Ирландская орфография
Ирландская орфография - это набор конвенций, используемых для написания ирландцев . Реформа орфографии в середине 20-го века привела к тому, что Caighdeán oifigiúil , современная стандартная письменная форма, используемая правительством Ирландии , которая регулирует как правописание , так и грамматику . [ 1 ] Реформа удалила междиалектальные молчаливые буквы , упростила некоторые буквенные последовательности и модернизировали архаичные написания, чтобы отразить современное произношение, но также удалило буквы, произнесенные на некоторых диалектах, но не в других.
Ирландское правописание представляет все ирландские диалекты в высокой степени, несмотря на их значительные фонологические вариации, например, Crann («Дерево») читается / kɾˠan̪ˠ / в Mayo и Olster , / kɾˠaːn̪ˠ / in Galway, или / kɾˠəun̪ˠ / in munster . Некоторые слова могут иметь диалектные произношения, не отраженные их стандартным орфографией, и они иногда имеют различные диалекты, чтобы отразить это. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
Алфавит
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Латинский сценарий был системой письма , используемой для написания ирландцев с 5 -го века, когда он заменил Ogham , который использовался для написания примитивных ирландцев и старых ирландцев . [ 4 ] До середины 20-го века гэльский тип ( Cló Gaelach ) был основным шрифтом , используемым для написания ирландцев; Теперь он обычно заменяется римским типом ( Cló Rómhánach ). Использование Ogham и гэльского типа сегодня ограничено декоративными или самосознательно традиционными контекстами. Точка над линейной буквой в гэльском типе обычно заменяется следующим ⟨h⟩ в римском типе (например , → ⟨ch⟩ ). [ 5 ]
Письма и имена букв
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Традиционный ирландский алфавит ( Aibítir ) состоит из 18 букв: ⟨A , B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U⟩ . Он не содержит ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩ , хотя они используются в научной терминологии и современных займы иностранного происхождения. ⟨V⟩ встречается в небольшом количестве (в основном ономатопоэических ) родных словах (например, Vácarnach «для кряка» и Vrác "caw") и разговорных разговоров (например, Víog для Bíog "Chirp" и Vís для " винта "). [ 6 ] ⟨H⟩ , когда не префикс приведен к первому гласному слову или после согласного, чтобы показать лентию , в первую очередь происходит слово, первоначально в заимствовании, например, Хата "Hat". ⟨K⟩ - единственное письмо, не указанное в Dónaill .
Гласные могут быть акцентированы с острым акцентом ( ⟨á, é, OH, см. Ниже ). [ 7 ] (Т.е. , … а …… , домой ... )
Английские буквные имена обычно используются как в разговорной, так и в формальной речи, но есть современные ирландские буквные имена (на основе оригинальных латинских имен ), аналогичные другими языками, которые используют алфавит латинского скрипта . Имена деревьев исторически использовались для названия букв. Традиция научила, что все они происходили от имен писем Огхэма , хотя теперь известно, что только некоторые из самых ранних были названы в честь деревьев.
