Anarchism in Mongolia
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Anarchism in Mongolia was present during the revolutionary period of the 1910s and 1920s, closely linked with the Russian anarchist movement in Altai, Buryatia and Tuva.
History
[edit]From the 19th century onwards, Mongolia acted as a refuge for Russian and Chinese revolutionaries, fleeing persecution by their respective empires. Many anarchists were drawn there by the freedom that the wide open spaces of the sparsely-populated plateau afforded to them.[1][2]
With the fall of the monarchy in China, the Mongolian Revolution of 1911 overthrew Qing rule, establishing the independent Bogd Khanate of Mongolia, under the rule of Bogd Khan. Tuva followed suit, declaring the independence of the Uryankhay Republic, later becoming a Russian protectorate. In 1917, the Russian Revolution overthrew the Russian Empire, establishing the Russian Republic in February. This was itself overthrown in October and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was established in its place, igniting the Russian Civil War. In its wake, Altai and Buryatia declared independence from Russia, while Tuva was divided between Russian and Chinese occupation forces.
At the turn of 1918, anarchist detachments began to form in Siberia, including a cavalry division led by Nestor Kalandarishvil[3] and a Red Guard detachment led by Dmitri Tretyakov. In March 1918, Tretyakov's detachment attempted to establish a soviet in Kyakhta, but conflict with the local population forced them to flee to Irkutsk, where they were captured, disarmed and arrested by Centrosibir.[4][5][6] With the collapse of the Eastern Front and the downfall of Soviet power in Siberia, Centrosibir had ceased to function by August 1918.[7][8] This led to many leftists, including anarchists, fleeing to Mongolia to escape the White Terror,[9] Nestor Kalandarishvili spearheaded the border crossing,[10] leading between 800[11] and 1,500 people[12][13] to the Mongolian village of Khatgal. They remained for a few weeks, recruiting a number of Mongols during their stay, before crossing the border back into Buryatia at Sanaga to fight a guerilla war against the Russian State.[10][13] Anarchists, Left SRs and Maximalists also made up part of the guerilla forces of Alexander Kravchenko and Pyotr Shchetinkin, which led the re-assertion of Soviet power over Tuva in 1919.[14]
Pavel Baltakhinov, a Buryat anarchist who had been agitating against the Russian State as part of an anarcho-communist group in Irkutsk, fled from the White Terror in early 1919 and went into hiding in Mongolia. During his stay, Baltakhinov participated in anarchist agitprop among the local Mongols, such that when he returned to Siberia in August 1919, he brought many Mongols along with him, where they joined the anarchist guerillas led by Kalandarishvili.[15] He eventually came to command a Buryat guerilla detachment,[16][17][18][19] made up of 50-60 people.[20]
In October 1919, the Anhui warlord Xu Shuzheng led the military occupation of Mongolia and Tuva, backed by the Empire of Japan. In February 1921, the Chinese occupation forces were ousted by the White general Roman von Ungern-Sternberg,[21] who restored Bogd Khan to the throne and led pogroms against Mongolian leftists and Jews.[22] Buryat anarchists took up the struggle against the occupation, forcing the White Army out of Mongolia.[15] In its place, the Tuvan People's Republic was established by the Tuvan People's Revolutionary Party and the Mongolian People's Republic was later established by the Mongolian People's Party, as part of a coalition between the old nobility and the new Bolshevik order, leading to early anti-government protests by many Arats.[23] Repression followed the Soviet Union's annexation of Altai and Buryatia, leading many, including the Altaian anarchist Ivan Novosyolov, to flee first to Mongolia and then to China.[24]
Nevertheless, forms of radical leftism continued to exist in Mongolia throughout the early 1920s, particularly among the "Revolutionary Union of Youth of Mongolia". It was established in August 1921 and organized for social equality, increased literacy, women's liberation, anti-clericalism and the abolition of serfdom.[25] They criticized the sluggish implementation of social reforms and refused to submit to the ruling party, noting that "much things remain as before: the princes oppress, keeping the old order, ignoring the people's situation, guided by hereditary rights and resisting the People's Government."[26] The People's Party denounced the union as anarchist rebels and the prime minister Dogsomyn Bodoo called for the implementation of extreme measures to suppress it. In response, the union armed themselves and called for the removal of government officials that opposed them, but the Buryat revolutionary Rinchingiin Elbegdorj prevented any armed confrontation from taking place.[27] The Communist International, concerned by the heterogeneous nature of the Mongolian revolutionary movement, ordered its Bolshevization. It later oversaw the formal subjugation of the Youth Union to the People's Party, further eliminating dissent to single-party rule.[28]
