Центральная Европа

Различные взгляды на Центральную Европу

Центральная Европа согласно The World Factbook (2009), Британская энциклопедия и Энциклопедия Брокгауза (1998). Существует множество других определений и точек зрения.

The cultural-spatial borders of Europe according to the Standing Committee on Geographical Names, Germany. The map displays two different segment-bordering ways superimposed on each other.

Центральная Европа — географический регион Европы между Восточной , Южной , Западной и Северной Европой. Центральная Европа известна своим культурным разнообразием; однако страны этого региона также имеют общие исторические и культурные сходства.

Хотя регион определяется по-разному, он часто включает Австрию , Хорватию , Чехию , Германию , Венгрию , Лихтенштейн , Литву , Польшу , Словакию , Словению и Швейцарию . С начала 16 века до начала 18 века, части современных Хорватии и Венгрии находились под властью Османской империи. В 17 веке империя также оккупировала южные части современной Словакии. В период раннего Нового времени территории Польши и Литвы входили в состав Речи Посполитой . Между тем, Эрцгерцогство Австрии , Королевство Богемия (Чехия), Герцогство Крайна (часть современной Словении), различные немецкие княжества и Старая Швейцарская Конфедерация находились в составе Священной Римской империи . К концу 18-го века Габсбургская монархия , выдающаяся держава в империи, стала править территориями Австрии, Боснии и Герцеговины , Хорватии, Чехии, Венгрии, Словакии и Словении, а также частями Сербии , Германии. , Италия , Польша и Швейцария.

Since the Cold War countries that make up Central Europe have historically been, and in some cases continue to be, divided into either Eastern or Western Europe. After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the communist Eastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia (encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various other Balkans nations) declared neutrality. The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division. Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe.

Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st century, with initiatives such as Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group. This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression.

Historical perspective

Middle Ages and early modern period

In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, while Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east. However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities.

From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the Carpathian Basin was part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of the Pannonian Avars. While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively. Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of the Merovingian dynasty, and later the Carolingian dynasty. Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. The territory of Lithuania was inhabited by Baltic tribes. Amongst them were the Samogitians, Aukštaitians and Curonians.

The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating in the Ural Mountains and Western Siberia, settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.

The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by Alcuin of York in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance, limited to the territories that practised Western Christianity at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include much of the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century.

Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe, remained Eastern Orthodox, and was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence. After the East–West Schism in 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.

• 
  Frankish Empire and its tributaries in 814
• 
  East Francia in 843
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  Possible furthest extent of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (870–894)
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  Duchy of Poland under the Piast dynasty in 1000
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  Duchy of Bohemia (Czech Duchy) in 1000
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  Kingdom of Germany in 1004
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  Kingdom of Hungary in 1190
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  Kingdom of Croatia in 1260
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  Holy Roman Empire in 1600
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  Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefs in 1619

According to historian Jenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe. These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties.

In 1335, the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary and Croatia met in the castle of Visegrád and agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring the post-Cold War Visegrád Group.

In 1386, Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Christianity (specifically Catholicism) and subsequently became King of Poland through marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland. This initiated the Christianization of Lithuania. It also resulted in the Union of Krewo, signifying a personal union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The union commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities and laid the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569.

Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, which was at the time in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean. The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time. Following the Ottoman and Habsburg wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, under Habsburg rule, began to regain its position as a significant trade route, restoring ports and revitalising commercial activity.

Before World War I

A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First World War (1902):

  Central European countries and regions: Germany and Austria-Hungary (without Bosnia & Herzegovina and Dalmatia)

  Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Southeastern/Eastern Europe: Romania

Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the first concept mixed science, politics, and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the mitteleuropäische Lösung (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea of Mitteleuropa also became popular in the German Empire established in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-day Central European Time.

The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans. An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch's book of 1903.

On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann's book Mitteleuropa in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's proposed a federation with Germany and the Habsburg empire as its centre, eventually uniting all external European nations through economic prosperity. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.