| Письмо | Имя | Имя
( Сила ) |
Название дерева ( Брейатхаргам ) | Огхам эквивалент | Примечания |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Аа | на а | / Aː / | Хелмс ( сосна ) | ᚐ | |
| Б.Б. | маленький | /быть/ | Бейт ( Береза ) | ᚁ | |
| Скандал | ВОЗ | / ключ / | Coll ( Хейзел ) | ᚉ | |
| Дд | Бог | /но/ | DAIR ( OAK ) | ᚇ | |
| Из | и а | /E/ | Popplar ( ) | ᚓ | |
| Фф | эйф | / Валентин / | Страх ( ольха ) | ᚃ | |
| Gg | Гей | /ɟeː/ | Горт ( плющ ) | ᚌ | |
| HH | Коув | /Он/ | Ут ( Боярышник ) | ᚆ | |
| II | в а | /я/ | йодхад ( тис ) | ᚔ | |
| JJ | ага | /dʒeː/ | [Dʒ] - это иностранный звук. | ||
| Кв | рыба | /kaː/ | |||
| LL | нет | / Валентин / | Элиза делает ( братан есть ) . | ᚂ | |
| Мм | с | / Валентин / | Миин ( приходи ) | ᚋ | |
| Нн | а | / отступ | Нион ( пепел ) | ᚅ | |
| И | Ой а | /oː/ | onn ( gorse ) | ᚑ | |
| Pp | pé | /pʲeː/ | ifín (gooseberry or thorn) | ᚘ | See forfeda. |
| peith (dwarf alder) | ᚚ | ||||
| cú | /kuː/ | ᚊ | ⟨Q⟩ is used to transliterate ceirt (apple). | ||
| Rr | ear | /aɾˠ/ | ruis (elder) | ᚏ | |
| Ss | eas | /asˠ/ | sail (willow) | ᚄ | |
| Tt | té | /tʲeː/ | tinne (holly) | ᚈ | |
| Uu | ú a | /uː/ | úr (heather) | ᚒ | |
| Vv | vé | /vʲeː/ | |||
| Ww | wae | /weː/ | |||
| Xx | eacs | /ɛksˠ/ | |||
| Yy | yé | /jeː/ | |||
| Zz | zae | /zˠeː/ | ᚎ | ⟨Z⟩ is used to transliterate straif (blackthorn); [zˠ] is a foreign sound. |
Grapheme to phoneme correspondence
[edit]In grapheme to phoneme correspondence tables on this page:
- "U" stands for Mayo and Ulster Irish, "C" for southern Connacht Irish, and "M" for Munster Irish.
- Initially and finally mean word initial or final unless stated otherwise.
- /∅/ means silent, i.e. that the letter(s) are not pronounced.
- The IPA transcriptions of examples on this page are in Connacht Irish.
See Irish phonology for an explanation of the symbols used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis and lenition.
Consonants
[edit]Consonants are generally "broad" (velarised) when beside ⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩ and "slender" (palatalised) when beside ⟨e, é, i, í⟩.[3][9][10] Irish orthography does not allow consonant letters or digraphs to be doubled (except in ⟨ll, nn, rr⟩), in compound words which would result in doubled consonants they are broken up by a hyphen (see below).
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | |||||
| b | broad | /bˠ/ | bain /bˠanʲ/ "take" (imper.), scuab /sˠkuəbˠ/ "broom" | ||||
| slender | /bʲ/ | béal /bʲeːlˠ/ "mouth", cnáib /knˠaːbʲ/ "hemp" | |||||
| bh | broad | /w/ | bhain /wanʲ/ "took", ábhar /ˈaːwəɾˠ/ "material", dubhaigh /ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/ "blacken" (imper.), taobh /t̪ˠiːw/ "side", dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black" | ||||
| slender | /vʲ/ | bhéal /vʲeːlˠ/ "mouth" (lenited), cuibhreann /ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ "common table", aibhneacha /ˈavʲnʲəxə/ "rivers", sibh /ʃɪvʲ/ "you" (pl.) | |||||
| See below for ⟨(e)abh, (e)obh, (i)ubh⟩ | |||||||
| bhf (eclipsis of ⟨f⟩) |
broad | /w/ | bhfuinneog /ˈwɪn̠ʲoːɡ/ "window" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | /vʲ/ | bhfíon /vʲiːnˠ/ "wine" (eclipsed) | |||||
| bp (eclipsis of ⟨p⟩) |
broad | /bˠ/ | bpoll /bˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | /bʲ/ | bpríosún /ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/ "prison" (eclipsed) | |||||
