Гражданская война в России

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Гражданская война в России
Часть русской революции и последствия Первой мировой войны.
По часовой стрелке сверху слева: Солдаты Донской армии Солдаты Сибирской армии Большевистское подавление Кронштадтского восстания. Американские войска во Владивостоке во время интервенции союзников Жертвы красного террора в Крыму Повешение большевиков в Екатеринославе армией австро-венгерской A review of Red Army troops in Moscow
Date 7 November 1917 – 25 October 1922 Location Former Russian Empire Result Bolshevik victory
Belligerents
Soviet Union RSFSR BSSR UkSSR TSFSR Regional socialist forces	White movement Russian State South Russia	Separatists: Poland Finland Ukraine Belarus Estonia Latvia Lithuania Georgia Armenia Azerbaijan Northern Caucasus
Anti-Bolshevik left: Left SRs Green Army Makhnovshchina	Allied intervention: Japan United Kingdom United States France Czechoslovakia	Central Powers: Germany Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
Vladimir Lenin Leon Trotsky Joseph Stalin Sergey Kamenev Yakov Sverdlov #	Alexander Kerensky  Alexander Kolchak  Lavr Kornilov † Anton Denikin Pyotr Wrangel Nikolai Yudenich Grigory Semyonov Yevgeny Miller Pyotr Krasnov	Józef Piłsudski C. G. E. Mannerheim
Maria Spiridonova Nestor Makhno	Edmund Ironside	H. von Eichhorn †
Strength
Red Army: 5,498,000 (peak) Makhnovtsi: 103,000 (peak) Kronstadt mutineers: 17,961	White Army: 1,023,000 (peak) Czechoslovak Legion: 50,000 (peak) British Army: 57,636
Casualties and losses
1,500,000	1,500,000 13,000 killed 938 killed	250,000 125,000 5,000 3,000 killed 3,888 killed 3,046 killed 1,444 killed
7–12 million total casualties 1–2 million refugees outside Russia

России Гражданская война в Это многопартийная гражданская война в бывшей Российской империи, вызванная свержением социал-демократического Временного правительства России в результате Октябрьской революции , поскольку многие фракции соперничали за определение политического будущего России. Это привело к образованию Российской Социалистической Федеративной Советской Республики , а затем и Советского Союза на большей части ее территории. Его финал ознаменовал конец русской революции , которая стала одним из ключевых событий 20-го века .

The Russian monarchy ended with the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution, and Russia was in a state of political flux. A tense summer culminated in the October Revolution, where the Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government of the new Russian Republic. Bolshevik seizure of power was not universally accepted, and the country descended into civil war. The two largest combatants were the Red Army, fighting for the establishment of a Bolshevik-led socialist state headed by Vladimir Lenin, and the loosely allied forces known as the White Army, which functioned as a political big tent for right- and left-wing opposition to Bolshevik rule. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably the Ukrainian anarchists of the Makhnovshchina and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, were involved in conflict against the Bolsheviks. They, as well as non-ideological green armies, opposed the Bolsheviks, the Whites and the foreign interventionists. Тринадцать иностранных государств вмешались против Красной Армии, особенно интервенция союзников , основной целью которой было восстановление Восточного фронта Первой мировой войны . Три иностранных государства Центральных держав также вмешались, соперничая с интервенцией союзников с главной целью - сохранить территорию, которую они получили по Брест-Литовскому договору с Советской Россией.

The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the former empire. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was an emergency peace with the German Empire, who had captured vast swathes of the Russian territory during the chaos of the revolution. In May 1918, the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia revolted in Siberia. In reaction, the Allies began their North Russian and Siberian interventions. That, combined with the creation of the Provisional All-Russian Government, saw the reduction of Bolshevik-controlled territory to most of European Russia and parts of Central Asia. In 1919, the White Army launched several offensives from the east in March, the south in July, and west in October. The advances were later checked by the Eastern Front counteroffensive, the Southern Front counteroffensive, and the defeat of the Northwestern Army.

By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts. Although the Bolsheviks were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced, for many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence. In March 1921, during a related war against Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly independent nations of the former Empire, although their success was limited. Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania all repelled Soviet invasions, while Ukraine, Belarus (as a result of the Polish–Soviet War), Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia were occupied by the Red Army. By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the Caucasus, although anti-Bolshevik uprisings in Central Asia lasted until the late 1920s.

The armies under Kolchak were eventually forced on a mass retreat eastward. Bolshevik forces advanced east, despite encountering resistance in Chita, Yakut and Mongolia. Soon the Red Army split the Don and Volunteer armies, forcing evacuations in Novorossiysk in March and Crimea in November 1920. After that, anti-Bolshevik resistance was sporadic for several years until the capture of Vladivostok in October 1922, but continued on with the Muslim Basmachi movement in Central Asia and Khabarovsk Krai until 1934. There were an estimated 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.

Background

World War I

Main article: World War I

The Russian Empire fought in World War I from 1914 alongside France and the United Kingdom (Triple Entente) against Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire (Central Powers).

February Revolution

Main article: February Revolution

The February Revolution of 1917 resulted in the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II of Russia. As a result, the social-democratic Russian Provisional Government was established, and soviets, elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of dual power. The Russian Republic was proclaimed in September of the same year.

October Revolution

Main article: October Revolution

The Provisional Government, led by Socialist Revolutionary Party politician Alexander Kerensky, was unable to solve the most pressing issues of the country, most importantly to end the war with the Central Powers. A failed military coup by General Lavr Kornilov in September 1917 led to a surge in support for the Bolsheviks, who took control of the soviets, which until then had been controlled by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Promising an end to the war and "all power to the Soviets", the Bolsheviks then ended dual power by overthrowing the Provisional Government in late October, on the eve of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, in what would be the second Revolution of 1917. The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on Petrograd occurred largely without any human casualties. Despite the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, they lost to the Socialist Revolutionary Party in the 1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election, and the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks in retaliation. The Bolsheviks soon lost the support of other far-left allies, such as the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, after their acceptance of the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk presented by the German Empire. Conversely, a number of prominent members of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries had assumed positions in Lenin's government and lead commissariats in several areas. This included agriculture (Kolegaev), property (Karelin), justice (Steinberg), post offices and telegraphs (Proshian) and local government (Trutovsky). The Bolsheviks also reserved a number of vacant seats in the Soviets and Central Executive for the Menshevik and Left Socialist Revolutionaries parties in proportion to their vote share at the Congress. The dissolution of the Constituent Assembly was also approved by the Left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists, both groups were in favour of a more radical democracy.

Formation of the Red Army

Main article: Red Army

From mid-1917 onwards, the Russian Army, the successor-organisation of the old Imperial Russian Army, started to disintegrate; the Bolsheviks used the volunteer-based Red Guards as their main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the Cheka (the Bolshevik state secret police). In January 1918, after significant Bolshevik reverses in combat, the future Russian People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs Leon Trotsky headed the reorganization of the Red Guards into a Workers' and Peasants' Red Army in order to create a more effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks appointed political commissars to each unit of the Red Army to maintain morale and to ensure loyalty.

In June 1918, when it had become apparent that a revolutionary army composed solely of workers would not suffice, Trotsky instituted mandatory conscription of the rural peasantry into the Red Army. The Bolsheviks overcame opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance. The forced conscription drive had mixed results, successfully creating a larger army than the Whites, but with members indifferent towards communist ideology.

The Red Army also utilized former Tsarist officers as "military specialists" (voenspetsy); sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty. At the start of the civil war, former Tsarist officers formed three-quarters of the Red Army officer-corps. By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.

Anti-Bolshevik movement

Main articles: White movement, Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, and Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War

Admiral Alexander Kolchak (seated) and General Alfred Knox (behind Kolchak) observing military exercise, 1919

The White movement (Russian: pre–1918 Бѣлое движеніе / post–1918 Белое движение, romanized: Beloye dvizheniye, IPA: [ˈbʲɛləɪ dvʲɪˈʐenʲɪɪ]) also known as the Whites (Белые, Beliye), was a loose confederation of anti-communist forces that fought the communist Bolsheviks, also known as the Reds, in the Russian Civil War and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in Siberia until roughly World War II (1939–1945). The movement's military arm was the White Army (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, Belaya armiya), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, Belaya gvardiya) or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, Belogvardeytsi).

When the White Army was created, the structure of the Russian Army of the Provisional Government period was used, while almost every individual formation had its own characteristics. The military art of the White Army was based on the experience of World War I, which, however, left a strong imprint on the specifics of the Civil War.

During the Russian Civil War, the White movement functioned as a big tent political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and Kerenskyite social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist Black Hundreds on the right.

Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions

The Russian Constituent Assembly had been a demand of the Bolsheviks against the Provisional Government, which kept delaying it. After the October Revolution the elections were run by the body appointed by the previous Provisional Government. It was based on universal suffrage but used party lists from before the Left-Right SR split. The anti-Bolshevik Right SRs won the elections with the majority of the seats, after which Lenin's Theses on the Constituent Assembly argued in Pravda that formal democracy was impossible because of class conflicts, conflicts with Ukraine and the Kadet-Kaledin uprising. He argued the Constituent Assembly must unconditionally accept sovereignty of the soviet government or it would be dealt with "by revolutionary means".

On December 30, 1917, the SR Nikolai Avksentiev and some followers were arrested for organizing a conspiracy. This was the first time Bolsheviks used this kind of repression against a socialist party. Izvestia said the arrest was not related to his membership in the Constituent Assembly.

Viktor Chernov

On January 4, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee made a resolution saying the slogan "all power to the constituent assembly" was counterrevolutionary and equivalent to "down with the soviets".

Maria Spiridonova

The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR Maria Spiridonova (she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of gulag, she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The Bolsheviks subsequently disbanded the Constituent Assembly and proceeded to rule the country as a one-party state with all opposition parties outlawed. A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.

The first large Cheka repression involving the killing of libertarian socialists in Petrograd began in April 1918. On May 1, 1918, a pitched battle took place in Moscow between the anarchists and the Bolshevik police.

Constituent Assembly uprising

The Union of Regeneration was founded in Moscow in April 1918 as an underground agency organizing democratic resistance to the Bolshevik dictatorship, composed of the Popular Socialists, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Defensists, among others. They were tasked with propping up anti-Bolshevik forces and to create a Russian state system based on civil liberties, patriotism, and state-consciousness with the goal to liberate the country from the "Germano-Bolshevik" yoke.

On May 7, 1918, the Eighth Party Council of the Socialist Revolutionary Party commenced in Moscow and recognized the Union's leading role, putting aside political ideology and class for the purpose of Russia's salvation. They decided to start an uprising against the Bolsheviks with the goal of reconvening the Russian Constituent Assembly. While preparations were under way, the Czechoslovak Legions overthrew Bolshevik rule in Siberia, the Urals and the Volga region in late May-early June 1918 and the center of SR activity shifted there. On June 8, 1918, five Constituent Assembly members formed the All-Russian Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch) in Samara and declared it the new supreme authority in the country. The Social Revolutionary Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia came to power on 29 June 1918, after the uprising in Vladivostok.

Exclusion of Mensheviks and SRs

At the 5th All-Russia Congress of Soviets of July 4, 1918, the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries had 352 delegates compared to 745 Bolsheviks out of 1132 total. The Left SRs raised disagreements on the suppression of rival parties, the death penalty, and mainly, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Bolsheviks excluded the Right SRs and Mensheviks from the government on 14 June for associating with counterrevolutionaries and seeking to "organize armed attacks against the workers and peasants" (though Mensheviks had not supported them), while the Left SRs advocated forming a government of all socialist parties. The Left SRs agreed with extrajudicial execution of political opponents to stop the counterrevolution, but opposed having the government legally pronouncing death sentences, an unusual position that is best understood within the context of the group's terrorist past. The Left SRs strongly opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and opposed Trotsky's insistence that no one try to attack German troops in Ukraine.

According to historian Marcel Liebman, Lenin's wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either took up arms against the new Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, or participated in sabotage, collaboration with the deposed Tsarists, or made assassination attempts against Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders. Liebman noted that opposition parties such as the Cadets and Mensheviks who were democratically elected to the Soviets in some areas, then proceeded to use their mandate to welcome in Tsarist and foreign capitalist military forces. In one incident in Baku, the British military, once invited in, proceeded to execute members of the Bolshevik Party who had peacefully stood down from the Soviet when they failed to win the elections. As a result, the Bolsheviks banned each opposition party when it turned against the Soviet government. In some cases, bans were lifted. This banning of parties did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced under the Stalinist regime.

Repression

In December 1917, Felix Dzerzhinsky was appointed to the duty of rooting out counter-revolutionary threats to the Soviet government. He was the director of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (aka Cheka), a predecessor of the KGB that served as the secret police for the Soviets.

The Bolsheviks had begun to see the anarchists as a legitimate threat and associate criminality such as robberies, expropriations and murders with anarchist associations. Subsequently, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) decided to liquidate criminal recklessness associated with anarchists and disarm all anarchist groups in the face of their militancy.

From early 1918, the Bolsheviks started physical elimination of opposition, other socialist and revolutionary fractions. Anarchists were among the first:

Of all the revolutionary elements in Russia it is the Anarchists who now suffer the most ruthless and systematic persecution. Their suppression by the Bolsheviki began already in 1918, when — in the month of April of that year — the Communist Government attacked, without provocation or warning, the Anarchist Club of Moscow and by the use of machine guns and artillery "liquidated" the whole organisation. It was the beginning of Anarchist hounding, but it was sporadic in character, breaking out now and then, quite planless, and frequently self-contradictory.

— Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, "Bolsheviks Shooting Anarchists"

On 11 August 1918, prior to the events that would officially catalyze the Red Terror, Vladimir Lenin had sent telegrams "to introduce mass terror" in Nizhny Novgorod in response to a suspected civilian uprising there, and to "crush" landowners in Penza who resisted, sometimes violently, the requisitioning of their grain by military detachments:

Comrades! The kulak uprising in your five districts must be crushed without pity ... You must make example of these people.

(1) Hang (I mean hang publicly, so that people see it) at least 100 kulaks, rich bastards, and known bloodsuckers.

(2) Publish their names.

(3) Seize all their grain.

(4) Single out the hostages per my instructions in yesterday's telegram.

Do all this so that for miles (versts) around people see it all, understand it, tremble, and tell themselves that we are killing the bloodthirsty kulaks and that we will continue to do so ...

Yours, Lenin.

P.S. Find tougher people.

— Lenin's Hanging Order

In a mid-August 1920 letter, having received information that in Estonia and Latvia, with which Soviet Russia had concluded peace treaties, volunteers were being enrolled in anti-Bolshevik detachments, Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic:

Great plan! Finish it with Dzerzhinsky. While pretending to be the "greens" (we will blame them later), we will advance by 10–20 miles (versts) and hang kulaks, priests, landowners. Prize: 100.000 rubles for each hanged man.

Leonid Kannegisser, a young military cadet of the Imperial Russian Army, assassinated Moisey Uritsky on August 17, 1918, outside the Petrograd Cheka headquarters in retaliation for the execution of his friend and other officers.

Vladimir Pchelin's depiction of the assassination attempt on Lenin

On August 30, the SR Fanny Kaplan unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Lenin, who sought to eliminate political dissent, opposition, and any other threat to Bolshevik power. As a result of the failed attempt on Lenin's life, he began to crack down on his political enemies in an event known as the Red Terror. More broadly, the term is usually applied to Bolshevik political repression throughout the Civil War (1917–1922),

During interrogation by the Cheka, she made the following statement:

My name is Fanya Kaplan. Today I shot Lenin. I did it on my own. I will not say from whom I obtained my revolver. I will give no details. I had resolved to kill Lenin long ago. I consider him a traitor to the Revolution. I was exiled to Akatui for participating in an assassination attempt against a Tsarist official in Kiev. I spent 11 years at hard labour. After the Revolution, I was freed. I favoured the Constituent Assembly and am still for it.

Kaplan referenced the Bolsheviks' growing authoritarianism, citing their forcible shutdown of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the elections to which they had lost. When it became clear that Kaplan would not implicate any accomplices, she was executed in Alexander Garden. The order was carried out by the commander of the Kremlin, the former Baltic sailor P. D. Malkov and a group of Latvian Bolsheviks on September 3, 1918, with a bullet to the back of the head. Her corpse was bundled into a barrel and set alight. The order came from Yakov Sverdlov, who only six weeks earlier had ordered the murder of the Tsar and his family.

These events persuaded the government to heed Dzerzhinsky's lobbying for greater terror against opposition. The campaign of mass repressions would officially begin thereafter. The Red Terror is considered to have officially begun between 17 and 30 August 1918.

Revolts against grain requisitioning

Protests against grain requisitioning of the peasantry were a major component of the Tambov Rebellion and similar uprisings; Lenin's New Economic Policy was introduced as a concession.