Interwar period

Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de Martonne (1927)

CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)

The interwar period (1918–1938) brought a new geopolitical system, as well as economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took on a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – particularly to the countries that had (re)appeared on the map of Europe. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic, and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded. Hungarian historian Ádám Magda wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down". The events preceding World War II in Europe—including the so-called Western betrayal/ Munich Agreement were very much enabled by the rising nationalism and ethnocentrism that typified that period.

The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, with non-German speaking territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership was to be the 'natural' result of economic dominance. Post-war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took an interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.

According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927, Central Europe encompassed Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, northern Italy and northern Yugoslavia. The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, but he doesn't take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, and infrastructural developments in these countries.

The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.

Mitteleuropa

With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire around 1800, there was a consolidation of power among the Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns as the two major states in the area. They had much in common and occasionally cooperated in various channels, but more often competed. One approach in the various attempts at cooperation, was the conception of a set of supposed common features and interests, and this idea led to the first discussions of a Mitteleuropa in the mid-nineteenth century, as espoused by Friedrich List and Karl Ludwig Bruck. These were mostly based on economic issues.

Mitteleuropa may refer to a historical concept or a contemporary German definition of Central Europe. As a historical concept, the German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe) is an ambiguous German concept. It is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'. According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus. Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.

In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line.

The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region. Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century. Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy this culture. The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa".

Central Europe during World War II

During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe. There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria. There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued this goal. The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the USA. Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from Nazi German, and Soviet, influence and control. There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff. As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control.

Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain

Neutral and Non-Aligned European States during the Cold War:

   Neutral: Austria, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland

  Non-Aligned: Cyprus, Malta and Yugoslavia

Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain. Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia remained neutral.

The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe. Following the Fall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research.

According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term) most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet satellites. Besides Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, only the marginal European states of Cyprus, Finland, Malta and Sweden preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe.

The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism.

Roles

According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Czechoslovak, Hungarian and Polish presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.

The European floristic regions

The Pannonian Plain, between the Alps (west), the Carpathians (north and east), and the Dinaric Alps (southwest)

Carpathian countries (north-west to south-east): CZ, AT, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, RS

American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways. According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. He argued that there is no precise way to define Central Europe and that the region may even include Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Serbia.

Definitions

Geopolitical Challenges – Panel on the Future of Europe

The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas, of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions.

In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I.

The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s.

For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.

Academic

The main proposed regional definitions, gathered by Polish historian Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:

• West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950, distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: German West-Centre, with imperial tradition of the Reich, and the East-Centre covered by variety of nations from Finland to Greece, placed between great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union.
• Central Europe as the area of cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of the concept.
• Central Europe as a region connected to the Western civilisation since the foundation of the local states and churches, including countries such as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Kingdom of Croatia, Holy Roman Empire, later German Empire and the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Crown of Bohemia. Central Europe understood in this way borders on Russia and South-Eastern Europe, but the exact frontier of the region is difficult to determine.

Habsburg-ruled lands (divided between Cisleithanian/Austrian-administered and Transalthanian/Hungarian-administered)

• Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg Empire – a concept which is popular in regions along the river Danube: Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Slovenia, large parts of Bosnia, Croatia and Romania. Also, smaller parts of Poland, Serbia and Ukraine.
• A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by the Russian historiography..
• A concept putting the accent on links with the West, especially from the 19th century and the grand period of liberation and formation of Nation-states – this idea is represented by the South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the "East Centre" expressing their links with Western culture.

Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:

• One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between the Catholic West and the Orthodox East. The pagans of Central Europe were converted to Catholicism while in Southeastern and Eastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe. Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories. The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than present-day Hungary, while Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century. Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 240 years ago they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).

Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries

The World Factbook defines Central Europe as: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. The Columbia Encyclopedia includes: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. While it does not have a single article defining Central Europe, Encyclopædia Britannica includes the following countries in Central Europe in one or more of its articles: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.

The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate.

According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon, Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France.

The German Ständige Ausschuss für geographische Namen (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France.

Geographical

Travel time by car or ferry from the geographical center of Europe

There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically.