| c | broad | /k/ | cáis /kaːʃ/ "cheese", mac /mˠak/ "son" | ||||
| slender | /c/ | ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ "question", mic /mʲɪc/ "sons" | |||||
| ch | broad | /x/ | cháis /xaːʃ/ "cheese" (lenited), taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ "chieftain, Prime Minister of Ireland" | ||||
| slender | before ⟨t⟩ | boichte /bˠɔxtʲə/ "poorer" | |||||
| usually | /ç/ | cheist /çɛʃtʲ/ "question" (lenited), deich /dʲɛç/ "ten", oíche /ˈiːçə/ "night" | |||||
| d | broad | /d̪ˠ/ | dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist", nead /n̠ʲad̪ˠ/ "nest" | ||||
| slender | /dʲ/ | dearg /dʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red", cuid /kɪdʲ/ "part" | |||||
| dh | broad | initially | /ɣ/ | dhorn /ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist" (lenited) | |||
| elsewhere | /∅/ | ádh /aː/ "luck" | |||||
| slender | usually | /j/ | dhearg /ˈjaɾˠəɡ/ "red" (lenited), fáidh /fˠaːj/ "prophet" | ||||
| finally | /j/ | /∅/ | /ɟ/ | ||||
| See below for ⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, eidh, odh, oidh⟩. See Exceptions in verb forms for -⟨dh⟩ at the end of verbs endings. | |||||||
| dt | broad | eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ | /d̪ˠ/ | dtaisce /ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/ "treasure" (eclipsed) | |||
| elsewhere | /t̪ˠ/ | greadta /ˈɟɾʲat̪ˠə/ "beaten" | |||||
| slender | eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ | /dʲ/ | dtír /dʲiːɾʲ/ "country" (eclipsed) | ||||
| elsewhere | /tʲ/ | goidte /ˈɡɛtʲə/ "stolen" | |||||
| f | broad | /fˠ/ | fós /fˠoːsˠ/ "still", graf /ɡɾˠafˠ/ "graph" | ||||
| slender | /fʲ/ | fíon /fʲiːnˠ/ "wine", stuif /sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/ "stuff" | |||||
| See Exceptions in verb forms for -⟨f⟩- in future and conditional personal verb endings. | |||||||
| fh | /∅/ | fhuinneog /ˈɪn̠ʲoːɡ/ "window" (lenited), fhíon /iːnˠ/ "wine" (lenited) | |||||
| g | broad | /ɡ/ | gasúr /ˈɡasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy", bog /bˠɔɡ/ "soft" | ||||
| slender | /ɟ/ | geata /ˈɟat̪ˠə/ "gate", carraig /ˈkaɾˠəɟ/ "rock" | |||||
| gc (eclipsis of ⟨c⟩) |
broad | /ɡ/ | gcáis /ɡaːʃ/ "cheese" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | /ɟ/ | gceist /ɟɛʃtʲ/ "question" (eclipsed) | |||||
| gh | broad | initially | /ɣ/ | ghasúr /ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy" (lenited) | |||
| elsewhere | /∅/ | Eoghan /ˈoːənˠ/ (male name) | |||||
| slender | usually | /j/ | gheata /ˈjat̪ˠə/ "gate" (lenited), dóigh /d̪ˠoːj/ "way, manner" | ||||
| finally | /j/ | /∅/ | /ɟ/ | ||||
| See below for ⟨(e)agh, aigh, eigh, ogh, oigh, (u)igh⟩. See Exceptions in verb forms for ⟨(a)igh⟩ at the end of verbs. | |||||||
| h | /h/ | hata /ˈhat̪ˠə/ "hat", na héisc /nə heːʃc/ "the fish" (plural) | |||||
| j (loan consonant) | /dʒ/ | jab /ˈdʒabˠ/ "job", jíp /dʒiːpʲ/ "jeep" | |||||
| l | broad | initially | usually | /l̪ˠ/ | luí /l̪ˠiː/ "lying (down)" | ||
| lenited | /lˠ/ | lann /lˠaːn̪ˠ/ "blade" (lenited) | |||||
| elsewhere | /lˠ/ or /l̪ˠ/ | béal /bʲeːlˠ/ "mouth" | |||||
| slender | initially | usually | /l̠ʲ/ | leisciúil /ˈl̠ʲɛʃcuːlʲ/ "lazy" | |||
| lenited | /lʲ/ | leanbh /ˈlʲanˠəw/ "baby" (lenited) | |||||
| elsewhere | /lʲ/ or /l̠ʲ/ | siúil /ˈʃuːlʲ/ "walk" | |||||
| ll | broad | /l̪ˠ/ | poll /poːl̪ˠ/ "hole" | ||||