The Arats, who were being marginalized by the nobility and party officials, continued to push for social reforms - even managing to achieve some in Tuva.[29] However, the nobility continued to hold onto power and the feudal marginalization of Arats continued. In response, many Arats formed Chuduruk Nam, an armed anarchist militant group[30][31] with the goal of protecting the Arats from the oppressive practices of the nobility and party officials. The organization confiscated cattle and property from the wealthy, attacked corrupt party officials, encouraged free love and promoted sanitation and hygiene.[32]
In March 1924, a counter-revolutionary insurrection was incited by the local nobility and clergy, aiming for a return to traditionalist values.[33] Supported by the Mongolian government, it demanded Tuva be annexed into the Mongolian state,[34] but the insurrection was quickly put down by the intervention of the Soviet Union, a Tuvan government detachment and squads of volunteer Arats.[35] Despite the role that Arats played in putting down the insurrection, the government blamed radical Arat activists for the situation, alleging that Chuduruk Nam had provoked it. As a result, Arat party officials were removed from their posts, including the Tuvan party chairman Oyun Kyursedi.[36] In December 1924, the Chuduruk Nam detachment was surrounded by government forces in the Ulug-Khem Valley and forcibly disarmed.[37]
With the elimination of the remaining left-wing opposition, the ruling parties of Mongolia and Tuva consolidated their power, overseen by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In Tuva, power fell to Donduk Kuular, a former Lama with theocratic and nationalist ambitions. In 1929, the Soviet Union orchestrated a coup d'état, which removed and executed Donduk. He was replaced with Salchak Toka, a hardline Stalinist that ruled Tuva until his death in 1972, overseeing the Soviet annexation of the country during World War II. In Mongolia, power had fallen to Peljidiin Genden, an outspoken critic of Soviet Imperialism and Joseph Stalin's anti-religious campaigns. After a public argument with Stalin, Peljidiin was removed from power by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, another hardline Stalinist. Peljidiin was subsequently executed and declared a nonperson during the Great Purge, which initiated a campaign of repression in Mongolia. The left-wing opposition remained suppressed until the Mongolian Revolution of 1990, which ended single-party rule in Mongolia.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Darevskaya, Е.М. (1974). "Политические ссыльные Сибири в Монголии". In N.N. Shcherbakova (ed.). Ссыльные революционеры в Сибири: XIX в. – февраль 1917 г. (in Russian) (2 ed.). Irkutsk University Press. p. 122. OCLC 28393445.
- ^ Luzi︠a︡nin, S.G. (2003). Vladimir Stepanovich Myasnikov (ed.). Россия-Монголия-Китай в первой половине ХХ в. : политические взаимоотношения в 1911-1946 гг (2 ed.). Moscow: Ogni. p. 99. ISBN 9785954800012. OCLC 53304465.
- ^ Kozhevin, V.Е. (1987). Легендарный партизан Сибири (3 ed.). Ulan-Ude: Бурятсое кн. изд-во. p. 3. OCLC 654657512.
- ^ Ermakov, V.D. (1996). Российский анархизм и анархисты : вторая половина XIX--конец XX веков (in Russian). Petrograd: Izdatelʹskai︠a︡ koordinat︠s︡ionnai︠a︡ gruppa "NESTOR". pp. 121–122. ISBN 9785742200192. OCLC 36304446.
- ^ Shtyrbul, А.А. (1996). Анархистское движение в Сибири в 1-й четверти XX века : антигосударственный бунт и негосударственная самоорганизация трудящихся : теория и практика (in Russian). Vol. 2. (1918-1925). Omsk: Ministry of Education and Science. pp. 5–7. ISBN 9785826801192. OCLC 1038162462.
- ^ Poznanskiĭ, Vladimir Semenovich (1973). Очерки истории вооруженной борьбы Советов Сибири с контрреволюцией в 1917 – 1918 гг (in Russian). Novosibirsk: Nauka. pp. 144–145. OCLC 1075211.
- ^ "Центросибирь". Slownik.ru. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007.
- ^ Lenin, Vladimir (April 5, 1918). "59. TELEGRAM TO THE C.E.C. OF THE SOVIETS OF SIBERIA". Translated by Clemens Dutt.
- ^ Belov, Е.А. (1999). Россия и Монголия (1911 – 1919) (in Russian). Moscow: IV RAN. p. 175. ISBN 9785892821186. OCLC 43257523.
- ^ Jump up to: Jump up to: a b Kozhevin, V.Е. (1987). Легендарный партизан Сибири (in Russian) (3 ed.). Ulan-Ude: Бурятсое кн. изд-во. p. 63. OCLC 654657512.
- ^ "Нашествие "красных" из Монголии". Свободная Сибирь (in Russian). Vol. 125, no. 337. Krasnoyarsk. 17 October 1918. p. 4. OCLC 1034854159.
- ^ Kozhevin, V.Е. (1987). Легендарный партизан Сибири (in Russian) (3 ed.). Ulan-Ude: Бурятсое кн. изд-во. p. 52. OCLC 654657512.
- ^ Jump up to: Jump up to: a b Novikov, P.А. (2005). Гражданская война в Восточной Сибири. Rossii︠a︡ zabytai︠a︡ i neizvestnai︠a︡ (in Russian). Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf. p. 155. ISBN 9785952414006. OCLC 1170631123.