At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and usually also Austria and Germany.

Governmental and standards organisations

The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.

Map gallery

• 
  Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997):
  

    The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book.

    Countries for which there is no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not
• 
  According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky, a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group.
• 
  Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011):

    Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)

    Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term
• 
  Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009):
  

    Central European countries

    Slovenia in "south central Europe"
• 
  The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):
  

    Countries usually considered Central European

    Central European countries in the broader sense of the term

    Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
• 
  Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998)
• 
  Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)
• 
  Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)
• 
  Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
• 
  Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)

States

European sub-regions according to EuroVoc

  Central and Eastern Europe

  Western Europe

  Southern Europe

  Northern Europe

The choice of states that make up Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy. Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below:

• Austria
• Croatia
• Czech Republic
• Germany
• Hungary
• Lithuania
• Poland
• Slovakia
• Slovenia
• Switzerland
• Serbia

Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries. In this case Austria, Germany and Switzerland are often placed in Western Europe, while Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are placed in Eastern Europe.

Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe. Additionally, Hungary and Slovenia are sometimes included in the region.

Lithuania is alternatively placed in Northeastern Europe.

Regions used for statistical processing purposes by the United Nations Statistics Division

  Eastern Europe

  Northern Europe

  Southern Europe

  Western Europe

Other countries and regions

Some sources also add regions of neighbouring countries for historical reasons, or based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:

• Bosnia and Herzegovina (as a former part of the Habsburg monarchy, placed in Southern or Southeast Europe)
• Estonia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa', alternatively placed in Eastern, Northeastern or Northern Europe)
• Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and Gorizia, Friuli, Lombardy, and Veneto or all of Northern Italy)
• Latvia (considered to have been part of 'Mitteleuropa')
• Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș, Bukovina and Muntenia along with Oltenia)
• Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast)
• Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe)
• Ukraine (Transcarpathia, Galicia and Northern Bukovina)

Geography

The Danube watercourse system throughout Central and Southeastern Europe

Geography defines Central Europe's natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the north across the Baltic Sea, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia), and to the south across the Alps, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy), and the Balkan peninsula across the Soča–Krka–Sava–Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined, and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily west–east than south–north. The river Rhine, which runs south–north through Western Germany, is an exception.

Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube – and their respective floodplains. The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states").

South of the Eastern Alps (spanning Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland), the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south. According to the Freie Universität Berlin, this mountain chain is classified as South Central European. The city of Trieste in this area, for example, expressly sees itself as a città mitteleuropea. This is particularly because it lies at the interface between the Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Greek and Jewish culture on the one hand and the geographical area of the Mediterranean and the Alps on the other. A geographical and cultural assignment is made.

The Central European flora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to the Northern Balkans, Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.

Demography

Population density in Central European countries

Population density (people per km²) by country

Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 173 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany. Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents, Czech Republic at 10.5 million, Hungary at 10 million, Austria with 8.8 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million, Slovakia at 5.4 million, Croatia with 4.3 million, Lithuania with 2.9 million, Slovenia with 2.1 million and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000.

If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Romania (20 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million) – this would contribute around an additional 30.4 million, although this figure would vary depending on whether a regional or integral approach is used. If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, a further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, surpassing a total of 200 million people.

Economy

Further information: List of central European countries by development indexes § Economy

Currencies

Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna, forint, Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu).

Human Development Index

Further information: List of central European countries by development indexes § Human Development Index

World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2013:

Very High	Low
High	Data unavailable
Medium

In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world).

Globalisation

Further information: List of central European countries by development indexes § Globalisation

Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index

The index of globalization in Central European countries (2016 data):Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world).

Prosperity Index

Further information: List of central European countries by development indexes § Prosperity

Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data). Switzerland topped the index (#4 world).

Corruption

Further information: List of central European countries by development indexes § Corruption

Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2015:

90–100	60–69	30–39	0–9
80–89	50–59	20–29	No information
70–79	40–49	10–19

Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data), led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.

Rail

Rail network density

Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austrian, Czech, German, Hungarian and Swiss territories between 1860-1870s. By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, Zurich, Pest and Prague were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste). By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of Austria and Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890 miles). By 1936, 70% of the Swiss Federal Railway network had undergone electrification.

Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density as of 2022, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, from highest to lowest is Switzerland (129.2), the Czech Republic (120.7), Germany (108.8), Hungary (85.0), Slovakia (74.0), Austria (66.5), Poland (61.9), Slovenia (59.6), Serbia (49.2), Croatia (46.3) and Lithuania (29.4).

River transport and canals

Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade. Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which connected Timișoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via the Danube. The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on the Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century.

The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early beginning with Germany and the Czech lands near the end of the 18th century.

The industrialization of the cities of Romania and Serbia started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era.

Agriculture

Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010, 3rd largest producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, and 5th largest potato producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, 2nd largest producer of raspberries, currants, 3rd largest of rye, the 5th apple and buckwheat producer, and 7th largest producer of potatoes. The Czech Republic is the world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Slovenia is one of the world's leading producers of honey and the world's 6th largest hops producer. Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer. Serbia is the world's 2nd largest producer of plums and 2nd largest producer of raspberries.

Business

Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background.

Tourism

Central European countries, especially Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.

Education

Further information: List of central European countries by development indexes § Education

Languages

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § Языки.

Эффективность образования

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § Показатели образования.

, успеваемость учащихся в Центральной Европе различается По данным Программы международной оценки учащихся . В исследовании 2012 года страны набрали средние, ниже или выше среднего баллы в трех изученных областях.

Высшее образование

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § Высшее образование.

Каролинум Карлова университета в Праге

Университеты

Первый университет, основанный к востоку от Франции и к северу от Альп, был основан в Праге в 1348 году Карлом IV, императором Священной Римской империи . Карлов университет был создан по образцу Парижского университета и первоначально включал в себя факультеты права, медицины, философии и теологии.

Центрально-Европейский университет

Вход в Центрально-Европейский университет в Будапеште.

В 1991 году Эрнест Геллнер предложил создать в Праге поистине центральноевропейское высшее учебное заведение (1991–1995). В конце концов, проект Центрально-Европейского университета (ЦЕУ) был реализован и финансово поддержан венгерским филантропом Джорджем Соросом , который предоставил пожертвование в размере 880 миллионов долларов США, что сделало университет одним из самых богатых в Европе. За свою 30-летнюю историю CEU стал одним из самых разнообразных и узнаваемых университетов мира. Например, по состоянию на 2019 год в университете обучалось 1217 студентов, из которых 962 были иностранными студентами, что сделало студенческий состав четвертым по величине интернациональным в мире. CEU предлагает тщательно отобранные программы с соотношением студентов и преподавателей 7:1. В 2021 году прием на его программы составил 13%. Таким образом, ЦЕУ стал ведущим глобальным университетом в Европе, продвигающим характерную центральноевропейскую перспективу, подчеркивая при этом академическую строгость, прикладные исследования, а также академическую честность и добросовестность. CEU является одним из основателей CIVICCA, группы престижных европейских высших учебных заведений в области социальных, гуманитарных наук, управления бизнесом и государственной политики, таких как Sciences Po (Франция), Лондонская школа экономики и политических наук (Великобритания), Bocconi. Университет (Италия) и Стокгольмская школа экономики (Швеция). В 2019 году руководство Центральноевропейского университета объявило о подготовительной работе по переводу ЦЕУ в Вену из-за юридических ограничений академической свободы в Венгрии.

Культура и общество

Смотрите также: Магдебургские права

Исследовать

Исследовательские центры центральноевропейской литературы включают Гарвардский университет (Кембридж, Массачусетс), Университет Пердью, и Программа центральноевропейских исследований (CESP), Масариков университет , Брно , Чехия.

Архитектура

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития.

Религия

Приверженность католицизму в Европе

Приверженность протестантизму в Европе

Основной христианской конфессией Центральной Европы является католицизм, а также значительная часть протестантского населения. Нажмите на карту, чтобы увидеть легенду.