| slender | /l̠ʲ/ | coill /kəil̠ʲ/ "woods" | |||||
| m | broad | /mˠ/ | mór /mˠoːɾˠ/ "big", am /aːmˠ/ "time" | ||||
| slender | /mʲ/ | milis /ˈmʲɪlʲəʃ/ "sweet", im /iːmʲ/ "butter" | |||||
| mb (eclipsis of ⟨b⟩) |
broad | /mˠ/ | mbaineann /ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/ "takes" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | /mʲ/ | mbéal /mʲeːlˠ/ "mouth" (eclipsed) | |||||
| mh | broad | /w/ | mhór /woːɾˠ/ "big" (lenited), lámha /ˈl̪ˠaːwə/ "hands", léamh /l̠ʲeːw/ "reading" | ||||
| slender | /vʲ/ | mhilis /ˈvʲɪlʲəʃ/ "sweet" (lenited), uimhir /ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/ "number", nimh /n̠ʲɪvʲ/ "poison" | |||||
| See below for ⟨(e)amh, (e)omh, (i)umh⟩. | |||||||
| n | broad | initially | usually | /n̪ˠ/ | naoi /n̪ˠiː/ "nine" | ||
| lenited | /nˠ/ | nótaí /nˠoːt̪ˠiː/ "notes" (lenited) | |||||
| after non ⟨s(h)⟩ initial cons. | /ɾˠ/ | /nˠ/ | mná /mˠɾˠaː/ "women", cnaipe /ˈkɾˠapʲə/ "press" | ||||
| usually | /nˠ/ or /n̪ˠ/ | bean /bʲanˠ/ "woman" | |||||
| slender | initially | usually | /n̠ʲ/ | neart /n̠ʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ "strength" | |||
| lenited | /nʲ/ | neart /nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ "strength" (lenited) | |||||
| after non ⟨s(h)⟩ initial cons. | /ɾʲ/ | /nʲ/ | gnéas /ɟɾʲeːsˠ/ "sex", cníopaire /ˈcɾʲiːpˠəɾʲə/ "skinflint" | ||||
| usually | /nʲ/ or /n̠ʲ/ | Eoin /oːnʲ/ (male name) | |||||
| nc | broad | /ŋk/ | ancaire /ˈaŋkəɾʲə/ "anchor" | ||||
| slender | /ɲc/ | rinc /ɾˠɪɲc/ "dance" | |||||
| nd (eclipsis of ⟨d⟩) |
broad | /n̪ˠ/ | ndorn /n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | /n̠ʲ/ | ndearg /ˈn̠ʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red" (eclipsed) | |||||
| ng | broad | eclipsis of ⟨g⟩ | /ŋ/ | ngasúr /ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy" (eclipsed) | |||
| elsewhere | /ŋ(g)/ | long /l̪ˠuːŋɡ/ "ship", teanga /ˈtʲaŋɡə/ "tongue" | |||||
| slender | eclipsis of ⟨g⟩ | /ɲ/ | ngeata /ˈɲat̪ˠə/ "gate" (eclipsed) | ||||
| elsewhere | /ɲ(ɟ)/ | cuing /kɪɲɟ/ "yoke", ingear /ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/ "vertical" | |||||
| nn | broad | /n̪ˠ/ | ceann /caːn̪ˠ/ "head" | ||||
| slender | /n̠ʲ/ | tinneas /ˈtʲɪn̠ʲəsˠ/ "illness" | |||||
| p | broad | /pˠ/ | poll /pˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole", stop /sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/ "stop" | ||||
| slender | /pʲ/ | príosún /ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/ "prison", truip /t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/ "trip" | |||||
| ph | broad | /fˠ/ | pholl /fˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole" (lenited) | ||||
| slender | /fʲ/ | phríosún /ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/ "prison" (lenited) | |||||
| r | broad | /ɾˠ/ | ruán /ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ/ "buckwheat", cumhra /kuːɾˠə/ "fragrant", fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ "cold" | ||||
| slender | initially | rí /ɾˠiː/ "king" | |||||
| before ⟨d, l, n, r, s, t, th⟩ | airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ "height", duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠl̠ʲən̠ʲ/ "stony beach", coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ/ "corner", cuairt /kuəɾˠtʲ/ "visit", oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ "east" | ||||||