The policies of "food dictatorship" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks in May 1918 sparked violent resistance in numerous districts of European Russia: revolts and clashes between the peasants and the Red Army were reported in Voronezh, Tambov, Penza, Saratov and in the districts of Kostroma, Moscow, Novgorod, Petrograd, Pskov and Smolensk. The revolts were bloodily crushed by the Bolsheviks: in the Voronezh Oblast, the Red Guards killed sixteen peasants during the pacification of the village, while another village was shelled with artillery in order to force the peasants to surrender and in the Novgorod Oblast the rebelling peasants were dispersed with machine-gun fire from a train sent by a detachment of Latvian Red Army soldiers. While the Bolsheviks immediately denounced the rebellion as orchestrated by the SRs, there is actually no evidence that they were involved into peasant violence, which they deemed as counterproductive.

Allied intervention

Main article: Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War

The Western Allies armed and supported opponents of the Bolsheviks. They were worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good on their threats to default on Imperial Russia's massive foreign debts and the possibility that Communist revolutionary ideas would spread (a concern shared by many Central Powers). Hence, many of the countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. Winston Churchill declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". The British and French had supported Russia during World War I on a massive scale with war materials.

After the treaty, it looked like much of that material would fall into the hands of the Germans. To meet that danger, the Allies intervened with Great Britain and France sending troops into Russian ports. There were violent clashes with the Bolsheviks. Britain intervened in support of the White forces to defeat the Bolsheviks and prevent the spread of communism across Europe.

Buffer states

Borders of the buffer states drawn by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The German Empire created several short-lived buffer states within its sphere of influence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: the United Baltic Duchy, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, Kingdom of Lithuania, Kingdom of Poland, the Belarusian People's Republic, and the Ukrainian State. Following Germany's Armistice in World War I in November 1918, the states were abolished.

Finland was the first republic that declared its independence from Russia in December 1917 and established itself in the ensuing Finnish Civil War between pro-independence White Guards and pro-Russian Bolshevik Red Guards from January–May 1918. The Second Polish Republic, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia formed their own armies immediately after the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the start of the Soviet westward offensive and subsequent Polish-Soviet War in November 1918.

Geography and chronology

Main articles: Southern Front of the Russian Civil War, North Russia Campaign, Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War, Yakut Revolt, and Finnish Civil War

In the European part of Russia the war was fought across three main fronts: the eastern, the southern and the northwestern. It can also be roughly split into the following periods.

Anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army in South Russia, January 1918

The first period lasted from the Revolution until the Armistice, or roughly March 1917 to November 1918. Already on the date of the Revolution, Cossack General Alexey Kaledin refused to recognize it and assumed full governmental authority in the Don region, where the Volunteer Army began amassing support. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also resulted in direct Allied intervention in Russia and the arming of military forces opposed to the Bolshevik government. There were also many German commanders who offered support against the Bolsheviks, fearing a confrontation with them was impending as well.

During the first period, the Bolsheviks took control of Central Asia out of the hands of the Provisional Government and White Army, setting up a base for the Communist Party in the Steppe and Turkestan, where nearly two million Russian settlers were located.

Most of the fighting in the first period was sporadic, involved only small groups and had a fluid and rapidly shifting strategic situation. Among the antagonists were the Czechoslovak Legion, the Poles of the 4th and 5th Rifle Divisions and the pro-Bolshevik Red Latvian riflemen.

The second period of the war lasted from January to November 1919. At first the White armies' advances from the south (under Denikin), the east (under Kolchak) and the northwest (under Yudenich) were successful, forcing the Red Army and its allies back on all three fronts. In July 1919 the Red Army suffered another reverse after a mass defection of units in the Crimea to the anarchist Insurgent Army under Nestor Makhno, enabling anarchist forces to consolidate power in Ukraine. Leon Trotsky soon reformed the Red Army, concluding the first of two military alliances with the anarchists. In June the Red Army first checked Kolchak's advance. After a series of engagements, assisted by an Insurgent Army offensive against White supply lines, the Red Army defeated Denikin's and Yudenich's armies in October and November.

The third period of the war was the extended siege of the last White forces in the Crimea in 1920. General Wrangel had gathered the remnants of Denikin's armies, occupying much of the Crimea. An attempted invasion of southern Ukraine was rebuffed by the Insurgent Army under Makhno's command. Pursued into Crimea by Makhno's troops, Wrangel went over to the defensive in the Crimea. After an abortive move north against the Red Army, Wrangel's troops were forced south by Red Army and Insurgent Army forces; Wrangel and the remains of his army were evacuated to Constantinople in November 1920.

Warfare

October Revolution

Main article: October Revolution

European theatre of the Russian Civil War

In the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Party directed the Red Guard (armed groups of workers and Imperial army deserters) to seize control of Petrograd and immediately began the armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918 the Bolsheviks dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly and proclaimed the Soviets (workers' councils) as the new government of Russia.

Initial anti-Bolshevik uprisings

Main articles: Kerensky-Krasnov uprising, Junker mutiny, and Volunteer Army

The first attempt to regain power from the Bolsheviks was made by the Kerensky-Krasnov uprising in October 1917. It was supported by the Junker Mutiny in Petrograd but was quickly put down by the Red Guard, notably including the Latvian Rifle Division.

The initial groups that fought against the Communists were local Cossack armies that had declared their loyalty to the Provisional Government. Kaledin of the Don Cossacks and General Grigory Semenov of the Siberian Cossacks were prominent among them. The leading Tsarist officers of the Imperial Russian Army also started to resist. In November, General Mikhail Alekseev, the Tsar's Chief of Staff during the First World War, began to organize the Volunteer Army in Novocherkassk. Volunteers of the small army were mostly officers of the old Russian army, military cadets and students. In December 1917, Alekseev was joined by General Lavr Kornilov, Denikin and other Tsarist officers who had escaped from the jail, where they had been imprisoned following the abortive Kornilov affair just before the Revolution. On 9 December, the Military Revolutionary Committee in Rostov rebelled, with the Bolsheviks controlling the city for five days until the Alekseev Organization supported Kaledin in recapturing the city. According to Peter Kenez, "The operation, begun on December 9, can be regarded as the beginning of the Civil War."

Having stated in the November 1917 "Declaration of Rights of Nations of Russia" that any nation under imperial Russian rule should be immediately given the power of self-determination, the Bolsheviks had begun to usurp the power of the Provisional Government in the territories of Central Asia soon after the establishment of the Turkestan Committee in Tashkent. In April 1917 the Provisional Government set up the committee, which was mostly made up of former Tsarist officials. The Bolsheviks attempted to take control of the Committee in Tashkent on 12 September 1917 but it was unsuccessful, and many leaders were arrested. However, because the Committee lacked representation of the native population and poor Russian settlers, they had to release the Bolshevik prisoners almost immediately because of a public outcry, and a successful takeover of that government body took place two months later in November. The Leagues of Mohammedam Working People (which Russian settlers and natives who had been sent to work behind the lines for the Tsarist government in 1916 formed in March 1917) had led numerous strikes in the industrial centers throughout September 1917. However, after the Bolshevik destruction of the Provisional Government in Tashkent, Muslim elites formed an autonomous government in Turkestan, commonly called the "Kokand autonomy" (or simply Kokand). The White Russians supported that government body, which lasted several months because of Bolshevik troop isolation from Moscow. In January 1918 the Soviet forces, under Lt. Col. Muravyov, invaded Ukraine and invested Kiev, where the Central Council of Ukraine held power. With the help of the Kiev Arsenal Uprising, the Bolsheviks captured the city on 26 January.

Peace with the Central Powers

Main article: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Soviet delegation with Trotsky greeted by German officers at Brest-Litovsk, 8 January 1918

The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people before the Revolution. Vladimir Lenin's political enemies attributed that decision to his sponsorship by the Foreign Office of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, offered to Lenin in hope that, with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from World War I. That suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd. However, after the military fiasco of the summer offensive (June 1917) by the Russian Provisional Government had devastated the structure of the Russian Army, it became crucial that Lenin realize the promised peace. Even before the failed summer offensive the Russian population was very skeptical about the continuation of the war. Western socialists had promptly arrived from France and from the UK to convince the Russians to continue the fight, but could not change the new pacifist mood of Russia.

On 16 December 1917 an armistice was signed between Russia and the Central Powers in Brest-Litovsk and peace talks began. As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting nationalists and conservatives. Leon Trotsky, representing the Bolsheviks, refused at first to sign the treaty while continuing to observe a unilateral cease-fire, following the policy of "No war, no peace".

Therefore, on 18 February 1918, the Germans began Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, encountering virtually no resistance in a campaign that lasted 11 days. Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks because the Russian Army was demobilized, and the newly formed Red Guard could not stop the advance. They also understood that the impending counter-revolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a world revolution. The Soviets acceded to a peace treaty, and the formal agreement, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was ratified on 3 March. The Soviets viewed the treaty as merely a necessary and expedient means to end the war.