Страны Центральной Европы в основном католические (Австрия, Хорватия, Лихтенштейн, Литва, Польша, Словакия и Словения) или исторически одновременно католические и протестантские ( Чехия , Германия, Венгрия и Швейцария). Крупные протестантские группы включают лютеранскую , кальвинистскую и филиалы «Единства братьев» . Значительные группы населения восточного католицизма и старого католицизма также распространены по всей Центральной Европе. Православное христианство - это конфессия меньшинства, наблюдаемая в разной степени в Центральной Европе.

Центральная Европа на протяжении веков была центром протестантского движения, причем большинство протестантов было подавлено и уничтожено во время Контрреформации .

Исторически жители Богемии в сегодняшней Чехии были одними из первых протестантов в Европе. В результате Тридцатилетней войны , последовавшей за Богемским восстанием , многие чехи были либо убиты, казнены (см. казнь на Староместской площади ), насильно обращены в католиков, либо эмигрировали в Скандинавию и Нидерланды . После Тридцатилетней войны число жителей Чешского королевства сократилось с трех миллионов до всего лишь 800 000 из-за множества факторов, включая разрушительные продолжающиеся сражения, такие как значительная битва при Белой горе и битва под Прагой (1648 г.). ) . Однако в последние годы большинство чехов сообщают, что они в подавляющем большинстве нерелигиозны, а некоторые называют себя католиками (10,3%).

До Холокоста также существовала значительная еврейская община ашкенази , насчитывавшая около 16,7 миллиона человек. (1941–45) в регионе Польша, Литва и Венгрия имели самое большое еврейское население в Европе в процентах от общей численности населения: в 1933 году евреи составляли 9,5% польского населения.

В некоторых странах Центральной Европы, особенно в Чехии, Германии и Швейцарии, имеется значительное атеистическое и нерелигиозное население. В 2021 году 48% населения Чехии заявили, что у них нет религии. В 2022 году 43,8% населения Германии заявили, что не исповедуют религии. Между тем, 33,5% населения Швейцарии заявили, что не принадлежат ни к какой религии.

Кухня

Центральноевропейская кухня развивалась на протяжении веков в результате социальных и политических изменений и в целом разнообразна. Однако национальные кухни западной части Центральной Европы имеют заметное сходство, как и кухни восточной части Центральной Европы. Колбасы, салями и сыры популярны в большей части Центральной Европы, при этом самые ранние свидетельства сыроделия в археологических записях датируются 5500 годом до нашей эры ( Куявский регион, Польша). Другие популярные продукты питания в Центральной Европе включают супы, тушеные блюда, маринованные и ферментированные овощи. шницель , гуляш и голубцы В регионе популярны .

Еще одной общей чертой кухонь Центральной Европы, особенно австрийской, хорватской, литовской, словенской и швейцарской, является использование дикорастущих ингредиентов в традиционных блюдах: от диких трав до грибов и ягод. Потребление пива также заметно в некоторых частях Центральной Европы, где Чешская Республика имеет самый высокий уровень потребления пива на душу населения в мире, за ней следует Австрия, а Германия занимает четвертое место. Кухни стран Центральной Европы, которые включены в более широкие определения Восточной Европы, имеют сходство и традиции с другими восточноевропейскими кухнями. Это особенно заметно в кухнях Литвы и Польши, где представлены такие блюда, как борщ , вареники и кислый ржаной суп .

Права человека

В целом страны региона прогрессивны в вопросах прав человека: во всех из них запрещена смертная казнь, в большинстве из них запрещены телесные наказания, а голосовать на выборах могут люди обоих полов. Однако страны Центральной Европы разделились по вопросу однополых браков и абортов. Австрия, Чехия, Германия и Польша также имеют опыт участия в чрезвычайной программе ЦРУ по выдаче и задержанию По данным Фонда «Открытое общество», .