| after ⟨s⟩ | sreang /sˠɾˠaŋɡ/ "string" | ||||||
| usually | /ɾʲ/ | tirim /ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/ "dry", fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ "got" | |||||
| rr | /ɾˠ/ | carr /kaːɾˠ/ "car, cart" | |||||
| s | broad | /sˠ/ | Sasana /ˈsˠasˠənˠə/ "England", tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ "beginning" | ||||
| slender | initially before ⟨f, m, p, r⟩ | sféar /sˠfʲeːɾˠ/ "sphere", speal /sˠpʲalˠ/ "scythe", sméar /sˠmʲeːɾˠ/ "blackberry", sreang /sˠɾˠaŋɡ/ "string" | |||||
| usually | /ʃ/ | sean /ʃanˠ/ "old", cáis /kaːʃ/ "cheese" | |||||
| sh | /h/ | Shasana /ˈhasˠənˠə/ "England" (lenited), shiúil /huːlʲ/ "walked" | |||||
| t | broad | /t̪ˠ/ | taisce /ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/ "treasure", ceart /caɾˠt̪ˠ/ "correct" | ||||
| slender | /tʲ/ | tír /tʲiːɾʲ/ "country", beirt /bʲɛɾˠtʲ/ "two (people)" | |||||
| thb | usually | /h/c | thuaidh /huə/ "north", thíos /hiːsˠ/ "below", athair /ˈahəɾʲ/ "father", coinnithe /ˈkɪn̠ʲɪhə/ "kept", ith /ɪh/ "eat", foghlamtha /ˈfˠoːlˠəmˠhə/ "learned", ruaigthe /ˈɾˠuəcə/ "chased", scuabtha /ˈsˠkuəpˠə/ "swept" | ||||
| finally after a long vowel or diphthong | /∅/ | bláth /bˠlˠaː/ "blossom", cliath /clʲiə/ "harrow" | |||||
| ts (mutation of ⟨s⟩- after an "the") |
broad | /t̪ˠ/ | an tsolais /ə(n̪ˠ) ˈt̪ˠɔlˠəʃ/ "the light (gen.)" | ||||
| slender | /tʲ/ | an tSín /ə(nʲ) tʲiːnʲ/ "China" | |||||
| v (loan consonant) | broad | /w/ | vóta /ˈwoːt̪ˠə/ "vote" | ||||
| slender | /vʲ/ | veidhlín /ˈvʲəilʲiːnʲ/ "violin" | |||||
| z (loan consonant) | broad | /zˠ/ | zú /zˠuː/ "zoo" | ||||
| slender | /ʒ/ | Zen /ʒɛnʲ/ "Zen" | |||||
Vowels
[edit]Vowel sequences are common in Irish spelling due to the "caol le caol agus leathan le leathan" ("slender with slender and broad with broad") rule, i.e. that the vowels on either side of any consonant (or consonant cluster) must be both slender (⟨e, é, i, í⟩) or both broad (⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩), to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender. An apparent exception is ⟨ae⟩, which is followed by a broad consonant despite the ⟨e⟩.[9][10][11][5]
The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules:
- Unstressed short vowels are generally reduced to /ə/.
- ⟨e⟩ is silent before a broad vowel.
- ⟨i⟩ is silent before ⟨u, ú⟩ and after a vowel (except sometimes in ⟨ei, oi, ui⟩).
- ⟨io, oi, ui⟩ have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants.
- Accented vowels (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩) represent long vowels and in digraphs and trigraphs containing them, surrounding unaccented vowels are silent, but there are several exceptions, e.g. when preceded by two unaccented vowels.
- Accented vowels in succession are both pronounced, e.g. séú /ˈʃeːuː/ "sixth", ríúil /ˈɾˠiːuːlʲ/ "royal, kingly, majestic", báíocht /ˈbˠaːiːxt̪ˠ/ "sympathy", etc.
- ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are long before ⟨á, ó⟩, e.g. fiáin /ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg /ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine"
- A following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ lengthens some vowels and in Munster and Connacht a following syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ or word-final ⟨m, ng⟩ may lengthen or diphthongise some vowels depending on dialect.
