope Mount	24,500	11,100	—		14.7	4.5	11.3	3.4
Multiple Docking Adapter	12,000	5,400	1,140	32	17.3	5.3	10.5	3.2
Airlock module	49,000	22,000	613	17.4	17.6	5.4	10.5	3.2
Saturn V instrument unit	4,600	2,100	—		3.0	0.91	21.6	6.6
Orbital Workshop	78,000	35,000	9,550	270	48.1	14.7	21.6	6.6
Total in orbit	168,750	76,540	12,417	351.6	82.4	25.1	21.6	6.6
Apollo CSM	31,000	14,000	210	5.9	36.1	11.0	12.8	3.9
Total with CSM	199,750	90,610	12,627	357.6	118.5	36.1	21.6	6.6

Operations

For the final two crewed missions to Skylab, NASA assembled a backup Apollo CSM/Saturn IB in case an in-orbit rescue mission was needed, but this vehicle was never flown. The station was damaged during launch when the micrometeoroid shield tore away from the workshop, taking one of the main solar panel arrays with it and jamming the other main array. This deprived Skylab of most of its electrical power and also removed protection from intense solar heating, threatening to make it unusable. The first crew deployed a replacement heat shade and freed the jammed solar panels to save Skylab. This was the first time that a repair of this magnitude was performed in space.

The Apollo Telescope significantly advanced solar science, and observation of the Sun was unprecedented. Astronauts took thousands of photographs of Earth, and the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) viewed Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. The record for human time spent in orbit was extended beyond the 23 days set by the Soyuz 11 crew aboard Salyut 1 to 84 days by the Skylab 4 crew.

Later plans to reuse Skylab were stymied by delays in the development of the Space Shuttle, and Skylab's decaying orbit could not be stopped. Skylab's atmospheric reentry began on July 11, 1979, amid worldwide media attention. Before re-entry, NASA ground controllers tried to adjust Skylab's orbit to minimize the risk of debris landing in populated areas, targeting the south Indian Ocean, which was partially successful. Debris showered Western Australia, and recovered pieces indicated that the station had disintegrated lower than expected. As the Skylab program drew to a close, NASA's focus had shifted to the development of the Space Shuttle. NASA space station and laboratory projects included Spacelab, Shuttle-Mir, and Space Station Freedom, which was merged into the International Space Station.

Background

Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, and other early advocates of crewed space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in Collier's magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled "Man Will Conquer Space Soon!". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75 m) in diameter that would rotate to generate artificial gravity and require a fleet of 7,000 short tons (6,400 metric tons) space shuttles for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station.

The development of the transistor, the solar cell, and telemetry, led in the 1950s and early 1960s to uncrewed satellites that could take photographs of weather patterns or enemy nuclear weapons and send them to Earth. A large station was no longer necessary for such purposes, and the United States Apollo program to send men to the Moon chose a mission mode that would not need in-orbit assembly. A smaller station that a single rocket could launch retained value, however, for scientific purposes.

Early studies

Von Braun's sketch of a Space Station based on conversion of a Saturn V stage, 1964

In 1959, von Braun, head of the Development Operations Division at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, submitted his final Project Horizon plans to the U.S. Army. The overall goal of Horizon was to place men on the Moon, a mission that would soon be taken over by the rapidly forming NASA. Although concentrating on the Moon missions, von Braun also detailed an orbiting laboratory built out of a Horizon upper stage, an idea used for Skylab. A number of NASA centers studied various space station designs in the early 1960s. Studies generally looked at platforms launched by the Saturn V, followed up by crews launched on Saturn IB using an Apollo command and service module, or a Gemini capsule on a Titan II-C, the latter being much less expensive in the case where cargo was not needed. Proposals ranged from an Apollo-based station with two to three men, or a small "canister" for four men with Gemini capsules resupplying it, to a large, rotating station with 24 men and an operating lifetime of about five years. A proposal to study the use of a Saturn S-IVB as a crewed space laboratory was documented in 1962 by the Douglas Aircraft Company.

Air Force plans

The Department of Defense (DoD) and NASA cooperated closely in many areas of space. In September 1963, NASA and the DoD agreed to cooperate in building a space station. The DoD wanted its own crewed facility, however, and in December 1963 it announced Manned Orbital Laboratory (MOL), a small space station primarily intended for photo reconnaissance using large telescopes directed by a two-person crew. The station was the same diameter as a Titan II upper stage, and would be launched with the crew riding atop in a modified Gemini capsule with a hatch cut into the heat shield on the bottom of the capsule. MOL competed for funding with a NASA station for the next five years and politicians and other officials often suggested that NASA participate in MOL or use the DoD design. The military project led to changes to the NASA plans so that they would resemble MOL less.

Development

Duration: 20 minutes and 33 seconds.20:33

NASA's Skylab pre-flight orbital workshop overview, circa 1972

The floor grating of Skylab under construction

Apollo Applications Program

Main article: Apollo Applications Program

NASA management was concerned about losing the 400,000 workers involved in Apollo after landing on the Moon in 1969. A reason von Braun, head of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center during the 1960s, advocated a smaller station after his large one was not built was that he wished to provide his employees with work beyond developing the Saturn rockets, which would be completed relatively early during Project Apollo. NASA set up the Apollo Logistic Support System Office, originally intended to study various ways to modify the Apollo hardware for scientific missions. The office initially proposed a number of projects for direct scientific study, including an extended-stay lunar mission which required two Saturn V launchers, a "lunar truck" based on the Lunar Module (LM), a large, crewed solar telescope using an LM as its crew quarters, and small space stations using a variety of LM or CSM-based hardware. Although it did not look at the space station specifically, over the next two years the office would become increasingly dedicated to this role. In August 1965, the office was renamed, becoming the Apollo Applications Program (AAP).

As part of their general work, in August 1964 the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) presented studies on an expendable lab known as Apollo X, short for Apollo Extension System. Apollo X would have replaced the LM carried on the top of the S-IVB stage with a small space station slightly larger than the CSM's service area, containing supplies and experiments for missions between 15 and 45 days' duration. Using this study as a baseline, a number of different mission profiles were looked at over the next six months.

Wet workshop

Main article: Wet workshop

An early "wet workshop" version of Skylab

In November 1964, von Braun proposed a more ambitious plan to build a much larger station built from the S-II second stage of a Saturn V. His design replaced the S-IVB third stage with an aeroshell, primarily as an adapter for the CSM on top. Inside the shell was a 10 feet (3.0 m) cylindrical equipment section. On reaching orbit, the S-II second stage would be vented to remove any remaining hydrogen fuel, then the equipment section would be slid into it via a large inspection hatch. This became known as a "wet workshop" concept, because of the conversion of an active fuel tank. The station filled the entire interior of the S-II stage's hydrogen tank, with the equipment section forming a "spine" and living quarters located between it and the walls of the booster. This would have resulted in a very large 33 by 45 feet (10 by 14 m) living area. Power was to be provided by solar cells lining the outside of the S-II stage.

One problem with this proposal was that it required a dedicated Saturn V launch to fly the station. At the time the design was being proposed, it was not known how many of the then-contracted Saturn Vs would be required to achieve a successful Moon landing. However, several planned Earth-orbit test missions for the LM and CSM had been canceled, leaving a number of Saturn IBs free for use. Further work led to the idea of building a smaller "wet workshop" based on the S-IVB, launched as the second stage of a Saturn IB.