Литература

Региональная письменная традиция вращается вокруг бурной истории региона, а также его культурного разнообразия. Его существование иногда подвергается сомнению. Специальные курсы по центральноевропейской литературе преподаются в Стэнфордском университете . Гарвардский университет и Ягеллонский университет а также культурные журналы, посвященные региональной литературе. Центральноевропейская литературная премия Ангелуса — это награда в размере 150 000 злотых (около 50 000 долларов США или 30 000 фунтов стерлингов) для писателей из этого региона. Аналогичным образом, Международная литературная премия Виленицы присуждается центральноевропейскому писателю за «выдающиеся достижения в области литературы и написания эссе».

СМИ

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § СМИ.

Спорт

Существует ряд спортивных мероприятий и лиг Центральной Европы. Они включают в себя:

• Центральноевропейский тур Мишкольц ГП (Венгрия)*
• Центральноевропейский тур Гран-при Будапешта (Венгрия)
• Ралли Центральной Европы 2008 г. (Румыния и Венгрия)*
• Ралли Центральной Европы 2023 (Германия, Австрия и Чехия)
• Центральноевропейская футбольная лига (Австрия, Хорватия, Венгрия, Сербия, Словакия, Словения и Турция)
• Международный кубок Центральной Европы (Австрия, Чехословакия, Венгрия, Италия, Польша, Швейцария и Югославия; 1927–1960)
• Центральная Европа

Футбол – один из самых популярных видов спорта. Страны Центральной Европы провели несколько крупных соревнований. Германия принимала два чемпионата мира по футболу ( 1974 и 2006 годы ) и Евро-1988 . Югославия принимала Евро-1976 , прежде чем соревнование расширилось до 8 команд. Недавно 2008 и 2012 годов чемпионаты Европы прошли в Австрии и Швейцарии, а также в Польше и Украине соответственно. Евро -2024 примет Германия.

Политика

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § Политика.

Организации

Центральная Европа является родиной региональных политических организаций:

• Центральноевропейское оборонное сотрудничество
• Центральноевропейское соглашение о свободной торговле
• Центральноевропейская инициатива
• Центропа
• Среднеевропейская инициатива
• Инициатива трех морей
• Вышеградская группа

• 
  Центральноевропейское оборонное сотрудничество
• 
  Государства-учредители CEFTA
• 
  Члены CEFTA в 2003 году, до вступления в ЕС.
• 
  Текущие CEFTA члены
• 
  Центральноевропейская инициатива
• 
  Инициатива трех морей
• 
  Вышеградская группа

Индекс демократии

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § Демократия.

Карта индекса демократии Economist Intelligence Unit на 2022 год, где более зеленые цвета обозначают более демократические страны.

Центральная Европа является домом для некоторых из старейших демократий мира. Однако большинство из них пострадало от тоталитаризма , особенно фашизма и нацизма . Германия и Италия оккупировали все страны Центральной Европы, кроме Швейцарии. Во всех оккупированных странах державы Оси приостановили демократию и установили марионеточные режимы, лояльные оккупационным силам. Кроме того, они заставили завоеванные страны применять расовые законы и сформировали вооруженные силы для помощи Германии и Италии в борьбе против коммунистов. После Второй мировой войны почти вся Центральная Европа (Восточная и Средняя часть) была преобразована в коммунистические государства , большая часть которых была оккупирована, а затем вступила в союз с Советским Союзом , часто против их воли посредством поддельных референдумов (например, польский народный референдум 1946 года ) или силой (северо-восток Германии, Польша, Венгрия и др.). Тем не менее, в большинстве из них этот опыт был реализован. Большинство стран Центральной Европы имеют очень высокие оценки в Индексе демократии .

Глобальный индекс мира

Дополнительная информация: Список стран Центральной Европы по индексам развития § Глобальный индекс мира.

Результаты Глобального индекса миролюбия

Несмотря на свою бурную историю, Центральная Европа в настоящее время является одним из самых безопасных регионов мира. Большинство стран Центральной Европы входят в топ-20%.