Ukraine, South Russia, and Caucasus (1918)

Main articles: Ukrainian People's Republic, Kiev Arsenal January Uprising, Ice March, 26 Baku Commissars, German Caucasus Expedition, Battle of Baku, Central Caspian Dictatorship, and Romanian military intervention in Bessarabia

February 1918 article from The New York Times showing a map of the Russian Imperial territories claimed by the Ukrainian People's Republic at the time, before the annexation of the Austro-Hungarian lands of the West Ukrainian People's Republic

In Ukraine, the German-Austrian Operation Faustschlag had by April 1918 removed the Bolsheviks from Ukraine. The German and Austro-Hungarian victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolsheviks troops to their Austro-Hungarian and German counterparts.

Under Soviet pressure, the Volunteer Army embarked on the epic Ice March from Yekaterinodar to Kuban on 22 February 1918, where they joined with the Kuban Cossacks to mount an abortive assault on Yekaterinodar. The Soviets recaptured Rostov on the next day. Kornilov was killed in the fighting on 13 April, and Denikin took over command. Fighting off its pursuers without respite, the army succeeded in breaking its way through back towards the Don by May, where the Cossack uprising against the Bolsheviks had started.

The Baku Soviet Commune was established on 13 April. Germany landed its Caucasus Expedition troops in Poti on 8 June. The Ottoman Army of Islam (in coalition with Azerbaijan) drove them out of Baku on 26 July 1918. Subsequently, the Dashanaks, Right SRs and Mensheviks started negotiations with Gen. Dunsterville, the commander of the British troops in Persia. The Bolsheviks and their Left SR allies were opposed to it, but on 25 July the majority of the Soviets voted to call in the British and the Bolsheviks resigned. The Baku Soviet Commune ended its existence and was replaced by the Central Caspian Dictatorship.

In June 1918 the Volunteer Army, numbering some 9,000 men, started its Second Kuban campaign, capturing Yekaterinodar on 16 August, followed by Armavir and Stavropol. By early 1919, they controlled the Northern Caucasus.

On 8 October, Alekseev died. On 8 January 1919, Denikin became the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of South Russia, uniting the Volunteer Army with Pyotr Krasnov's Don Army. Pyotr Wrangel became Denikin's Chief of Staff.

In December, three-fourths of the army was in the Northern Caucasus. That included three thousand of Vladimir Liakhov's soldiers around Vladikavkaz, thirteen thousand soldiers under Wrangel and Kazanovich in the center of the front, Stankevich's almost three thousand men with the Don Cossacks, while Vladimir May-Mayevsky's three thousand were sent to the Donets basin, and de Bode commanded two thousand in Crimea.

Eastern Russia, Siberia and the Far East (1918)

Main articles: Revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion, Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly, and Provisional All-Russian Government

The revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion broke out in May 1918, and proceeded to occupy the Trans-Siberian Railway from Ufa to Vladivostok. Uprisings overthrew other Bolshevik towns. On 7 July, the western portion of the legion declared itself to be a new eastern front, anticipating allied intervention. According to William Henry Chamberlin, "Two governments emerged as a result of the first successes of the Czechs: the West Siberian Commissariat and the Government of the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly in Samara." On 17 July, shortly before the fall of Yekaterinburg, the former tsar and his family were murdered.

Czechoslovak legionaries of the 8th Regiment at Nikolsk-Ussuriysky killed by Bolsheviks, 1918. Above them stand also members of the Czechoslovak Legion.

The Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries supported peasants fighting against Soviet control of food supplies. In May 1918, with the support of the Czechoslovak Legion, they took Samara and Saratov, establishing the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly—known as the "Komuch". By July the authority of the Komuch extended over much of the area controlled by the Czechoslovak Legion. The Komuch pursued an ambivalent social policy, combining democratic and socialist measures, such as the institution of an eight-hour working day, with "restorative" actions, such as returning both factories and land to their former owners. After the fall of Kazan, Vladimir Lenin called for the dispatch of Petrograd workers to the Kazan Front: "We must send down the maximum number of Petrograd workers: (1) a few dozen 'leaders' like Kayurov; (2) a few thousand militants 'from the ranks'".

After a series of reverses at the front, the Bolsheviks' War Commissar, Trotsky, instituted increasingly harsh measures in order to prevent unauthorised withdrawals, desertions, and mutinies in the Red Army. In the field, the Cheka Special Investigations Forces (termed the Special Punitive Department of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combat of Counter-Revolution and Sabotage or Special Punitive Brigades) followed the Red Army, conducting field tribunals and summary executions of soldiers and officers who deserted, retreated from their positions, or failed to display sufficient offensive zeal. The Cheka Special Investigations Forces were also charged with the detection of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity by Red Army soldiers and commanders. Trotsky extended the use of the death penalty to the occasional political commissar whose detachment retreated or broke in the face of the enemy. In August, frustrated at continued reports of Red Army troops breaking under fire, Trotsky authorised the formation of barrier troops – stationed behind unreliable Red Army units and given orders to shoot anyone withdrawing from the battle line without authorisation.

Admiral Alexander Kolchak reviewing the troops, 1919

In September 1918, the Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government, and other anti-Bolshevik Russians agreed during the State Meeting in Ufa to form a new Provisional All-Russian Government in Omsk, headed by a Directory of five: two Socialist-Revolutionaries. Nikolai Avksentiev and Vladimir Zenzinov, the Kadet lawyer V. A. Vinogradov, Siberian Premier Vologodskii, and General Vasily Boldyrev.

By the fall of 1918, anti-Bolshevik White forces in the east included the People's Army (Komuch), the Siberian Army (of the Siberian Provisional Government) and insurgent Cossack units of Orenburg, the Urals, Siberia, Semirechye, Baikal, and Amur and Ussuri Cossacks, nominally under the orders of Gen. V.G. Boldyrev, Commander-in-Chief, appointed by the Ufa Directorate.

On the Volga, Col. Kappel's White detachment captured Kazan on 7 August, but Red Forces recaptured the city on 8 September 1918 following a counteroffensive. On the 11th Simbirsk fell, and on 8 October Samara. The Whites fell back eastwards to Ufa and Orenburg.

In Omsk, the Russian Provisional Government quickly came under the influence and later the dominance of its new War Minister, the rear-admiral Kolchak. On 18 November, a coup d'état established Kolchak as supreme leader. Two members of the Directory were arrested, and subsequently deported, while Kolchak was proclaimed "Supreme Ruler", and "Commander-in-Chief of all Land and Naval Forces of Russia." By mid-December 1918, the White armies had to leave Ufa, but they balanced that failure with a successful drive towards Perm, which they took on 24 December.

Barrier troops

In the Red Army, the concept of barrier troops first arose in August 1918 with the formation of the заградительные отряды (zagraditelnye otriady), translated as "blocking troops" or "anti-retreat detachments" (Russian: заградотряды, заградительные отряды, отряды заграждения). The barrier troops comprised personnel drawn from the Cheka punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments.

The first use of the barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall of 1918 in the Eastern front during the Russian Civil War, when Leon Trotsky authorized Mikhail Tukhachevsky, the commander of the 1st Army, to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if front-line troops either deserted or retreated without permission.

In December 1918, Trotsky ordered that detachments of additional barrier troops be raised for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army. On December 18 he cabled:

How do things stand with the blocking units? As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel. It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to strength and deploying them.

In 1919, 616 "hardcore" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and deserters were executed following Trotsky's draconian measures. According to Figes, "a majority of deserters (most registered as "weak-willed") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to one of the rear armies or directly to the front". Even those registered as "malicious" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate". Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted amnesty weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.

The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army as part of Lenin's war communism policies, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.These policies in part led to the Russian famine of 1921–1922, which killed about five million people. However, the famine was preceded by bad harvests, harsh winter, drought especially in the Volga Valley which was exacerbated by a range of factors including the war, the presence of the White Army and the methods of war communism. The outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and typhus were also contributing factors to the famine casualties.

Central Asia (1918)

London Geographical Institute's 1919 map of Europe after Brest-Litovsk and Batum and before the treaties of Tartu, Kars, and Riga

In February 1918, the Red Army overthrew the White Russian-supported Kokand Autonomy of Turkestan. Although that move seemed to solidify Bolshevik power in Central Asia, more troubles soon arose for the Red Army as the Allied Forces began to intervene. British support of the White Army provided the greatest threat to the Red Army in Central Asia during 1918. Britain sent three prominent military leaders to the area. One was Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Marshman Baile, who recorded a mission to Tashkent, from where the Bolsheviks forced him to flee. Another was General Wilfrid Malleson, leading the Malleson Mission, who assisted the Mensheviks in Ashkhabad (now the capital of Turkmenistan) with a small Anglo-Indian force. However, he failed to gain control of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva. The third was Major General Dunsterville, who was driven out by the Bolsheviks of Central Asia only a month after his arrival in August 1918. Despite setbacks as a result of British invasions during 1918, the Bolsheviks continued to make progress in bringing the Central Asian population under their influence. The first regional congress of the Russian Communist Party convened in the city of Tashkent in June 1918 in order to build support for a local Bolshevik Party.