A number of S-IVB-based stations were studied at MSC from mid-1965, which had much in common with the Skylab design that eventually flew. An airlock would be attached to the hydrogen tank, in the area designed to hold the LM, and a minimum amount of equipment would be installed in the tank itself in order to avoid taking up too much fuel volume. Floors of the station would be made from an open metal framework that allowed the fuel to flow through it. After launch, a follow-up mission launched by a Saturn IB would launch additional equipment, including solar panels, an equipment section and docking adapter, and various experiments. Douglas Aircraft Company, builder of the S-IVB stage, was asked to prepare proposals along these lines. The company had for several years been proposing stations based on the S-IV stage, before it was replaced by the S-IVB.

On April 1, 1966, MSC sent out contracts to Douglas, Grumman, and McDonnell for the conversion of an S-IVB spent stage, under the name Saturn S-IVB spent-stage experiment support module (SSESM). In May 1966, astronauts voiced concerns over the purging of the stage's hydrogen tank in space. Nevertheless, in late July 1966, it was announced that the Orbital Workshop would be launched as a part of Apollo mission AS-209, originally one of the Earth-orbit CSM test launches, followed by two Saturn I/CSM crew launches, AAP-1 and AAP-2.

The Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) remained AAP's chief competitor for funds, although the two programs cooperated on technology. NASA considered flying experiments on MOL or using its Titan IIIC booster instead of the much more expensive Saturn IB. The agency decided that the Air Force station was not large enough and that converting Apollo hardware for use with Titan would be too slow and too expensive. The DoD later canceled MOL in June 1969.

Dry workshop

Design work continued over the next two years, in an era of shrinking budgets. (NASA sought US$450 million for Apollo Applications in fiscal year 1967, for example, but received US$42 million.) In August 1967, the agency announced that the lunar mapping and base construction missions examined by the AAP were being canceled. Only the Earth-orbiting missions remained, namely the Orbital Workshop and Apollo Telescope Mount solar observatory. The success of Apollo 8 in December 1968, launched on the third flight of a Saturn V, made it likely that one would be available to launch a dry workshop. Later, several Moon missions were canceled as well, originally to be Apollo missions 18 through 20. The cancellation of these missions freed up three Saturn V boosters for the AAP program. Although this would have allowed them to develop von Braun's original S-II-based mission, by this time so much work had been done on the S-IV-based design that work continued on this baseline. With the extra power available, the wet workshop was no longer needed; the S-IC and S-II lower stages could launch a "dry workshop", with its interior already prepared, directly into orbit.

Habitability

Duration: 46 seconds.0:46

Jumping and flying in weightlessness

A dry workshop simplified plans for the interior of the station. Industrial design firm Raymond Loewy/William Snaith recommended emphasizing habitability and comfort for the astronauts by providing a wardroom for meals and relaxation and a window to view Earth and space, although astronauts were dubious about the designers' focus on details such as color schemes. Habitability had not previously been an area of concern when building spacecraft due to their small size and brief mission durations, but the Skylab missions would last for months. NASA sent a scientist on Jacques Piccard's Ben Franklin submarine in the Gulf Stream in July and August 1969 to learn how six people would live in an enclosed space for four weeks.

Astronauts were uninterested in watching movies on a proposed entertainment center or in playing games, but they did want books and individual music choices. Food was also important; early Apollo crews complained about its quality, and a NASA volunteer found it intolerable to live on the Apollo food for four days on Earth. Its taste and composition were unpleasant, in the form of cubes and squeeze tubes. Skylab food significantly improved on its predecessors by prioritizing palatability over scientific needs.

For sleeping in space, each astronaut had a private area the size of a small walk-in closet, with a curtain, sleeping bag, and locker. Designers also added a shower and a toilet for comfort and to obtain precise urine and feces samples for examination on Earth. The waste samples were so important that they would have been priorities in any rescue mission.

Skylab did not have recycling systems such as the conversion of urine to drinking water; it also did not dispose of waste by dumping it into space. The S-IVB's 73,280 liters (16,120 imp gal; 19,360 U.S. gal) liquid oxygen tank below the Orbital Work Shop was used to store trash and wastewater, passed through an airlock.

Operational history

Completion and launch

Launch of the modified Saturn V rocket carrying the Skylab space station

On August 8, 1969, the McDonnell Douglas Corporation received a contract for the conversion of two existing S-IVB stages to the Orbital Workshop configuration. One of the S-IV test stages was shipped to McDonnell Douglas for the construction of a mock-up in January 1970. The Orbital Workshop was renamed "Skylab" in February 1970 as a result of a NASA contest. The actual stage that flew was the upper stage of the AS-212 rocket (the S-IVB stage, S-IVB 212). The mission computer used aboard Skylab was the IBM System/4Pi TC-1, a relative of the AP-101 Space Shuttle computers. The Saturn V with serial number SA-513, originally produced for the Apollo program – before the cancellation of Apollo 18, 19, and 20 – was repurposed and redesigned to launch Skylab. The Saturn V's third stage was removed and replaced with Skylab, but with the controlling Instrument Unit remaining in its standard position.

Skylab was launched on May 14, 1973, by the modified Saturn V. The launch is sometimes referred to as Skylab 1. Severe damage was sustained during launch and deployment, including the loss of the station's micrometeoroid shield/sun shade and one of its main solar panels. Debris from the lost micrometeoroid shield further complicated matters by becoming tangled in the remaining solar panel, preventing its full deployment and thus leaving the station with a huge power deficit.

Immediately following Skylab's launch, Pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center was deactivated, and construction proceeded to modify it for the Space Shuttle program, originally targeting a maiden launch in March 1979. The crewed missions to Skylab would occur using a Saturn IB rocket from Launch Pad 39B.

Skylab 1 was the last uncrewed launch from LC-39A until February 19, 2017, when SpaceX CRS-10 was launched from there.

Crewed missions

Skylab 3's Saturn IB at night, July 1973

Skylab in orbit in 1973 as flown, docking ports in view

Three crewed missions, designated Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4, were made to Skylab in the Apollo command and service modules. The first crewed mission, Skylab 2, launched on May 25, 1973, atop a Saturn IB and involved extensive repairs to the station. The crew deployed a parasol-like sunshade through a small instrument port from the inside of the station, bringing station temperatures down to acceptable levels and preventing overheating that would have melted the plastic insulation inside the station and released poisonous gases. This solution was designed by Jack Kinzler, who won the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his efforts. The crew conducted further repairs via two spacewalks (extravehicular activity or EVA). The crew stayed in orbit with Skylab for 28 days. Two additional missions followed, with the launch dates of July 28, 1973, (Skylab 3) and November 16, 1973, (Skylab 4), and mission durations of 59 and 84 days, respectively. The last Skylab crew returned to Earth on February 8, 1974.

In addition to the three crewed missions, there was a rescue mission on standby that had a crew of two, but could take five back down.