- ^ Marmyshev, А.V.; Eliseenko, А.G. (2008). Гражданская война в Енисейской губернии. Krasnoyarsk. pp. 165–168, 174–179.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Jump up to: Jump up to: a b Moenhbayar, Ch. (13 April 2011). "Буриад Балтахинов Ар Монголд анархист үзлийг дэлгэрүүлж явжээ" (in Mongolian). Ulaanbaatar. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
- ^ Kanev, Serafim Nikiforovich (1974). Октябрьская революция и крах анархизма (in Russian). Moscow: Mysl. p. 382. OCLC 690446020.
- ^ Egunov, Nikifor Petrovič (1979). Павел Балтахинов. Irkutsk.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Ermakov, V.D. (1996). Российский анархизм и анархисты : вторая половина XIX--конец XX веков (in Russian). Petrograd: Izdatelʹskai︠a︡ koordinat︠s︡ionnai︠a︡ gruppa "NESTOR". p. 165. ISBN 9785742200192. OCLC 36304446.
- ^ Basayev, Sergey (17 November 2014). "Мог бы стать священником" (in Russian). Интернет-газета Республики Бурятия. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
- ^ Various (2010). Улицы Улан-Удэ – памятники истории: словарь-справочник (in Russian). Ulan Ude: Buryat State University. p. 25. ISBN 9785979306599. OCLC 900162070.
- ^ Belov, Е.А. (2003). Барон Унгерн фон Штернберг : биография, идеология, военные походы, 1920-1921 гг (in Russian). Moscow: Agraf : IV RAN. p. 106. OCLC 603762073.
- ^ Sokolov, B.V. (2006). Барон Унгерн: Черный всадник (in Russian). Moscow: AST-Press. p. 40. ISBN 9785462005855. OCLC 234204057.
- ^ Okladnikov, Aleksej Pavlovič (1983). История Монгольской Народной Республики (in Russian) (3 ed.). Moscow: Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. pp. 341–342. OCLC 490109656.
- ^ Shtyrbul, А.А. (1996). Анархистское движение в Сибири в 1-й четверти XX века : антигосударственный бунт и негосударственная самоорганизация трудящихся : теория и практика (in Russian). Vol. 2. (1918-1925). Omsk: Ministry of Education and Science. p. 127. ISBN 9785826801192. OCLC 1038162462.
- ^ Carr, Edward Hallett (1964). Socialism in One Country 1924 – 1926. A History of Soviet Russia. London: Macmillan. p. 810. OCLC 611618490.
- ^ Dalin, S.А. (1982). Китайские мемуары. 1921–1927. Moscow: Nauka. pp. 63–64. OCLC 569725662.
- ^ Various (1998). Элбек-Доржи Ринчино о Монголии (in Russian). Ulan Ude: Институт монголоведения, буддологии и тибетологии СО РАН. p. 58. OCLC 47198036.
- ^ Bazarov, B.V.; Zhabaeva, L.B. (2008). Бурятские национальные демократы и общественно-политическая мысль монгольских народов в первой трети ХХ века (in Russian). Ulan Ude: Изд-во Бурятского научного центра Со РАН. pp. 304–305. ISBN 9785792502703. OCLC 431401855.
- ^ Aranchyn, I︠U︡. L. (1982). Исторический путь тувинского народа к социализму (in Russian). Novosibirsk: Nauka. pp. 98–104. OCLC 977796339.
- ^ Dulov, Vsevolod Ivanovič (1964). История Тувы в 2-х томах (in Russian). Vol. 2. Moscow: Nauka. p. 108. OCLC 493363539.
- ^ Shirshin, Grigoriĭ Chooduevich (1975). Очерки истории тувинской организации КПСС (in Russian). Kyzyl: Tuvin. p. 47. OCLC 3065280.
- ^ Kisel, V.А. (2009). Поездка за красной солью. Погребальные обряды Тувы XVIII – начало XXI в. (in Russian). Petrograd: Nauka. p. 57. ISBN 9785020255661. OCLC 665169807.
- ^ Kisel, V.А. (2009). Поездка за красной солью. Погребальные обряды Тувы XVIII – начало XXI в. (in Russian). Petrograd: Nauka. p. 55. ISBN 9785020255661. OCLC 665169807.
- ^ Moskalenko, Nelli (2004). Этнополитическая история Тувы в XX веке (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. pp. 98–103. OCLC 607278225.
- ^ Моллеров, Н.М. (2005). Советско-китайский договор 1924 г. (Итоги Кызылской тройственной конференции). Документ. Архив. История. Современность. Ekaterinburg: Ural State University. pp. 162–167. ISBN 9785758400814. OCLC 913131005.
- ^ Dulov, Vsevolod Ivanovič (1964). История Тувы в 2-х томах (in Russian). Vol. 2. Moscow: Nauka. p. 111. OCLC 493363539.
- ^ Toka, Salchak. "6. Партия чудурук". Слово арата. Vol. 2. OCLC 1077121284.