Left SR Uprising

Main articles: Left SR uprising and Yaroslavl Uprising

On 6 July 1918, two Left Socialist-Revolutionaries and Cheka employees, Yakov Blumkin and Nikolai Andreyev, assassinated the German ambassador, Count Mirbach. In Moscow a Left SR uprising was put down by the Bolsheviks, mass arrests of Socialist-Revolutionaries followed, and executions became more frequent. Chamberlin noted, "The time of relative leniency toward former fellow-revolutionists was over. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, of course, were no longer tolerated as members of the Soviets; from this time the Soviet regime became a pure and undiluted dictatorship of the Communist Party." Similarly, Boris Savinkov's surprise attacks were suppressed, with many of the conspirators being executed, as "Mass Red Terror" became a reality.

Estonia, Latvia and Petrograd

Main articles: Estonian War of Independence, Latvian War of Independence, and Battle of Petrograd

Estonia cleared its territory of the Red Army by January 1919. Baltic German volunteers captured Riga from the Red Latvian Riflemen on 22 May, but the Estonian 3rd Division defeated the Baltic Germans a month later, aiding the establishment of the Republic of Latvia.

General Nikolai Yudenich

That rendered possible another threat to the Red Army, from General Yudenich, who had spent the summer organizing the Northwestern Army in Estonia with local and British support. In October 1919, he tried to capture Petrograd in a sudden assault with a force of around 20,000 men. The attack was well-executed, using night attacks and lightning cavalry maneuvers to turn the flanks of the defending Red Army. Yudenich also had six British tanks, which caused panic whenever they appeared. The Allies gave large quantities of aid to Yudenich, but he complained of receiving insufficient support.

By 19 October, Yudenich's troops had reached the outskirts of the city. Some members of the Bolshevik central committee in Moscow were willing to give up Petrograd, but Trotsky refused to accept the loss of the city and personally organized its defenses. Trotsky himself declared, "It is impossible for a little army of 15,000 ex-officers to master a working-class capital of 700,000 inhabitants." He settled on a strategy of urban defense, proclaiming that the city would "defend itself on its own ground" and that the White Army would be lost in a labyrinth of fortified streets and there "meet its grave".

Trotsky armed all available workers, men and women, and ordered the transfer of military forces from Moscow. Within a few weeks, the Red Army defending Petrograd had tripled in size and outnumbered Yudenich three to one. Yudenich, short of supplies, then decided to call off the siege of the city and withdrew. He repeatedly asked permission to withdraw his army across the border to Estonia. However, units retreating across the border were disarmed and interned by orders of the Estonian government, which had entered into peace negotiations with the Soviet Government on 16 September and had been informed by the Soviet authorities of their 6 November decision that if the White Army was allowed to retreat into Estonia, it would be pursued across the border by the Reds. In fact, the Reds attacked Estonian army positions and fighting continued until a ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1920. After the Treaty of Tartu, most of Yudenich's soldiers went into exile. Former Imperial Russian and then Finnish General Mannerheim planned an intervention to help the Whites in Russia capture Petrograd. However, he did not gain the necessary support for the endeavour. Lenin considered it "completely certain, that the slightest aid from Finland would have determined the fate of [the city]".

Northern Russia (1919)

Main article: North Russia intervention

The British occupied Murmansk and seized Arkhangelsk alongside United States forces. With the retreat of Kolchak in Siberia, they pulled their troops out of the cities before the winter trapped them in the port. The remaining White forces under Yevgeny Miller evacuated the region in February 1920.

Siberia (1919)

Russian soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik Siberian Army in 1919

At the beginning of March 1919, the general offensive of the Whites on the eastern front began. Ufa was retaken on 13 March; by mid-April, the White Army stopped at the Glazov–Chistopol–Bugulma–Buguruslan–Sharlyk line. Reds started their counteroffensive against Kolchak's forces at the end of April. The Red 5th Army, led by the capable commander Tukhachevsky, captured Elabuga on 26 May, Sarapul on 2 June and Izevsk on the 7th and continued to push forward. Both sides had victories and losses, but by the middle of summer the Red Army was larger than the White Army and had managed to recapture territory previously lost.

Following the abortive offensive at Chelyabinsk, the White armies withdrew beyond the Tobol. In September 1919 a White offensive was launched against the Tobol Front, the last attempt to change the course of events. However, on 14 October the Reds counterattacked, and thus began the uninterrupted retreat of the Whites to the east. On 14 November 1919 the Red Army captured Omsk. Adm. Kolchak lost control of his government shortly after the defeat; White Army forces in Siberia had essentially ceased to exist by December. Retreat of the eastern front by White armies lasted three months, until mid-February 1920, when the survivors, after crossing Lake Baikal, reached the Chita area and joined Ataman Semenov's forces.

South Russia (1919)

Anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster "For united Russia" representing Soviet Russia as a fallen communist dragon and the White Cause as a crusading knight

Polonophobic Soviet propaganda poster, 1920

The Cossacks had been unable to organise and capitalise on their successes at the end of 1918. By 1919 they had begun to run short of supplies. Consequently, when the Soviet Russian counteroffensive began in January 1919 under the Bolshevik commander Antonov-Ovseenko, the Cossack forces rapidly fell apart. The Red Army captured Kiev on 3 February 1919.

Denikin's military strength continued to grow in 1919, with significant munitions supplied by the British. In January, Denikin's Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR) completed the elimination of Red forces in the northern Caucasus and moved north, in an effort to protect the Don district.

On 18 December 1918, French forces landed in Odessa and Crimea, but evacuated Odessa on 6 April 1919, and the Crimea by the end of the month. According to Chamberlin, "France gave far less practical aid to the Whites than did England; its sole independent venture in intervention, at Odessa, ended in a complete fiasco."

Denikin then reorganized the Armed Forces of South Russia under the leadership of Vladimir May-Mayevsky, Vladimir Sidorin, and Pyotr Wrangel. On 22 May, Wrangel's Caucasian army defeated the 10th Army (RSFSR) in the battle for Velikoknyazheskaya, and then captured Tsaritsyn on 1 July. Sidorin advanced north toward Voronezh, increasing his army's strength in the process. On 25 June, May–Mayevsky captured Kharkov, and then Ekaterinoslav on 30 June, which forced the Reds to abandon Crimea. On 3 July, Denikin issued his Moscow directive, in which his armies would converge on Moscow.

Although Britain had withdrawn its own troops from the theatre, it continued to give significant military aid (money, weapons, food, ammunition and some military advisers) to the White Armies during 1919. Major Ewen Cameron Bruce of the British Army had volunteered to command a British tank mission assisting the White Army. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his bravery during the June 1919 Battle of Tsaritsyn for single-handedly storming and capturing the fortified city of Tsaritsyn, under heavy shell fire in a single tank, which led to the capture of over 40,000 prisoners. The fall of Tsaritsyn is viewed "as one of the key battles of the Russian Civil War" and greatly helped the White Russian cause. The notable historian Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart comments that Bruce's tank action during the battle is to be seen as "one of the most remarkable feats in the whole history of the Tank Corps".

On 14 August, the Bolsheviks launched their Southern Front counteroffensive. After six weeks of heavy fighting the counteroffensive failed, and Denikin was able to capture more territory. By November, White Forces had reached the Zbruch, the Ukrainian-Polish border.

General Pyotr Wrangel in Tsaritsyn, 15 October 1919

Denikin's forces constituted a real threat and for a time threatened to reach Moscow. The Red Army, stretched thin by fighting on all fronts, was forced out of Kiev on 30 August. Kursk and Orel were taken, on 20 September and 14 October, respectively. The latter, only 205 miles (330 km) from Moscow, was the closest the AFSR would come to its target. The Cossack Don Army under the command of General Vladimir Sidorin continued north towards Voronezh, but Semyon Budyonny's cavalrymen defeated them there on 24 October. That allowed the Red Army to cross the Don River, threatening to split the Don and Volunteer Armies. Fierce fighting took place at the key rail junction of Kastornoye, which was taken on 15 November. Kursk was retaken two days later.

Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, a famous Bolshevik Constructivist propaganda poster by El Lissitzky, which abstractly represents the defeat of the Whites by the Red Army

Kenez states, "In October Denikin ruled more than forty million people and controlled the economically most valuable parts of the Russian Empire." Yet, "The White armies, which had fought victoriously during the summer and early fall, fell back in disorder in November and December." Denikin's front line was overstretched, while his reserves dealt with Makhno's anarchists in the rear. Between September and October, the Reds mobilized one hundred thousand new soldiers and adopted the Trotsky-Vatsetis strategy with the Ninth and Tenth armies forming V. I. Shorin's Southeastern Front between Tsaritsyn and Bobrov, while the Eighth, Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth armies formed A.I. Egorov's Southern Front between Zhitomir and Bobrov. Sergey Kamenev was in overall command of the two fronts. On Denikin's left was Abram Dragomirov, while in his center was Vladimir May-Mayevsky's Volunteer Army, Vladimir Sidorin's Don Cossacks were further east, with Pyotr Wrangel's Caucasian army at Tsaritsyn, and an additional was in the Northern Caucasus attempting to capture Astrakhan. On 20 October, May–Mayevsky was forced to evacuate Orel during the Orel-Kursk operation. On 24 October, Semyon Budyonny captured Voronezh, and Kursk on 15 November, during the Voronezh-Kastornoye operation (1919). On 6 January, the Reds reached the Black Sea at Mariupol and Taganrog, and on 9 January, they reached Rostov. According to Kenez, "The Whites had now lost all the territories which they had captured in 1919, and held approximately the same area in which they had started two years before."

Central Asia (1919)

By February 1919 the British government had pulled its military forces out of Central Asia. Despite the success for the Red Army, the White Army's assaults in European Russia and other areas broke communication between Moscow and Tashkent. For a time, Central Asia was completely cut off from Red Army forces in Siberia. Although the communication failure weakened the Red Army, the Bolsheviks continued their efforts to gain support for the Bolshevik Party in Central Asia by holding a second regional conference in March. During the conference, a regional bureau of Muslim organisations of the Russian Bolshevik Party was formed. The Bolshevik Party continued to try to gain support among the native population by giving it the impression of better representation for the Central Asian population and throughout the end of the year could maintain harmony with the Central Asian people.

Communication difficulties with Red Army forces in Siberia and European Russia ceased to be a problem by mid-November 1919. Red Army successes north of Central Asia caused communication with Moscow to be re-established and the Bolsheviks to claim victory over the White Army in Turkestan.

In the Ural-Guryev operation of 1919–1920, the Red Turkestan Front defeated the Ural Army. During winter 1920, Ural Cossacks and their families, totaling about 15,000 people, headed south along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea towards Fort Alexandrovsk. Only a few hundred of them reached Persia in June 1920. The Orenburg Independent Army was formed from Orenburg Cossacks and other troops who rebelled against the Bolsheviks. During the winter 1919–20, the Orenburg Army retreated to Semirechye in what is known as the Starving March, as half of the participants perished. In March 1920 her remnants crossed the border into the Northwestern region of China.

South Russia, Ukraine and Kronstadt (1920–21)

Polish anti-Soviet poster depicting Lev Trotsky.

At the beginning of 1920, Denikin was reduced to defending Novorossia, the Crimean peninsula, and the Northern Caucasus. On 26 January, the Caucasian army retreated beyond the Manych. On 7 February, the Reds occupied Odessa, but then Makhno's anarchists started fighting the Fourteenth Red Army. On 20 February, Denikin succeeded in recapturing Rostov, his last victory, before giving it up soon after.

By the beginning of 1920, the main body of the Armed Forces of South Russia was rapidly retreating towards the Don, to Rostov. Denikin hoped to hold the crossings of the Don, then rest and reform his troops, but the White Army was not able to hold the Don area, and at the end of February 1920 started a retreat across Kuban towards Novorossiysk. Slipshod evacuation of Novorossiysk proved to be a dark event for the White Army. Russian and Allied ships evacuated about 40,000 of Denikin's men from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, without horses or any heavy equipment, while about 20,000 men were left behind and either dispersed or were captured by the Red Army. Following the disastrous Novorossiysk evacuation, Denikin stepped down and the military council elected Wrangel as the new Commander-in-Chief of the White Army. He was able to restore order to the dispirited troops and reshape an army that could fight as a regular force again. It remained an organized force in the Crimea throughout 1920.

The Tambov Rebellion was one of the largest and best-organised peasant rebellions challenging the Bolshevik regime

After Moscow's Bolshevik government signed a military and political alliance with Nestor Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists, the Insurgent Army attacked and defeated several regiments of Wrangel's troops in southern Ukraine, forcing him to retreat before he could capture that year's grain harvest.

Stymied in his efforts to consolidate his hold, Wrangel then attacked north in an attempt to take advantage of recent Red Army defeats at the close of the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1920. The Red Army eventually halted the offensive, and Wrangel's troops had to retreat to Crimea in November 1920, pursued by both the Red and Black cavalry and infantry. Wrangel's fleet evacuated him and his army to Constantinople on 14 November 1920, ending the struggle of Reds and Whites in Southern Russia.

After the defeat of Wrangel, the Red Army immediately repudiated its 1920 treaty of alliance with Nestor Makhno and attacked the anarchist Insurgent Army; the campaign to liquidate Makhno and the Ukrainian anarchists began with an attempted assassination of Makhno by Cheka agents. Anger at continued repression by the Bolshevik Communist government and at its liberal use of the Cheka to put down anarchist elements led to a naval mutiny at Kronstadt in March 1921, followed by peasant revolts – all of which were put down by the Bolsheviks. The outset of the year was marked by strikes and demonstrations – in both Moscow and Petrograd, as well as the countryside – due to discontent with the results of policies that made up war communism. The Bolsheviks, in response to the protests, enacted martial law and sent the Red Army to disperse the workers. This was followed up by mass arrests executed by the Cheka. Repression and minor concessions only temporarily quelled the discontent as Petrograd protests continued that year in March. This time the factory workers were joined by sailors stationed on the nearby island-fort of Kronstadt. Disappointed in the direction of the Bolshevik government, the rebels demanded a series of reforms including: reduction in Bolshevik privileges, newly elected soviets to include socialist and anarchist groups, economic freedom for peasants and workers, dissolution of the bureaucratic governmental organs created during the civil war, and the restoration of worker rights for the working class. The workers and sailors of the Kronstadt rebellion were promptly crushed by Red Army forces, with a thousand rebels killed in battle and another thousand executed the following weeks, with many more fleeing abroad and to the countryside. These events coincided with the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). There, Lenin argued that the soviets and the principle of democratic centralism within the Bolshevik party still assured democracy. However, faced with support for Kronstadt within Bolshevik ranks, Lenin also issued a "temporary" ban on factions in the Russian Communist Party. This ban remained until the revolutions of 1989 and, according to some critics, made the democratic procedures within the party an empty formality, and helped Stalin to consolidate much more authority under the party. Soviets were transformed into the bureaucratic structure that existed for the rest of the history of the Soviet Union and were completely under the control of party officials and the politburo. Red Army attacks on the anarchist forces and their sympathisers increased in ferocity throughout 1921.

Siberia and the Far East (1920–22)

Main article: Far Eastern Front in the Russian Civil War

In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak's army had disintegrated. He himself gave up command after the loss of Omsk and designated Gen. Grigory Semyonov as the new leader of the White Army in Siberia. Not long afterward, Kolchak was arrested by the disaffected Czechoslovak Legion as he traveled towards Irkutsk without the protection of the army and was turned over to the socialist Political Centre in Irkutsk. Six days later, the regime was replaced by a Bolshevik-dominated Military-Revolutionary Committee. On 6–7 February Kolchak and his prime minister Victor Pepelyaev were shot, and their bodies were thrown through the ice of the frozen Angara River, just before the arrival of the White Army in the area.

Remnants of Kolchak's army reached Transbaikalia and joined Semyonov's troops, forming the Far Eastern army. With the support of the Japanese army, it was able to hold Chita, but after the withdrawal of Japanese soldiers from Transbaikalia, Semenov's position became untenable and in November 1920 he was driven by the Red Army from Transbaikalia and took refuge in China. The Japanese, who had plans to annex the Amur Krai, finally pulled their troops out as Bolshevik forces gradually asserted control over the Russian Far East. On 25 October 1922 Vladivostok fell to the Red Army, and the Provisional Priamur Government was extinguished.

Aftermath

Карта Европы 1923 года после Гражданской войны в России и других революций .

С окончанием войны Коммунистическая партия Советского Союза больше не сталкивалась с острой военной угрозой своему существованию и могуществу. Однако предполагаемая угроза продолжающегося народного недовольства в сочетании с провалом социалистических революций в других странах — особенно Немецкой революции — способствовала продолжающейся милитаризации советского общества.