• Skylab 2: launched May 25, 1973
• Skylab 3: launched July 28, 1973
• Skylab 4: launched November 16, 1973
• Skylab 5: cancelled
• Skylab Rescue on standby

Also of note was the three-man crew of Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT), who spent 56 days in 1972 at low-pressure on Earth to evaluate medical experiment equipment. This was a spaceflight analog test in full gravity, but Skylab hardware was tested and medical knowledge was gained.

Orbital operations

Owen Garriott performing an EVA in 1973

Days in space

Mission
Skylab 2	28
Skylab 3	60
Skylab 4	84

Originally intended to be visited by one 28–day and two 56–day missions for a total of 140 days, Skylab was ultimately occupied for 171 days and 13 hours during its three crewed expeditions, orbiting the Earth 2,476 times. Each of these extended the human record of 23 days for amount of time spent in space set by the Soviet Soyuz 11 crew aboard the space station Salyut 1 on June 30, 1971. Skylab 2 lasted 28 days, Skylab 3 – 56 days, and Skylab 4 – 84 days. Astronauts performed ten spacewalks, totaling 42 hours and 16 minutes. Skylab logged about 2,000 hours of scientific and medical experiments, 127,000 frames of film of the Sun and 46,000 of Earth. Solar experiments included photographs of eight solar flares and produced valuable results that scientists stated would have been impossible to obtain with uncrewed spacecraft. The existence of the Sun's coronal holes was confirmed because of these efforts. Many of the experiments conducted investigated the astronauts' adaptation to extended periods of microgravity.

A typical day began at 6 a.m. Central Time Zone. Although the toilet was small and noisy, both veteran astronauts – who had endured earlier missions' rudimentary waste-collection systems – and rookies complimented it. The first crew enjoyed taking a shower once a week, but found drying themselves in weightlessness and vacuuming excess water difficult; later crews usually cleaned themselves daily with wet washcloths instead of using the shower. Astronauts also found that bending over in weightlessness to put on socks or tie shoelaces strained their abdominal muscles.

Breakfast began at 7 a.m. Astronauts usually stood to eat, as sitting in microgravity also strained their abdominal muscles. They reported that their food – although greatly improved from Apollo – was bland and repetitive, and weightlessness caused utensils, food containers, and bits of food to float away; also, gas in their drinking water contributed to flatulence. After breakfast and preparation for lunch, experiments, tests and repairs of spacecraft systems and, if possible, 90 minutes of physical exercise followed; the station had a bicycle and other equipment, and astronauts could jog around the water tank. After dinner, which was scheduled for 6 p.m., crews performed household chores and prepared for the next day's experiments. Following lengthy daily instructions (some of which were up to 15 meters long) sent via teleprinter, the crews were often busy enough to postpone sleep. The station offered what a later study called "a highly satisfactory living and working environment for crews", with enough room for personal privacy. Although it had a dart set, playing cards, and other recreational equipment in addition to books and music players, the window with its view of Earth became the most popular way to relax in orbit.

Experiments

Spider Anita flown aboard Skylab

Prior to departure about 80 experiments were named, although they are also described as "almost 300 separate investigations".

Experiments were divided into six broad categories:

• Life science – human physiology, biomedical research; circadian rhythms (mice, gnats)
• Solar physics and astronomy – sun observations (eight telescopes and separate instrumentation); Comet Kohoutek (Skylab 4); stellar observations; space physics
• Earth resources – mineral resources; geology; hurricanes; land and vegetation patterns
• Material science – welding, brazing, metal melting; crystal growth; water / fluid dynamics
• Student research – 19 different student proposals. Several experiments were commended by the crew, including a dexterity experiment and a test of web-spinning by spiders in low gravity.
• Other – human adaptability, ability to work, dexterity; habitat design/operations.

Because the solar scientific airlock – one of two research airlocks – was unexpectedly occupied by the "parasol" that replaced the missing meteorite shield, a few experiments were instead installed outside with the telescopes during spacewalks or shifted to the Earth-facing scientific airlock.

Skylab 2 spent less time than planned on most experiments due to station repairs. On the other hand, Skylab 3 and Skylab 4 far exceeded the initial experiment plans, once the crews adjusted to the environment and established comfortable working relationships with ground control.

The figure (below) lists an overview of most major experiments. Skylab 4 carried out several more experiments, such as to observe Comet Kohoutek.

Nobel Prize

Riccardo Giacconi shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics for his study of X-ray astronomy, including the study of emissions from the Sun onboard Skylab, contributing to the birth of X-ray astronomy.

Overview of most major experiments

Film vaults and window radiation shield

A labeled illustration of a Skylab film vault, from Skylab: A Guidebook (EP-107) by NASA

Skylab had certain features to protect vulnerable technology from radiation. The window was vulnerable to darkening, and this darkening could affect experiment S190. As a result, a light shield that could be open or shut was designed and installed on Skylab. To protect a wide variety of films, used for a variety of experiments and for astronaut photography, there were five film vaults. There were four smaller film vaults in the Multiple Docking Adapter, mainly because the structure could not carry enough weight for a single larger film vault. The orbital workshop could handle a single larger safe, which is also more efficient for shielding. A later example of a radiation vault is the Juno Radiation Vault for the Juno Jupiter orbiter, launched in 2011, which was designed to protect much of the uncrewed spacecraft's electronics, using 1 cm thick walls of titanium.

The large vault in the orbital workshop had an empty mass of 2,398 pounds (1,088 kg). The four smaller vaults had combined mass of 1,545 lb (701 kg). The primary construction material of all five safes was aluminum. When Skylab re-entered there was one 180 pounds (82 kg) chunk of aluminum found that was thought to be a door to one of the film vaults. The large film vault was one of the heaviest single pieces of Skylab to re-enter Earth's atmosphere.

The Skylab film vault was used for storing film from various sources including the Apollo Telescope Mount solar instruments. Six ATM experiments used film to record data, and over the course of the missions over 150,000 successful exposures were recorded. The film canister had to be manually retrieved on crewed spacewalks to the instruments during the missions. The film canisters were returned to Earth aboard the Apollo capsules when each mission ended, and were among the heaviest items that had to be returned at the end of each mission. The heaviest canisters weighed 40 kg and could hold up to 16,000 frames of film.

Gyroscopes

Skylab could change its attitude without using propellant by changing the spin of large gyroscopes.

There were two types of gyroscopes on Skylab. Control-moment gyroscopes (CMG) could physically move the station, and rate gyroscopes measured the rate of rotation to find its orientation. The CMG helped provide the fine pointing needed by the Apollo Telescope Mount, and to resist various forces that can change the station's orientation.

Some of the forces acting on Skylab that the pointing system needed to resist:

• Gravity gradient
• Aerodynamic disturbance
• Internal movements of crew.

The Skylab-A attitude and pointing control system has been developed to meet the high accuracy requirements established by the desired experiment conditions. Conditions must be maintained by the control system under the influence of external and internal disturbance torques, such as gravity gradient and aerodynamic disturbances and onboard astronaut motion.

— Skylab Attitude and Pointing Control System (NASA Technical Note D-6068) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

Skylab was the first large spacecraft to use big gyroscopes, capable of controlling its attitude. The control could also be used to help point the instruments. The gyroscopes took about ten hours to get spun up if they were turned off. There was also a thruster system to control Skylab's attitude. There were 9 rate-gyroscope sensors, 3 for each axis. These were sensors that fed their output to the Skylab digital computer. Two of three were active and their input was averaged, while the third was a backup. From NASA SP-400 Skylab, Our First Space Station, "each Skylab control-moment gyroscope consisted of a motor-driven rotor, electronics assembly, and power inverter assembly. The 21-inch-diameter (530 mm) rotor weighed 155 pounds (70 kg) and rotated at approximately 8950 revolutions per minute".