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | ||||
| a | stressed | usually | /a/ | fan /fˠanˠ/ "stay" (imper.) | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | garda /ˈɡaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ "policeman", tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠl̪ˠuː/ "happening", carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/ "(small) heap", barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ "tip, point" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əu/ | mall /mˠaːl̪ˠ/ "slow, late", ann /aːn̪ˠ/ "there", am /aːmˠ/ "time" | ||
| unstressed | usually | /ə/ | ólann /ˈoːlˠən̪ˠ/ "drink" (present), mála /ˈmˠaːlˠə/ "bag" | |||
| before ⟨ch⟩ | /a/ | /ə/ | Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx/ "Sunday" | |||
| á, ái | /aː/ | bán /bˠaːnˠ/ "white", dáil /d̪ˠaːlʲ/ "assembly", gabháil /ˈɡawaːlʲ/ "taking" | ||||
| ae, aei | /eː/ | Gaelach /ˈɡeːlˠəx/ "Gaelic", Gaeilge /ˈɡeːlʲɟə/ "Irish (language)" | ||||
| ai | stressed | usually | /a/ | baile /ˈbˠalʲə/ "home" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | airne /aːɾˠn̠ʲə/ "sloe", airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ "height" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əi/ | caillte /ˈkaːl̠ʲtʲə/ "lost, ruined", crainn /kɾˠaːn̠ʲ/ "trees" | ||
| unstressed | /ə/ | eolais /ˈoːlˠəʃ/ "knowledge" (genitive) | ||||
| aí, aío | /iː/ | maígh /mˠiːj/ "claim" (imper.), gutaí /ˈɡʊt̪ˠiː/ "vowels", naíonán /ˈn̪ˠiːnˠaːnˠ/ "infant", beannaíonn /ˈbʲan̪ˠiːnˠ/ "blesses" | ||||
| ao | /iː/ | /eː/ | saol /sˠiːlˠ/ "life" | |||
| aoi | /iː/ | gaois /ɡiːʃ/ "shrewdness", naoi /ˈn̪ˠiː/ "nine" | ||||
| e, ei | stressed | usually | /ɛ/ | te /tʲɛ/ "hot", ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ "question" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /eː/ | eirleach /ˈeːɾˠl̠ʲəx/ "destruction", ceirnín /ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/ "record album", ceird /ceːɾˠdʲ/ "trade, craft" | ||||
| before ⟨m, mh, n⟩ | /ɪ/ | creimeadh /ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/ "corrosion, erosion", sceimhle /ˈʃcɪvʲlʲə/ "eroded", seinm /ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/ "playing" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /ɪ/ | /iː/ | /əi/ | greim /ɟɾʲiːmʲ/ "grip" | ||
| unstressed | /ə/ | míle /ˈmʲiːlʲə/ "thousand" | ||||
| é, éa, éi | /eː/ | sé /ʃeː/ "he", déanamh /ˈdʲeːnˠəw/ "doing", buidéal /ˈbˠɪdʲeːlˠ/ "bottle", scéimh /ʃceːvʲ/ "beauty", páipéir /ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/ "papers" | ||||
| ea, eai | stressed | usually | /a/ | bean /bʲanˠ/ "woman", veain /vʲanʲ/ "van" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | ceardaí /caːɾˠd̪ˠiː/ "craftsman", bearna /ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/ "gap", fearr /fʲaːɾˠ/ "better" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əu/ | feall /fʲaːl̪ˠ/ "treachery", feanntach /ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/ "severe" | ||
| unstressed | usually | /ə/ | seisean /ˈʃɛʃənˠ/ "he" (emphatic) | |||
| before ⟨ch⟩ | /a/ | /ə/ | taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ "chieftain" | |||
| eá, eái | /aː/ | Seán /ʃaːnˠ/ "John", caisleán /ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnˠ/ "castle", meáin /mʲaːnʲ/ "middles", caisleáin /ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnʲ/ "castles" | ||||
| eo, eoi | usually | /oː/ | ceol /coːlˠ/ "music", dreoilín /ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/ "wren" | |||
| in four words | /ɔ/ | anseo /ənʲˈʃɔ/ "here", deoch /dʲɔx/ "drink", eochair /ˈɔxəɾʲ/ "key", seo /ˈʃɔ/ "this" | ||||