Большевикам удалось консолидировать контроль над Россией , но лишь частично удалось восстановить территориальный контроль над другими провинциями бывшей Российской империи . , Рижский мир подписанный в марте 1921 года после польско-советской войны , разделил территории Беларуси и Украины между Республикой Польша и Советской Россией. Эстония , Финляндия , Латвия и Литва отразили советское вторжение, а Армения , Азербайджан и Грузия были оккупированы Красной Армией.

Эвакуация

Основная статья: Белый эмигрант

Смотрите также: Эвакуация Новороссийска (1920 г.) и Эвакуация Крыма.

Беженцы на платформах

От одного до двух миллионов человек, известных как белые эмигранты, бежали из России, многие вместе с генералом Врангелем, некоторые через Дальний Восток, а другие на запад, в новые независимые страны Балтии. Эмигранты составляли большой процент образованного и квалифицированного населения России.

Последовавшее восстание

В Средней Азии войска Красной Армии продолжали сталкиваться с сопротивлением до 1923 года, когда басмачи (вооруженные отряды исламских партизан) сформировались для борьбы с большевистским переворотом. Советы привлекли к борьбе против басмачей нерусские народы в Средней Азии, такие как Магаза Масанчи , командир Дунганского кавалерийского полка. Коммунистическая партия не расформировала группу полностью до 1934 года.

Генерал Анатолий Пепеляев продолжал вооруженное сопротивление в Аяно-Майском районе до июня 1923 года. Районы Камчатки и Северного Сахалина оставались под японской оккупацией до заключения договора с Советским Союзом в 1925 году, когда их войска были окончательно выведены.

Потери

Беспризорные дети во время Гражданской войны в России.

Смотрите также: Красный террор (Россия) и Белый террор (Россия)

Результаты гражданской войны были ошеломляющими. Советский демограф Борис Урланис подсчитал, что во время Гражданской войны и Советско-польской войны в боях погибло 300 000 человек - 125 000 в Красной Армии, 175 500 в Белой армии и поляках - а общее количество военнослужащих с обеих сторон, умерших от болезней, составило 450 000. Борис Сенников оценил общие потери населения Тамбовской области в 1920–1922 годах в результате войны, расстрелов и заключения в концентрационные лагеря примерно в 240 тысяч человек. К 1922 году в России насчитывалось по меньшей мере 7 миллионов беспризорных детей в результате почти десяти лет опустошения, вызванного Первой мировой войной и гражданской войной.

К концу Гражданской войны Российская СФСР была истощена и близка к разрухе. Засухи 1920 и 1921 годов, а также голод в России 1921 года еще больше усугубили катастрофу, унеся жизни примерно 5 миллионов человек. Заболевание достигло масштабов пандемии: от тифа за время войны умерло 3 000 000 человек. Еще миллионы людей умерли от массового голода, массовых убийств с обеих сторон и погромов против евреев на Украине и на юге России .

Жертвы среди гражданского населения

Жертвы российского голода 1921 года.

В результате Гражданской войны в России погибло около 10 миллионов человек, и подавляющее большинство из них составили жертвы среди гражданского населения. Среди западных историков нет единого мнения о количестве погибших в результате красного террора. Один источник дает оценки 28 000 казней в год с декабря 1917 года по февраль 1922 года. По оценкам, число расстрелянных в начальный период красного террора составляет не менее 10 000 человек. Оценки за весь период составляют минимум 50 000. до максимума 140 000 и 200 000 казнены. Согласно большинству оценок общего количества казней, их число составляет около 100 000. По данным расследования Вадима Эрлихмана, число жертв красного террора составляет не менее 1 200 000 человек. По словам Роберта Конквеста , в 1917–1922 годах было расстреляно в общей сложности 140 000 человек, но по оценкам Джонатана Д. Смела, их было значительно меньше, «возможно, менее половины этого количества». Кандидат исторических наук Николай Заяц утверждает, что число расстрелянных ЧК в 1918–1922 гг. составляет около 37,3 тыс. человек, расстрелянных в 1918–1921 гг. по приговорам трибуналов – 14,2 тыс., т.е. всего около 50–55 тыс. и зверства не ограничивались ЧК, их организовывала и Красная Армия. В 1924 году антибольшевистский народный социалист Сергей Мельгунов (1879–1956) опубликовал подробный отчет о красном терроре в России, где он процитировал оценки профессора Шарля Саролеа о 1 766 188 смертях в результате большевистской политики. Он усомнился в точности цифр, но поддержал «характеристику террора в России» Саролеа, заявив, что она соответствует действительности. Современный историк Сергей Волков, оценивая красный террор как всю репрессивную политику большевиков в годы Гражданской войны (1917–1922), оценивает прямую численность погибших от красного террора в 2 миллиона человек. Однако расчеты Волкова, похоже, не были подтверждены другими крупными учеными.

Этническое насилие

Смотрите также: Погромы во время Гражданской войны в России.

Жертвы погрома, устроенного украинскими войсками в Ходоркове, 1919 г.

Около 10 000–500 000 казаков были убиты или депортированы во время расказачивания из примерно трехмиллионного населения. По оценкам, на Украине было убито 100 000 евреев. За период с мая 1918 по январь 1919 года карательные органы Всевеликого Войска Донского приговорили к смертной казни 25 тысяч человек. Только в Екатеринбургской губернии правительство Колчака расстреляло 25 тысяч человек. Белый террор, как его впоследствии стали называть, унес жизни около 300 000 человек.

Экономический эффект

Гражданская война оказала разрушительное воздействие на российскую экономику. В России возник черный рынок , несмотря на угрозу введения военного положения против спекуляции. Рубль . рухнул, а бартер все больше заменял деньги в качестве средства обмена а к 1921 году объем производства тяжелой промышленности упал до 20% от уровня 1913 года. 90% заработной платы выплачивалось товарами, а не деньгами. 70% локомотивов нуждались в ремонте, реквизиция продовольствия в сочетании с последствиями семилетней войны и сильной засухи способствовали голоду, в результате которого погибло от 3 до 10 миллионов человек. Производство угля уменьшилось с 27,5 миллионов тонн (1913 г.) до 7 миллионов тонн (1920 год), а общая заводская продукция также снизилась с 10 миллиардов рублей до 1 миллиарда рублей. По данным известного историка Дэвида Кристиана, урожай зерна также сократился с 80,1 млн тонн (1913 г.) до 46,5 млн тонн (1920 г.).

Военный коммунизм спас советское правительство во время Гражданской войны, но большая часть российской экономики замерла. Некоторые крестьяне ответили на продразверстку отказом обрабатывать землю. К 1921 году посевные площади сократились до 62% от довоенной площади, а урожайность составила лишь около 37% от нормы. Поголовье лошадей сократилось с 35 миллионов в 1916 году до 24 миллионов в 1920 году, а крупного рогатого скота — с 58 до 37 миллионов. Обменный курс доллара США упал с двух рублей в 1914 году до 1200 рублей в 1920 году. Хотя в России наблюдался чрезвычайно быстрый экономический рост, В 1930-е годы совокупный эффект Первой мировой войны и Гражданской войны оставил неизгладимый шрам в российском обществе и оказал необратимое влияние на развитие Советского Союза.

Политическое влияние

Основная статья: Революции 1917-1923 гг.

Смотрите также: Рапалльский договор (1922 г.)

Полный провал революций, вдохновленных Коммунистическим Интернационалом, стал отрезвляющим опытом в Москве, и большевики перешли от мировой революции к социализму в одной стране , Советском Союзе .

— Рапалльский мирный договор (1922 г.) соглашение, подписанное 16 апреля 1922 г. между Веймарской республикой и Советским Союзом, согласно которому оба государства отказались от всех территориальных и финансовых претензий друг к другу и открыли дружественные дипломатические отношения.

В художественной литературе

Литература

Гражданская война была популярной темой среди писателей соцреализма ; она отстаивалась в произведениях таких авторов, как Дмитрий Фурманов ( «Чапаев , 1924), Александр Серафимович , Всеволод Вишневский ( «Оптимистическая трагедия» , 1933) и Александр Фадеев ; Один из самых известных примеров — роман «Как закалялась сталь» (1934) Николая Островского .

• Дорога на Голгофу (1922–1941) Алексея Николаевича Толстого .