There were three control moment gyroscopes on Skylab, but only two were required to maintain pointing. The control and sensor gyroscopes were part of a system that help detect and control the orientation of the station in space. Other sensors that helped with this were a Sun tracker and a star tracker. The sensors fed data to the main computer, which could then use the control gyroscopes and or the thruster system to keep Skylab pointed as desired.

Shower

Astronaut Jack Lousma in the shower with curtain partially down, July 1973

Conrad in the Skylab shower in 1973

Earth testing showing partially and fully enclosed positions of the shower curtain

Skylab had a zero-gravity shower system in the work and experiment section of the Orbital Workshop designed and built at the Manned Spaceflight Center. It had a cylindrical curtain that went from floor to ceiling and a vacuum system to suck away water. The floor of the shower had foot restraints.

To bathe, the user coupled a pressurized bottle of warmed water to the shower's plumbing, then stepped inside and secured the curtain. A push-button shower nozzle was connected by a stiff hose to the top of the shower. The system was designed for about 6 pints (2.8 liters) of water per shower, the water being drawn from the personal hygiene water tank. The use of both the liquid soap and water was carefully planned out, with enough soap and warm water for one shower per week per person.

The first astronaut to use the space shower was Paul J. Weitz on Skylab 2, the first crewed mission. He said, "It took a fair amount longer to use than you might expect, but you come out smelling good". A Skylab shower took about two and a half hours, including the time to set up the shower and dissipate used water. The procedure for operating the shower was as follows:

1. Fill up the pressurized water bottle with hot water and attach it to the ceiling
2. Connect the hose and pull up the shower curtain
3. Spray down with water
4. Apply liquid soap and spray more water to rinse
5. Vacuum up all the fluids and stow items.

One of the big concerns with bathing in space was control of droplets of water so that they did not cause an electrical short by floating into the wrong area. The vacuum water system was thus integral to the shower. The vacuum fed to a centrifugal separator, filter, and collection bag to allow the system to vacuum up the fluids. Waste water was injected into a disposal bag which was in turn put in the waste tank. The material for the shower enclosure was fire-proof beta cloth wrapped around hoops of 43 inches (1,100 mm) diameter; the top hoop was connected to the ceiling. The shower could be collapsed to the floor when not in use. Skylab also supplied astronauts with rayon terrycloth towels which had a color-coded stitching for each crew-member. There were 420 towels on board Skylab initially.

A simulated Skylab shower was also used during the 56-day SMEAT simulation; the crew used the shower after exercise and found it a positive experience.

Cameras and film

A view of the Skylab space station taken with a hand-held 70 mm Hasselblad camera using a 100 mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film

Hurricane Ellen of 1973, as seen from Skylab

The island of Crete as photographed on June 22, 1973, from Skylab

Skylab as Skylab 2 mission departs

There was a variety of hand-held and fixed experiments that used various types of film. In addition to the instruments in the ATM solar observatory, 35 and 70 mm film cameras were carried on board. An analog TV camera was carried that recorded video electronically. These electronic signals could be recorded to magnetic tape or be transmitted to Earth by radio signal.

It was determined that film would fog up to due to radiation over the course of the mission. To prevent this, film was stored in vaults.

Personal (hand-held) camera equipment:

• Television camera
  • Westinghouse color
  • 25–150 mm zoom
• 16 mm film camera (Maurer), called the 16 mm Data Acquisition Camera. The DAC was capable of very low frame rates, such as for engineering data films, and it had independent shutter speeds. It could be powered from a battery or from Skylab itself. It used interchangeable lenses, and various lens and also film types were used during the missions.
  • There were different options for frame rates: 2, 4, 6, 12 and 24 frames per second
  • Lenses available: 5, 10, 18, 25, 75, and 100 mm
  • Films used:
    • Ektachrome film
    • SO-368 film
    • SO-168 film

Film for the DAC was contained in DAC film magazines, which contained up to 140 feet (42.7 m) of film. At 24 frames per second this was enough for 4 minutes of filming, with progressively longer film times with lower frame rates such as 16 minutes at 6 frames per second. The film had to be loaded or unloaded from the DAC in a photographic dark room.

• 35 mm film cameras (Nikon)
  • There were 5 Nikon 35 mm film cameras on board, with 55 mm and 300 mm lenses.
  • They were specially modified Nikon F cameras
  • The cameras were capable of interchangeable lenses.
  • 35mm films included:
    • Ektachrome
    • SO-368
    • SO-168
    • 2485 type film
    • 2443 type film
• 70 mm film camera (Hasselblad)
  • This had an electric data camera system with Reseau plate
  • Films included
    • 70 mm Ektachrome
    • SO-368 film
  • Lenses: 70 mm lens, 100 mm lens.

Experiment S190B was the Actron Earth Terrain Camera.

The S190A was the Multispectral Photographic Camera:

• This consisted of six Itek 70 mm boresighted cameras
• Lenses were f/2.8 with a 21.2° field of view.

There was also a Polaroid SX-70 instant camera, and a pair of Leitz Trinovid 10 × 40 binoculars modified for use in space to aid in Earth observations.

The SX-70 was used to take pictures of the Extreme Ultraviolet monitor by Dr. Garriot, as the monitor provided a live video feed of the solar corona in ultraviolet light as observed by Skylab solar observatory instruments located in the Apollo Telescope Mount.

Computers

Computational cycle of the Skylab computer program

Skylab was controlled in part by a digital computer system, and one of its main jobs was to control the pointing of the station; pointing was especially important for its solar power collection and observatory functions. The computer consisted of two actual computers, a primary and a secondary. The system ran several thousand words of code, which was also backed up on the Memory Load Unit (MLU). The two computers were linked to each other and various input and output items by the workshop computer interface. Operations could be switched from the primary to the backup, which were the same design, either automatically if errors were detected, by the Skylab crew, or from the ground.

The Skylab computer was a space-hardened and customized version of the TC-1 computer, a version of the IBM System/4 Pi, itself based on the System 360 computer. The TC-1 had a 16,000-word memory based on ferrite memory cores, while the MLU was a read-only tape drive that contained a backup of the main computer programs. The tape drive would take 11 seconds to upload the backup of the software program to a main computer. The TC-1 used 16-bit words and the central processor came from the 4Pi computer. There was a 16k and an 8k version of the software program.

The computer had a mass of 100 pounds (45.4 kg), and consumed about ten percent of the station's electrical power.

• Apollo Telescope Mount Digital Computer
• Attitude and Pointing Control System (APCS)
• Memory Load Unit (MLU).

After launch the computer is what the controllers on the ground communicated with to control the station's orientation. When the sun-shield was torn off the ground staff had to balance solar heating with electrical production. On March 6, 1978, the computer system was re-activated by NASA to control the re-entry.