| i | stressed | usually | /ɪ/ | pic /pʲɪc/ "pitch", ifreann /ˈɪfʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ "hell" | ||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /ɪ/ | /iː/ | cill /ciːl̠ʲ/ "church", cinnte /ˈciːn̠ʲtʲə/ "sure", im /iːmʲ/ "butter" | |||
| unstressed | /ə/ | faoistin /ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/ "confession" | ||||
| í, ío | /iː/ | gnímh /ɟnʲiːvʲ/ "act, deed" (gen.), cailín /ˈkalʲiːnʲ/ "girl", síol /ʃiːlˠ/ "seed" | ||||
| ia, iai | /iə/ | Diarmaid /dʲiərmədʲ/ "Dermot", bliain /bʲlʲiənʲ/ "year" | ||||
| iá, iái | /iː.aː/ | bián /ˈbʲiːaːnˠ/ "size", liáin /ˈl̠ʲiːaːnʲ/ "trowel" (gen.) | ||||
| io | before ⟨d, n, r, s, t, th⟩ | /ɪ/ | fios /fʲɪsˠ/ "knowledge", bior /bʲɪɾˠ/ "spit, spike", cion /cɪnˠ/ "affection", giota /ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/ "bit, piece", giodam /ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/ "restlessness", friotháil /ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/ "attention" | |||
| before ⟨b, c, g, m, ng, p⟩ | /ɪ/ | /ʊ/ | siopa /ˈʃʊpˠə/ "shop", liom /lʲʊmˠ/ "with me", tiocfaidh /ˈtʲʊkiː/ "will come", Siobhán /ˈʃʊwaːnˠ/ "Joan", briogáid /ˈbʲɾʲʊɡaːdʲ/ "brigade", tiomáin /ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/ "drive" (imper.), ionga /ˈʊŋɡə/ "(finger)nail" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ | /ʊ/ | /uː/ | fionn /fʲʊn̪ˠ/ "light-haired" | |||
| ió, iói | /iː.oː/ | sióg /ˈʃiːoːɡ/ "fairy", pióg /ˈpʲiːoːɡ/ "pie", grióir /ˈɟɾʲiːoːɾʲ/ "weakling" | ||||
| iu | /ʊ/ | fliuch /fʲlʲʊx/ "wet" | ||||
| iú, iúi | /uː/ | siúl /ʃuːlˠ/ "walk", bailiú /ˈbˠalʲuː/ "gathering", ciúin /cuːnʲ/ "quiet", inniúil /ˈɪn̠ʲuːlʲ/ "able, fit" | ||||
| o | stressed | usually | /ɔ/ | post /pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/ "post" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /oː/ | bord /bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "table", orlach /ˈoːɾˠl̪ˠəx/ "inch" | ||||
| before ⟨n, m⟩ | /ɔ/ | /ʊ/ | conradh /ˈkʊnˠɾˠə/ "agreement", cromóg /ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːɡ/ "hooked nose" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and -⟨m, ng⟩ | /uː/ | /əu/ | fonn /fˠuːn̪ˠ/ "desire, inclination", trom /t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/ "heavy", long /l̪ˠuːŋɡ/ "ship" | |||
| unstressed | /ə/ | mo /mˠə/ "my", cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ "equal" | ||||
| ó, ói | /oː/ | póg /pˠoːɡ/ "kiss", armónach /ˈaɾˠəmˠoːnəx/ "harmonic", móin /mˠoːnʲ/ "sod, turf", bádóir /ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːɾʲ/ "boatman" | ||||
| oi | stressed | usually | /ɛ/ | scoil /sˠkɛlʲ/ "school", troid /t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/ "fight" (imper.), toitín /ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/ "cigarette", oibre /ˈɛbʲɾʲə/ "work" (gen.), thoir /hɛɾʲ/ "in the east", cloiche /ˈklˠɛçə/ "stone" (gen.) | ||
| before ⟨cht, rs, rt, rth, s⟩ | /ɔ/ | cois /kɔʃ/ "foot" (dat.), cloisfidh /ˈkl̪ˠɔʃiː/ "will hear", boicht /bˠɔxtʲ/ "poor" (gen. sg. masc.), doirse /ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/ "doors", goirt /ɡɔɾˠtʲ/ "salty", oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ "east" | ||||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /oː/ | coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ/ "corner", oird /oːɾˠdʲ/ "sledgehammers" | ||||
| next to ⟨n, m, mh⟩ | /ɪ/ | anois /əˈnˠɪʃ/ "now", gloine /ˈɡlˠɪnʲə/ "glass", cnoic /knˠɪc/ "hills", roimh /ɾˠɪvʲ/ "before", coimeád /ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/ "keep" (imper.), loinge /ˈl̪ˠɪɲɟə/ "ship" (gen.) | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /ɪ/ | /iː/ | foinn /fˠiːnʲ/ "wish" (gen.), droim /d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/ "back" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll⟩ | /əi/ | /iː/ | goill /gəil̠ʲ/ "grieve, hurt", coillte /ˈkəil̠ʲtʲə/ "forests" | |||