Центральноевропейское время

Центральноевропейский часовой пояс (темно-красный)

Часовой пояс представляет собой стандартное время, которое на 1 час опережает всемирное координированное время. Страны, использующие CET, включают:

• Албания
• Андорра
• Австрия
• Бельгия
• Босния и Герцеговина
• Хорватия
• Чешская Республика
• Дания
• Франция
• Германия
• Венгрия
• Италия
• Люксембург
• Монако
• Черногория
• Нидерланды
• Северная Македония
• Норвегия
• Польша
• Сан-Марино
• Словакия
• Словения
• Сербия
• Швеция
• Швейцария
• Ватикан

В популярной культуре

Центральная Европа упоминается в 35-м эпизоде ​​сериала Лавджой под названием «Пражское солнце», снятом в 1992 году. Прогуливаясь по уважаемому и известному Карлову мосту в Праге, главный герой Лавджой говорит: «Я никогда не был раньше в Прагу. Ну, это один из великих нетронутых городов Центральной Европы. Заметьте: я сказал: «Центральный», а не «Восточный»! Чехи немного забавны по этому поводу, они думают о восточноевропейцах как о репах . "

Уэса Андерсона В оскароносном фильме «Отель «Гранд Будапешт» изображен вымышленный гранд-отель, расположенный где-то в Центральной Европе, который на самом деле создан по образцу гранд-отеля «Пупп» в Карловых Варах в Чехии . Этот фильм прославляет Центральную Европу 1920-х и 1930-х годов с ее художественным великолепием и чувствами общества.

См. также

• Центральная и Восточная Европа
• Географическая середина Европы
• Зоны жизни Центральной Европы
• Междуморье (Междуморье)

Общие и цитируемые ссылки

• Адам, Магда (2003). Версальская система и сборник исследований Центральной Европы Variorum . Эшгейт. ISBN  0-86078-905-5 .
• Адам, Магда (1993). Малая Антанта и Европа (1920–1929) . Академическое издательство. ISBN  963-05-6420-3 .
• Ах, Аттила (1998). Политика Центральной Европы . Мудрец. ISBN  0-7619-5032-Х .
• Алексов, Боян; Поганов, Александр (2020). Войны и междоусобицы: большие державы и Средняя Европа, 1918-1945 гг . Издательство Центральноевропейского университета. ISBN  978-963-386-336-7 .
• Хейс, Баском Барри (1994). Бисмарк и Миттельевропа . Издательство Университета Фэрли Дикинсон . ISBN  978-0-8386-3512-4 .
• Эванс, Роберт Дж.В. (2006). «Центральная Европа: история идеи». Австрия, Венгрия и Габсбурги: Центральная Европа ок. 1683-1867 . Оксфорд. стр. 293–304. doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541621.003.0016 . ISBN  9780199281442 . OCLC   70258980 .
• Джонсон, Лонни Р. (1996). Центральная Европа: враги, соседи, друзья . Издательство Оксфордского университета . ISBN  978-0-19-510071-6 .
• Катценштейн, Питер Дж . (1997). Центральная Европа: между Европой и Германией . Книги Бергана. ISBN  978-1-57181-124-0 .
• Магочи, Пол Роберт (2002). Исторический атлас Центральной Европы (Перед. и расширенное изд.). Университет Торонто Пресс. ISBN  978-0-8020-8486-6 . OCLC   150672781 .
• О. Бенсон, Форгакс (2002). Между мирами. Справочник по центральноевропейским авангардам, 1910–1930 гг . МТИ Пресс. ISBN  978-0-262-02530-0 .
• Тирский, Рональд (2004). Европа сегодня . Роуман и Литтлфилд . ISBN  978-0-7425-2805-5 .
• Тотёси де Зепетнек, Стивен; Васвари, Луиза Ольга (2011). Сравнительное венгерское культуроведение . Сравнительное культуроведение. Вест-Лафайет, Индиана: Издательство Университета Пердью. ISBN  978-1-55753-593-1 . OCLC   1088215162 . Проверено 24 ноября 2014 г.
• Общее прошлое в Центральной и Юго-Восточной Европе, 17–21 века. Ред. Г. Деметра, П. Пейковская. 2015 год