The system had a user interface that consisted of a display, ten buttons, and a three-position switch. Because the numbers were in octal (base-8), it only had numbers zero to seven (8 keys), and the other two keys were enter and clear. The display could show minutes and seconds which would count down to orbital benchmarks, or it could display keystrokes when using the interface. The interface could be used to change the software program. The user interface was called the Digital Address System (DAS) and could send commands to the computer's command system. The command system could also get commands from the ground.

For personal computing needs Skylab crews were equipped with models of the then new hand-held electronic scientific calculator, which was used in place of slide-rules used on prior space missions as the primary personal computer. The model used was the Hewlett Packard HP 35. Some slide rules continued in use aboard Skylab, and a circular slide rule was at the workstation.

Plans for re-use after the last mission

Skylab Rescue vehicle Apollo CSM being removed from its Saturn IB rocket after the last Skylab mission

Calculations made during the mission, based on current values for solar activity and expected atmospheric density, gave the workshop just over nine years in orbit. Slowly at first – dropping 30 kilometers by 1980 – and then faster – another 100 kilometers by the end of 1982 – Skylab would come down, and some time around March 1983 it would burn up in the dense atmosphere.

After nearly 172 days, Skylab considerably exceeded its planned 140 day habitation. The station had held up relatively well, but its onboard supplies were low and its systems were beginning to degrade. One of the three control-moment gyroscopes (CMGs) failed 8 days into Skylab 4, and by the end of the mission another was showing signs of impending failure. With just a single CMG Skylab would be unable to control its attitude, and it was not possible to repair or replace one of the broken gyroscopes on-orbit. Virtually all of the prepackaged food launched with the station had been consumed, Skylab 4's mission extension from 56 to 84 days required the crew take an extra 28 days worth of food with them, but there was still enough water to support three men for 60 days, and enough oxygen/nitrogen to support the same for 140 days.

A fourth crewed mission using an Apollo CSM was considered, which would have used the launch vehicle kept on standby for the Skylab Rescue mission. This would have been a 20-day mission to boost Skylab to a higher altitude and do more scientific experiments. Another plan was to use a Teleoperator Retrieval System (TRS) launched aboard the Space Shuttle (then under development), to robotically re-boost the orbit. When Skylab 5 was cancelled, it was expected Skylab would stay in orbit until the 1980s, which was enough time to overlap with the beginning of Shuttle launches. Other options for launching TRS included the Titan III and Atlas-Agena. No option received the level of effort and funding needed for execution before Skylab's sooner-than-expected re-entry.

The Skylab 4 crew left a bag filled with supplies to welcome visitors, and left the hatch unlocked. Skylab's internal systems were evaluated and tested from the ground, and effort was put into plans for re-using it, as late as 1978. NASA discouraged any discussion of additional visits due to the station's age, but in 1977 and 1978, when the agency still believed the Space Shuttle would be ready by 1979, it completed two studies on reusing the station. By September 1978, the agency believed Skylab was safe for crews, with all major systems intact and operational. It still had 180 man-days of water and 420-man-days of oxygen, and astronauts could refill both; the station could hold up to about 600 to 700 man-days of drinkable water and 420 man-days of food. Before Skylab 4 left they did one more boost, running the Skylab thrusters for 3 minutes which added 11 km in height to its orbit. Skylab was left in a 433 by 455 km orbit on departure. At this time, the NASA-accepted estimate for its re-entry was nine years.

The studies cited several benefits from reusing Skylab, which one called a resource worth "hundreds of millions of dollars" with "unique habitability provisions for long duration space flight". Because no more operational Saturn V rockets were available after the Apollo program, four to five shuttle flights and extensive space architecture would have been needed to build another station as large as Skylab's 12,400 cubic feet (350 m³) volume. Its ample size – much greater than that of the shuttle alone, or even the shuttle plus Spacelab – was enough, with some modifications, for up to seven astronauts of both sexes, and experiments needing a long duration in space; even a movie projector for recreation was possible.

Proponents of Skylab's reuse also said repairing and upgrading Skylab would provide information on the results of long-duration exposure to space for future stations. The most serious issue for reactivation was attitude control, as one of the station's gyroscopes had failed and the attitude control system needed refueling; these issues would need EVA to fix or replace. The station had not been designed for extensive resupply. However, although it was originally planned that Skylab crews would only perform limited maintenance, they successfully made major repairs during EVA, such as the Skylab 2 crew's deployment of the solar panel and the Skylab 4 crew's repair of the primary coolant loop. The Skylab 2 crew fixed one item during EVA by, reportedly, "hit[ting] it with [a] hammer".

Some studies also said, beyond the opportunity for space construction and maintenance experience, reactivating the station would free up shuttle flights for other uses, and reduce the need to modify the shuttle for long-duration missions. Even if the station were not crewed again, went one argument, it might serve as an experimental platform.

Shuttle mission plans

Concept for proposed Skylab re-boost

The reactivation would likely have occurred in four phases:

1. An early Space Shuttle flight would have boosted Skylab to a higher orbit, adding five years of operational life. The shuttle might have pushed or towed the station, but attaching a space tug – the Teleoperator Retrieval System (TRS) – to the station would have been more likely, based on astronauts' training for the task. Martin Marietta won the contract for US$26 million to design the apparatus. TRS would contain about three tons of propellant. The remote-controlled booster had TV cameras and was designed for duties such as space construction and servicing and retrieving satellites the shuttle could not reach. After rescuing Skylab, the TRS would have remained in orbit for future use. Alternatively, it could have been used to de-orbit Skylab for a safe, controlled re-entry and destruction.
2. In two shuttle flights, Skylab would have been refurbished. In January 1982, the first mission would have attached a docking adapter and conducted repairs. In August 1983, a second crew would have replaced several system components.
3. In March 1984, shuttle crews would have attached a solar-powered Power Expansion Package, refurbished scientific equipment, and conducted 30- to 90-day missions using the Apollo Telescope Mount and the Earth resources experiments.
4. За пять лет Skylab будет расширен для размещения шести-восьми астронавтов с новым большим стыковочным/интерфейсным модулем, дополнительными логистическими модулями, модулями и поддонами Spacelab, а также космическим доком для орбитальных транспортных средств, использующим внешний бак шаттла .

Первые три этапа потребовали бы около 60 миллионов долларов США в долларах 1980-х годов, не считая затрат на запуск. Другими вариантами запуска TRS были Titan III или Atlas-Agena .

После отъезда

Скайлэб в феврале 1974 года, когда отправляется Скайлэб-4.

После разгона на 6,8 миль (10,9 км) с помощью Apollo CSM Skylab 4 перед его вылетом в 1974 году, Skylab остался на парковочной орбите размером 269 миль (433 км) на 283 мили (455 км). Ожидалось, что это продлится, по крайней мере, до начала 1980-х годов, основываясь на оценках 11-летнего цикла солнечных пятен , начавшегося в 1976 году. В 1962 году НАСА впервые рассмотрело потенциальные риски входа в атмосферу космической станции, но решило не включать ретроракетную систему в Скайлэб из-за стоимости и приемлемого риска.

Отработанная 49-тонная ступень Saturn V S-II , которая запустила Скайлэб в 1973 году, оставалась на орбите почти два года и совершила управляемый вход в атмосферу 11 января 1975 года. Однако повторный вход был несвоевременным и сошел с орбиты немного раньше, чем планировалось.