Другие выдающиеся художественные произведения советских писателей, не следовавшие методам и доктрине социалистического реализма, включают:

• «Белая гвардия» (1925) и «Записная книжка молодого врача» (1925–1926) Михаила Булгакова .
• Красная кавалерия (1926–1933) Исаака Бабеля
• Chevengur (1927, fully published in 1971) by Andrei Platonov
• Тихий Дон (1928–1940) Михаила Шолохова
• Завоеванный город (1932) Виктора Сержа
• Doctor Zhivago (1957) by Boris Pasternak
• The Red Wheel (1971–1991) by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn

- белоэмигрантов авторов :

• Вечер с Клэр (1930) Гайто Газданова
• Роман с кокаином (1934) М. Агеева

Работы западных и современных авторов:

• Тщетность (1922) Уильяма Герхарди
• Coup de Grace (1939) Маргариты Юрсенар
• Византия выдерживает (1981) Майкла Муркока
• Падение гигантов (2010) Кена Фоллетта
• Братан (2011) Владимира Сорокина
• Великолепная маленькая война (2012) Дерека Робинсона (писатель)

Фильм

• Арсенал (1928)
• Буря над Азией (1928)
• Chapaev (1934)
• Тринадцать (1936), режиссер Михаил Ромм
• «Мы из Кронштадта» (1936), режиссёр Ефим Дзиган
• Рыцарь без доспехов (1937)
• «1919 год» (1938), режиссёр Илья Трауберг
• Балтийские морские пехотинцы (1939), режиссёр А. Файнциммер
• Щорс (1939), реж. Довженко
• Pavel Korchagin (1956), directed by A. Alov and V. Naumov
• «Сорок первый» (1956), режиссер Григорий Чухрай.
• Коммунист (фильм) (1957), режиссёр Юлий Райзман
• «Тихий Дон» (1958), режиссёр Сергей Герасимов
• Доктор Живаго (1965), режиссер Дэвид Лин
• Неуловимые мстители (1966)
• Красное и белое (1967)
• Белое солнце пустыни (1970)
• «Полет» (1970), режиссёры А. Алов и В. Наумов.
• Красные (1981), режиссер Уоррен Битти
• Корто Мальтезе в Сибири (2002)
• Девять жизней Нестора Махно (2005/2007)
• Адмирал (2008)
• Солнечный удар (2014), режиссер Никита Михалков

Видеоигры

• Последний поезд домой (видеоигра) (2023)
• Поле битвы 1 Во имя царя (2017)

См. также

• Библиография русской революции и гражданской войны
• Указатель статей, связанных с русской революцией и гражданской войной.
• Николаевский инцидент
• Революционные массовые фестивали
• Хронология Гражданской войны в России
• Движения за независимость в Гражданской войне в России

Ссылки

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Смотрите также: Библиография русской революции и гражданской войны.

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• Розенталь, Рейго (2006). армия Северо-Западная . (на эстонском языке) Таллинн: Арго. ISBN  9-949-41545-4 .
• Райан, Джеймс (2012). Ленинский террор: идеологические истоки раннего советского государственного насилия . Лондон: Рутледж. ISBN  978-1-138-81568-1 . Проверено 15 мая 2017 г.
• Сервис, Роберт (2000). Ленин: Биография . Лондон: Макмиллан. ISBN  978-0-333-72625-9 .
• Смеле, Джонатан Д. (2015). Исторический словарь Гражданских войн в России 1916–1926 гг . Роуман и Литтлфилд. ISBN  978-1-442-25281-3 .
• ——— (2016) [2015]. «Российские» гражданские войны 1916–1926 годов: десять лет, которые потрясли мир . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-190-61321-1 .
• Стюарт, Джордж (2009). Белые армии России. Хроника контрреволюции и интервенции союзников . Военно-морская и военная пресса. ISBN  978-1-847-34976-7 .
• Смит, Дэвид А.; Такер, Спенсер К. (2014). «Операция Фаустшлаг» . Первая мировая война: Полная энциклопедия и собрание документов . Санта-Барбара, Калифорния: ABC-CLIO. стр. 554–555. ISBN  978-1-851-09965-8 . Проверено 27 декабря 2017 г.
• Томпсон, Джон М. (1996). Неосуществленное видение. Россия и Советский Союз в ХХ веке . Лексингтон, Массачусетс: округ Колумбия, Хит. ISBN  978-0-669-28291-7 .
• Волкогонов, Дмитрий (1996). Троцкий: вечный революционер . Перевод Шукмана, Гарольда. Лондон: ХарперКоллинз. ISBN  978-0-002-55272-1 .
• Верт, Николас; Бартосек, Карел; Панн, Жан-Луи; Марголин, Жан-Луи; Пачковский, Анджей; Куртуа, Стефан (1999). Черная книга коммунизма: преступления, террор, репрессии . Издательство Гарвардского университета. ISBN  0-674-07608-7 .
• Уилер, Джеффри (1964). Новейшая история советской Средней Азии . Нью-Йорк: Фредерик А. Прегер. OCLC   865924756 .

Дальнейшее чтение

• Актон, Эдвард, В. и др. ред. Критический спутник русской революции, 1914–1921 (Индиана, 1997).
• Бровкин, Владимир Н. (1994). За линией фронта гражданской войны: политические партии и общественные движения в России, 1918–1922 гг . Принстон, UP. отрывок. Архивировано 28 июля 2020 года в Wayback Machine.
• Дюпюи, Теннесси Энциклопедия военной истории (много изданий) Harper & Row Publishers.
• Форд, Крис. «Переосмысление украинской революции 1917–1921 годов: диалектика национального освобождения и социальной эмансипации». Дебаты 15.3 (2007): 279–306.
• Питер Кенез . Гражданская война на юге России, 1918 год: первый год Добровольческой армии (Калифорнийский университет Press, 1971).
• Линкольн, В. Брюс. Красная победа: История Гражданской войны в России (1989).
• Лакетт, Ричард. Белые генералы: отчет о белом движении и гражданской войне в России (Routledge, 2017).
• Марплс, Революция Дэвида Р. Ленина: Россия, 1917–1921 (Routledge, 2014).
• Моффат, Ян, изд. Интервенция союзников в Россию, 1918–1920: Дипломатия хаоса (2015)
• Поляков Юрий. Гражданская война в России: ее причины и значение (Новости, 1981).
• Серж, Виктор. Первый год русской революции (Хеймаркет, 2015).
• Смеле, Джонатан Д. «Все еще в поисках« третьего пути »: вмешательство Джеффри Суэйна в гражданские войны в России». Исследования Европы и Азии 68.10 (2016): 1793–1812. дои : 10.1080/09668136.2016.1257094 .
• Смеле, Джонатан Д. «Если бы у бабушки были бакенбарды...»: могли бы антибольшевики выиграть русские революции и гражданские войны? Или ограничения и тщеславие контрфактической истории». Революционная Россия (2020): 1–32. дои : 10.1080/09546545.2019.1675961 .
• Стюарт, Джордж. Белые армии России: хроника контрреволюции и союзнического вмешательства (2008). Отрывок. Архивировано 27 июня 2015 года на Wayback Machine.
• Стоун, Дэвид Р. «Гражданская война в России, 1917–1921» в «Военной истории Советского Союза» .
• Суэйн, Джеффри (2015). из книги «Истоки Гражданской войны в России». Отрывок Архивировано 28 июля 2020 года в Wayback Machine.

Первоисточники

• Батт, вице-президент и др., ред. Гражданская война в России: документы из советских архивов (Springer, 2016).
• МакКоли, Мартин, изд. Русская революция и советское государство 1917–1921: Документы (Springer, 1980).
• Мерфи, А. Брайан, изд. Гражданской войны в России: первоисточники (Springer, 2000). Интернет-обзор Архивировано 27 июня 2020 года на Wayback Machine.

Внешние ссылки

• Кинохроника о Гражданской войне в России // Архив кинохроники и документальных фильмов Net-Film
• Сумпф, Александр: Гражданская война в России , в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Модсли, Эван: Международные ответы на гражданскую войну в России (Российская империя) , в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Прочтите «Кристофер: Революции (Российская империя) » в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Пилинг, Шивон: Военный коммунизм , в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Бейрау, Дитрих: Послевоенные общества (Российская империя) , в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Брудек, Паве³: Революции (Восточно-Центральная Европа) , в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Мелансон, Майкл С.: Социальный конфликт и контроль, протест и репрессии (Российская империя) , в: 1914–1918 онлайн. Международная энциклопедия Первой мировой войны .
• Архив русской революции и гражданской войны на libcom.org/library. Архивировано 7 сентября 2014 г. на Wayback Machine.
• «История русской революции BBC» (3 февраля 2007 г.)
• «Гражданская война в России» (История Спартака, загружено 3 января 2006 г.)
• «Гражданская война в России 1918–1920» (на сайте War, загружено 4 января 2006 г.)
• «Гражданская война 1917–1922 годов» в Энциклопедии истории России (3 февраля 2007 г.)