Дальнейшее чтение

• Эх, Аттила. Упадок демократии в Восточной и Центральной Европе: раскол в ЕС и возникновение жесткого популизма (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019).
• Бальдерсхайм, Харальд, изд. Местная демократия и процессы трансформации в Восточной и Центральной Европе (Routledge, 2019).
• Брофи, Джеймс М. (сентябрь 2017 г.). «Книжные магазины, запрещенная печать и городская политическая культура в Центральной Европе, 1800–1850 *». Немецкая история . 35 (3): 403–430. дои : 10.1093/gerhis/ghx062 .
• Кейс, Холли (декабрь 2013 г.). «Странная политика федеративных идей в Центрально-Восточной Европе». Журнал современной истории . 85 (4): 833–866. дои : 10.1086/672531 . S2CID   143630398 .
• Центр центральноевропейских исследований, аграризма в Центральной и Восточной Европе в 19 и 20 веках (2013) Интернет-обзор .
• Донерт, Селия; Гребл, Эмили; Уордхау, Джессика (август 2017 г.). «Новая стипендия по Центральной и Восточной Европе». Современная европейская история . 26 (3): 507. doi : 10.1017/S0960777317000224 . S2CID   164973705 .
• Гарднер, Холл, изд. Центральная и Южно-Центральная Европа в переходный период (Praeger, 2000).
• Халеки, Оскар . «ПОГРАНИЦЫ ЗАПАДНОЙ ЦИВИЛИЗАЦИИ. История Центрально-Восточной Европы» (PDF) . Оскар Халеки. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 30 октября 2010 года . Проверено 8 августа 2010 г.
• Кенни, Падрайк (март 1999 г.). «Какова история 1989 года? Новая стипендия из Центрально-Восточной Европы». Восточноевропейская политика и общества: и культуры . 13 (2): 419–431. дои : 10.1177/0888325499013002021 . S2CID   144018480 .
• Ледерер, Дэвид. Ранняя современная история Центральной Европы (2011), онлайн-обзор Линнеи Роулатт
• Маргрейтер, Клаус (сентябрь 2019 г.). «Понятие дворянства и влияние дворянства на Центральную Европу раннего Нового времени» . Центральноевропейская история . 52 (3): 382–401. дои : 10.1017/S0008938919000736 . JSTOR   26795026 . S2CID   204351865 . ПроКвест   2338493814 .
• Тиану, Александра (2013). «Общая культура, мир и наведение мостов: влияние Запада на диссидентскую идею Центральной Европы в коммунистических государствах в 1980-е годы» . Валахский журнал исторических исследований (20): 215–232.
• Вачудова, Милада Анна (октябрь 2019 г.). «От конкуренции к поляризации в Центральной Европе: как популисты меняют партийные системы и Европейский Союз». Политика . 51 (4): 689–706. дои : 10.1086/705704 . S2CID   204419373 .
• Анна Вачудова, Милада (2 июля 2020 г.). «Этнопопулизм и откат демократии в Центральной Европе» . Восточноевропейская политика . 36 (3): 318–340. дои : 10.1080/21599165.2020.1787163 . S2CID   221178529 .
• Циммерман, Эндрю (16 сентября 2016 г.). «Гонка против революции в Центральной и Восточной Европе». Восточно-Центральная Европа . 43 (1–2): 14–40. дои : 10.1163/18763308-04302004 .
• «Картирование Центральной Европы» в скрытой Европе , 5, стр. 14–15 (ноябрь 2005 г.)

Внешние ссылки

• Журнал Восточной и Центральной Европы
• Журнал Центральноевропейской ассоциации политических наук «Политика в Центральной Европе»
• Журнал политической науки CEU (PSJ)
• Центральноевропейский журнал исследований международных отношений и безопасности
• Обзор центральноевропейских политических исследований
• Центропский регион
• Карты Европы и европейских стран
• ЦЕНТРАЛЬНАЯ ЕВРОПА 2020. Архивировано 15 октября 2015 г. в Wayback Machine.
• Экономика Центральной Европы
• Офис УВКБ ООН для Центральной Европы