Солнечная активность

Скайлэб запечатлел этот вид Солнца

Протуберанец Солнца, зафиксированный Скайлэб 21 августа 1973 г.

Британский математик Десмонд Кинг-Хеле из Королевского авиастроительного учреждения (RAE) в 1973 году предсказал, что Скайлэб сойдет с орбиты и упадет на Землю в 1979 году, раньше, чем прогнозировало НАСА, из-за повышенной солнечной активности . Солнечная активность превысила ожидания нагрел внешние слои атмосферы Земли и увеличил сопротивление Скайлэба. К концу 1977 года НОРАД также прогнозировал возвращение в атмосферу в середине 1979 года; Ученый Национального управления океанических и атмосферных исследований (НОАА) раскритиковал НАСА за использование неточной модели второго по интенсивности цикла солнечных пятен за столетие и за игнорирование прогнозов НОАА, опубликованных в 1976 году.

Возвращение советского космического корабля «Космос-954» с ядерной установкой в ​​январе 1978 года и вызванное этим падение радиоактивных обломков на севере Канады привлекли больше внимания к орбите Скайлэба. Хотя «Скайлэб» не содержал радиоактивных материалов, Государственный департамент предупредил НАСА о потенциальных дипломатических последствиях обломков станции. Мемориальный институт Баттель прогнозирует, что до 25 тонн металлических обломков могут приземлиться разобранными на 500 частей на территории длиной 4000 миль (6400 км) и шириной 1000 миль (1600 км). Например, хранилище пленки, облицованное свинцом, может приземлиться неповрежденным на скорости 400 футов в секунду (120 м/с).

Наземные диспетчеры восстановили связь со Скайлэб в марте 1978 года. и зарядил аккумуляторы. Хотя НАСА работало над планами по перезагрузке «Скайлэб» с помощью космического корабля «Шаттл» до 1978 года, а TRS был почти завершен, агентство сдалось в декабре 1978 года, когда стало ясно, что шаттл не будет готов вовремя; его первый полет, STS-1 , состоялся только в апреле 1981 года. Также были отклонены предложения по запуску TRS с использованием одной или двух непилотируемых ракет. или попытаться уничтожить станцию ​​ракетами.

Возвращение в атмосферу и обломки

Дополнительная информация: Список возвращающегося космического мусора.

в равноугольной проекции Карта рельефа места входа в атмосферу Скайлэба и конечных орбит, предсказанных НАСА.

Фрагмент Скайлэба, обнаруженный после его повторного входа в атмосферу Земли , выставлен в Космическом и ракетном центре США.

Предстоящая гибель Скайлэба в 1979 году стала событием для международных СМИ. с футболками и шапками с яблочком и «Skylab Repellent» с гарантией возврата денег, ставки на время и место возвращения, а также ночные сводки новостей. Газета San Francisco Examiner предложила приз в размере 10 000 долларов США за первую часть Skylab, доставленную в ее офисы; конкурирующая компания San Francisco Chronicle предложила 200 000 долларов США, если подписчику будет нанесен личный или имущественный ущерб. По словам местного жителя, в районе Небраски нарисовали цель, чтобы станции было «к чему стремиться».

The Examiner учредил премию, чтобы составить конкуренцию газете Chronicle и ее популярному обозревателю Хербу Кану . Издатель Рег Мерфи не хотел платить деньги, вспоминает Джефф Джарвис , но НАСА заверило Джарвиса — коллегу Кана в Examiner — что станция не достигнет земли. В отчете, подготовленном по заказу НАСА, было подсчитано, что вероятность попадания обломков в любого человека составляет 1 из 152, а вероятность попадания обломков в город с населением 100 000 человек и более составляет 1 из 7. Специальные группы были готовы отправиться в любую страну, пострадавшую от обломков. Это событие вызвало такую ​​панику на Филиппинах , что президент Фердинанд Маркос появился на национальном телевидении, чтобы успокоить общественность.

За неделю до входа в атмосферу НАСА прогнозировало, что это произойдет между 10 и 14 июля, наиболее вероятной датой будет 12-е число, а Королевское авиационное учреждение (RAE) предсказало 14-е число. За несколько часов до события наземные диспетчеры скорректировали ориентацию Скайлэба, чтобы минимизировать риск повторного входа в населенный район. Они нацелили станцию ​​на точку в 810 милях (1300 км) к юго-юго-востоку от Кейптауна , Южная Африка, и возвращение в атмосферу началось примерно в 16:37 UTC 11 июля 1979 года. Станция сгорела не так быстро, как ожидало НАСА. Обломки приземлились примерно в 300 милях (480 км) к востоку от Перта , Западная Австралия, из-за четырехпроцентной ошибки расчета. и был обнаружен между Эсперансом, Западная Австралия , и Роулинной , от 31° до 34° южной широты и от 122° до 126° восточной долготы, примерно в радиусе 130–150 км (81–93 миль) вокруг Балладонии, Западная Австралия . Жители и пилот авиакомпании видели десятки разноцветных вспышек, когда большие куски разбились в атмосфере; обломки приземлились в почти безлюдной местности, но наблюдения все же заставили НАСА опасаться травм людей или материального ущерба. Дон Линд в интервью 2005 года не сообщает о человеческих травмах или смертях.

Стэн Торнтон нашел 24 части Скайлэба у себя дома в Эсперансе. Получив свой первый паспорт, Торнтон улетел в Сан-Франциско . Прождав неделю, пока Центр космических полетов Маршалла подтвердит подлинность обломков, он получил приз Examiner и еще 1000 долларов США от бизнесмена из Филадельфии, который прилетел туда с семьей и подругой Торнтона. Анализ обломков показал, что станция распалась на высоте 10 миль (16 км) над Землей, что намного ниже, чем ожидалось.

Графство Эсперанс легкомысленно оштрафовало НАСА на 400 австралийских долларов за мусор . (Штраф был списан три месяца спустя, но в конечном итоге был выплачен от имени НАСА в апреле 2009 года, после того как Скотт Барли из Highway Radio собрал средства от слушателей своего утреннего шоу. )

После закрытия Скайлэба НАСА сосредоточилось на многоразовом модуле Спейслэб , орбитальной мастерской, которую можно было развернуть с помощью космического корабля "Шаттл" и вернуть на Землю. Следующим крупным проектом американской космической станции была космическая станция «Свобода» , которая была объединена с Международной космической станцией в 1993 году и запущена в 1998 году. «Шаттл-Мир» был еще одним проектом, который привел к финансированию США «Спектр» , «Природа» и стыковочного модуля «Мир» в 1998 году. 1990-е годы.

Пусковые установки, спасение и отмененные миссии

пусковые установки

Ракеты-носители:

• SA-513 (Скайлэб)
• SA-206 (Скайлэб 2)
• SA-207 (Скайлэб 3)
• SA-208 (Скайлэб-4)
• SA-209 (Skylab Rescue, не запущен)

Возвращение к Скайлэбу

В 1971 году, перед запуском «Скайлэб», НАСА изучало возможность добавления еще одной миссии к уже запланированным трем. Под названием Skylab Revisit рассматривались два варианта. Первой была миссия открытого типа, которая должна была начаться через 30 дней после Skylab 4 и продлиться 56 дней. Второй посетит станцию ​​через год после отбытия последнего экипажа, чтобы определить состояние и пригодность станции для жизни после двух лет пребывания в космосе.

Ни один из вариантов не получил высокой оценки. Шансы первого варианта на успех миссии считались в лучшем случае неопределенными, а второй - еще хуже, учитывая ожидаемую нехватку еды, воды и кислорода, а также ухудшенное состояние системы Скайлэба после двух лет пребывания на орбите.

Спасение Скайлэба

Командный модуль Аполлона на 5 человек для миссии спасения Аполлона

SA-209 служил в резерве для Skylab 4 и ASTP и хранился в ракетном саду Космического центра Кеннеди.

была собрана миссия по спасению Скайлэба Для второй миссии на Скайлэб с экипажем , но в ней не было необходимости. Еще одна спасательная миссия была собрана для последнего Skylab и также находилась в режиме ожидания ASTP. Эта стартовая установка могла бы использоваться для Skylab 5 (которая должна была стать четвертой пилотируемой миссией Skylab), но ее отменили, и ракета SA-209 Saturn IB была выставлена ​​на обозрение в Космическом центре Кеннеди НАСА.

Скайлэб 5

Аполлона «Скайлэб-5» должен был стать короткой 20-дневной миссией для проведения большего количества научных экспериментов и использования двигателя служебной двигательной установки для вывода «Скайлэба» на более высокую орбиту. Вэнс Брэнд (командир), Уильям Б. Ленуар (научный пилот) и Дон Линд (пилот) должны были быть экипажем этой миссии, а Брэнд и Линд были основным экипажем спасательных полетов Скайлэба. Брэнд и Линд также готовились к миссии, которая должна была привести Скайлэб к контролируемому сходу с орбиты .

Миссия должна была стартовать в апреле 1974 года и поддерживать дальнейшее использование космического корабля "Шаттл" путем вывода станции на более высокую орбиту.

Скайлэб Б

Основная статья: Скайлэб Б

вторая резервная космическая станция «Скайлэб», предназначенная для полетов В дополнение к летной космической станции «Скайлэб» в ходе программы была построена . В мае 1973 года или позже НАСА рассматривало возможность использования ее для второй станции под названием Skylab B (S-IVB 515), но отказалось от этого. Запуск еще одного «Скайлэба» с еще одной ракетой «Сатурн-5» был бы очень затратным, и вместо этого было решено потратить эти деньги на разработку космического корабля «Шаттл».

НАСА передало Skylab B Национальному музею авиации и космонавтики в 1975 году. Орбитальная мастерская, выставленная в Космическом зале музея с 1976 года, была немного модифицирована, чтобы позволить зрителям ходить по жилым помещениям.

Инженерные макеты

Полноразмерный тренировочный макет 1G, когда-то использовавшийся для подготовки астронавтов, расположен в Космического центра имени Линдона Б. Джонсона центре посетителей в Хьюстоне , штат Техас .

Другой учебный макет, первоначально использовавшийся в симуляторе нейтральной плавучести (NBS), находится в Космическом и ракетном центре США в Хантсвилле, штат Алабама . Первоначально выставленный в помещении, он впоследствии несколько лет хранился на открытом воздухе, чтобы освободить место для других экспонатов. В ознаменование 40-летия программы Skylab часть орбитальной мастерской тренера была восстановлена ​​и в 2013 году перенесена в Центр Дэвидсона .

• 
  Тренажер 1-G в Космическом центре Хьюстона .
• 
  Тренажер 1-G в Космическом центре Хьюстона .
• 
  Тренажер 1-G в Космическом центре Хьюстона .
• 
  Тренер в NBS перед показом в Космическом и ракетном центре США .
• 
  Астронавты НБС разворачивают двухполюсный солнцезащитный козырек Skylab, 1973 год.
• 
  Астронавты НБС разворачивают защитный солнечный парус Skylab, 1973 год.
• 
  Тренажер на выставке в Космическом и ракетном центре США , 1982 год.
• 
  Тренажер на выставке в Космическом и ракетном центре США , 2015 г.
• 
  Тренажер на выставке в Космическом и ракетном центре США

Обозначения миссий

Числовая идентификация экипажей миссий Скайлэб была причиной некоторой путаницы. Первоначально беспилотный запуск Скайлэба и три полета на станцию ​​с экипажем имели номера от SL-1 до SL-4 . В ходе подготовки к пилотируемым миссиям некоторая документация была создана по другой схеме - от SLM-1 до SLM-3 - только для этих миссий. Уильям Пог благодарит Пита Конрада за то, что он спросил директора программы Skylab, какую схему следует использовать для патчей миссии , и астронавтам было сказано использовать 1–2–3, а не 2–3–4. К тому времени, когда администраторы НАСА попытались отменить это решение, было уже слишком поздно, поскольку вся летная одежда уже была изготовлена ​​и отправлена ​​с нашивками для миссии 1–2–3.

Миссия	Эмблема	Командир	Научный пилот	Пилот	Дата запуска	Дата посадки	Продолжительность (дни)
Скайлэб 1 SL-1		беспилотный запуск космической станции			1973-05-14 17:30:00 UTC	1979-07-11 16:37:00 UTC	2248.96
Скайлэб 2 SL-2 ( SLM-1 )		Пит Конрад	Джозеф Кервин	Пол Вайц	1973-05-25 13:00:00 UTC	1973-06-22 13:49:48 UTC	28.03
Скайлэб 3 SL-3 ( SLM-2 )		Алан Бин	Оуэн Гэрриотт	Джек Лусма	1973-07-28 11:10:50 UTC	1973-09-25 22:19:51 всемирное координированное время	59.46
Скайлэб 4 SL-4 ( SLM-3 )		Джеральд Карр	Эдвард Гибсон	Уильям Пог	1973-11-16 14:01:23 всемирное координированное время	1974-02-08 15:16:53 всемирное координированное время	84.04
Скайлэб 5	—	Вэнс Брэнд	Уильям Б. Ленуар	Дон Линд	(апрель 1974 г., отменено)	—	20 (условно)
Спасение Скайлэба	—	Вэнс Брэнд	—	Дон Линд	(В режиме ожидания)	—	По прогнозам, продлится менее 5 дней.

Л. Б. Джеймс из НАСА Маршалл предсказал в 1970 году, что в состав каждой команды Скайлэба могут входить астроном, врач и третий учёный. Группа астронавтов НАСА 4 и Группа астронавтов НАСА 6 были учеными, нанятыми в качестве астронавтов. Они и научное сообщество надеялись, что в каждой миссии Скайлэба будет задействовано по два пилота, но Дик Слейтон , директор по работе летного состава, настоял на том, чтобы в каждой миссии летали два обученных пилота. Хотя ученые были квалифицированными пилотами реактивных самолетов, штаб-квартира НАСА приняла окончательное решение о том, что в каждом экипаже Скайлэба будет по одному ученому 6 июля 1971 года, после гибели трех космонавтов на корабле «Союз-11».

Кервин был первым ученым-астронавтом Скайлэба. НАСА выбрало врача, чтобы лучше понять влияние космического полета на организм человека во время длительной миссии. больницы Хьюстона Астронавты тренируются выполнять небольшие медицинские процедуры в отделении неотложной помощи .

СМИТ

Основная статья: Высотное испытание медицинского эксперимента Skylab

или Высотный тест Skylab Medical Experiment SMEAT представлял собой 56-дневный (8-недельный) аналог земного испытания Skylab. Испытание проводилось в атмосфере низкого давления с высоким содержанием кислорода, но оно проходило в условиях полной гравитации, поскольку SMEAT не находился на орбите. В испытании участвовал экипаж из трех астронавтов: командир Роберт Криппен , пилот Карол Дж. Бобко и научный пилот Уильям Э. Торнтон ; основное внимание уделялось медицинским исследованиям, а Торнтон был доктором медицинских наук. Экипаж жил и работал в барокамере, переоборудованной под Скайлэб, с 26 июля по 20 сентября 1972 года.

Миссия	Эмблема	Командир	Пилот	Научный пилот	Дата начала	Дата окончания	Продолжительность
Высотное испытание медицинского эксперимента Skylab (SMEAT)		Боб Криппен	Кароль Бобко	Уильям Торнтон	26 июля 1972 г.	20 сентября 1972 г.	56 дней

Пример схемы эксперимента ED 24

Стоимость программы

С 1966 по 1974 год программа Skylab обошлась в общей сложности в 2,2 миллиарда долларов США (что эквивалентно 17 миллиардам долларов в 2023 году). Поскольку три экипажа из трех человек провели в космосе в общей сложности 510 человеко-дней, каждый человеко-день стоил примерно 20 миллионов долларов США по сравнению с 7,5 миллионами долларов США для Международной космической станции .

Изображения в фильме

Документальный фильм « В поисках Скайлэба» был выпущен в Интернете в марте 2019 года. Он был написан и снят Дуайтом Стивеном-Бониецки и частично финансировался за счет краудфандинга .

в альтернативной истории В оригинальном сериале Apple TV + « Для всего человечества» показано использование космической станции в первом эпизоде ​​второго сезона, дожившей до 1980-х годов и сосуществующей с программой «Спейс шаттл» в альтернативной временной шкале.

В фильме 2011 года «Скайлэб» семья собирается во Франции и ждет, пока станция упадет с орбиты. Режиссером выступила Жюли Дельпи.

В индийском фильме 2021 года «Скайлэб» изображены вымышленные инциденты в деревне Телангана, предшествовавшие распаду космической станции.

Второстепенная сюжетная линия фильма 1986 года « Собаки в космосе» представляет собой попытку персонажей семьи Мельбурн изготовить части Скайлэба и выиграть конкурс радиостанций по обнаружению обломков космической станции, когда она упала на землю в Австралии.

• 
  Оборудование для утилизации отходов в резервной Skylab в Национальном музее авиации и космонавтики .
• 
  Манекен в резервной лаборатории Skylab в Смитсоновского института Национальном музее авиации и космонавтики .
• 
  Skylab Памятная марка , выпуск 1974 года. Памятная марка отражает первоначальный ремонт станции, включая зонтик от солнца.
• 
  Иллюстрация конфигурации Skylab с пристыкованным командно-сервисным модулем
• 
  Vanguard (T-AGM-19) рассматривается как корабль слежения NASA Skylab. Обратите внимание на радар слежения и телеметрические антенны.
• 
  Медальоны Роббинса, выданные для миссий Скайлэба.
• 
  Манекен-тренажер Космического центра Хьюстона Skylab 1-G.
• 
  Основной модуль S-IVB представляет собой часть ракеты «Сатурн-5» .

См. также

• Хронология самых длительных космических полетов
• Скайлэб II (предлагаемая космическая станция)
• « Spacelab » — ​​песня группы Kraftwerk 1978 года.
• Солнечные панели на космическом корабле

Ссылки

Цитируемые работы

• Белью, Леланд. Ф., изд. (1977). Скайлэб, наша первая космическая станция . Бюро научно-технической информации НАСА. ОСЛК   2644423 . СП-400. В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• Бенсон, Чарльз Данлэп и Комптон, Уильям Дэвид (1983). Жизнь и работа в космосе: история Скайлэба . Бюро научно-технической информации НАСА. OCLC   8114293 . СП-4208. В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• Хеппенхаймер, Т.А. (1999). Решение о космическом шаттле: поиск НАСА многоразового космического корабля . Бюро истории НАСА. OCLC   40305626 . СП-4221. В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• Мартин Мариетта и Бендикс (сентябрь 1978 г.). Исследование повторного использования Skylab . НАСА. В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• Эдельсон, Эдвард (январь 1979 г.). «Спасение Скайлэба: Нерассказанная история» . Популярная наука - через Google Книги.

Дальнейшее чтение

• Ньюкирк, Роланд В.; Эртель Иван Дмитриевич; Брукс, Кортни Г. (1977). Скайлэб: Хронология . НАСА. СП-4011. В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• SP-402 Новое Солнце: солнечные результаты со Скайлэба В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• Оценка миссии Skylab - отчет НАСА (формат PDF) В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .
• Отчет миссии по реактивации Skylab 1980 г. - отчет НАСА (формат PDF) В данную статью включен текст из этого источника, находящегося в свободном доступе .

Внешние ссылки

• Интервью «Голоса Оклахомы» с Уильямом Погом. Интервью от первого лица, проведенное с Уильямом Погом 8 августа 2012 года. Оригинальная аудиозапись и стенограмма заархивированы в рамках проекта устной истории «Голоса Оклахомы».

НАСА

• Публикации серии историй НАСА (многие из которых доступны в Интернете)
  • SP-4011 Skylab, хронология (1977) 1
  • SP-401 Skylab, Класс в космосе (1977)
  • Краткое изложение исследований SP-399 Skylab EREP (1978)
  • SP-402 Новое Солнце: солнечные результаты из Скайлэба (1979)
  • SP-404 Астрономия и космические науки Скайлэба Скайлэба (1979)
• Skylab: Четыре комнаты с видом на Землю на YouTube Образовательный фильм НАСА
• Строящийся шлюзовой модуль (1971 г.) ( Средний )
• Шлюз и стыковочный модуль вместе (1972) ( средний )
• Иллюстрация помещения экипажа Skylab. Архивировано 27 сентября 2011 года в Wayback Machine.
• Аполлон (на переднем плане) и космическая еда Skylab. Архивировано 27 сентября 2011 года в Wayback Machine ( M487 ).

Третья сторона

• Коллекция Скайлэб, Архивы и специальные коллекции Университета Алабамы в Хантсвилле.
• Коллекция Леланда Ф. Белью, Архивы и специальные коллекции Университета Алабамы в Хантсвилле. Файлы Леланда Белью, менеджера проекта Skylab.
• eoПортал: Скайлэб
• Исторический космический корабль: Скайлэб
• Модуль перезагрузки Скайлэба
• Возвращение Скайлэба (Глава 9 SP-4208)
• Рисунок Skylab в разрезе из Британской энциклопедии. Архивировано 8 июля 2011 года в Wayback Machine.
• Чертеж Skylab в разрезе
• Скайлэб «Рождественская елка»
• Коллекция фотографий Терезы Энн Дженнингс Skylab в Музее цифровых коллекций летных технологий