| unstressed | /ə/ | éadroime /eːdˠɾˠəmʲə/ "lightness" | ||||
| oí, oío | /iː/ | croíleacán /ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːnˠ/ "core", croíonna /ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/ "hearts" | ||||
| u | stressed | usually | /ʊ/ | dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /uː/ | burla /ˈbˠuːɾˠl̪ˠə/ "bundle", murnán /ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/ "ankle" | ||||
| in English loanwords | /ɔ/ or /ʊ/ | bus /bˠɔsˠ/, club /klˠɔbˠ/ | ||||
| unstressed | /ə/ | agus /ˈaɡəsˠ/ "and" | ||||
| ú, úi | /uː/ | tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ "beginning", súil /suːlʲ/ "eye", cosúil /ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/ "like, resembling" | ||||
| ua, uai | /uə/ | fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ "cold", fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ "got" | ||||
| uá, uái | /uː.aː/ | ruán /ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ/ "buckwheat", duán /ˈd̪ˠuːaːnˠ/ "kidney, fishhook", fuáil /ˈfˠuːaːlʲ/ "sewing, stitching" | ||||
| ui | stressed | usually | /ɪ/ | duine /ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/ "person" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /ɪ/ | /uː/ | duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ "stony beach", tuirne /ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠn̠ʲə/ "spinning wheel" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /iː/ | tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːl̠ʲtʲənˠəx/ "deserving", puinn /pˠiːn̠ʲ/ "much", suim /sˠiːmʲ/ "interest" | ||||
| unstressed | /ə/ | aguisín /ˈaɡəʃiːnʲ/ "addition" | ||||
| uí, uío | /iː/ | buígh /bˠiːj/ "turn yellow" (imper.), buíon /bˠiːnˠ/ "band, troop" | ||||
| uó, uói | /uː.oː/ | cruóg /ˈkɾˠuːoːɡ/ "urgent need", luóige /ˈl̪ˠuːoːɟə/ "pollock" (gen.) | ||||
Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩
[edit]When followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩, a short vowel usually forms a diphthong or lengthens. For ⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, (a)igh⟩, see -⟨dh, (a)igh⟩ in exceptions in verb forms.
| Letters | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | |||
| (e)abh, (e)abha, (e)abhai | /oː/ or /əu/ | /əu/ | Feabhra /ˈfʲəuɾˠə/ "February", leabhair /l̠ʲəuɾʲ/ "books", sabhall /sˠəul̪ˠ/ "barn" | ||
| (e)adh, (e)adha, (e)adhai, (e)agh, (e)agha, (e)aghai | stressed | /eː/ or /əi/ | /əi/ | meadhg /mʲəiɡ/ "whey", adharc /əiɾˠk/ "horn", adhairt /əiɾˠtʲ/ "pillow", saghsanna /ˈsˠəisˠən̪ˠə/ "sorts, kinds", deagha /d̪ˠəi/ "centaury", aghaidh /əij/ "face" | |
| unstressed | /uː/ | /ə/ | margadh /ˈmˠaɾˠəɡə/ "market", briseadh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/ "breaking" | ||
| aidh, aidhe, aigh, aighe, aighea | stressed | /əi/ | aidhleann /ˈəilʲən̪ˠ/ "rack", aidhe /əi/ "aye!", aighneas /əinʲəsˠ/ "argument, discussion", aighe /əi/ "cow, ox" (gen.), caighean /kəinˠ/ "cage" | ||
| unstressed | /iː/ | /ə/ | /əɟ/ | cleachtaidh /ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/ "practice" (gen.), bacaigh /ˈbˠakiː/ "beggar" (gen.) | |
| (e)amh, (e)amha, (e)amhai | stressed | /əu/ | ramhraigh /ˈɾˠəuɾˠiː/ "fattened", amhantar /ˈəun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/ "venture", Samhain /sˠəunʲ/ "November" | ||
| unstressed | /uː/ | /ə(w)/ | /əw/ | acadamh /ˈakəd̪ˠəw/ "academy", creideamh /ˈcɾʲɛdʲəw/ "belief, religion" | |
| eidh, eidhea, eidhi | /eː/ | /əi/ | feidhm /fʲəimʲ/ "function", eidheann /əin̪ˠ/ "ivy", meidhir /mʲəiɾʲ/ "mirth" | ||
| eigh, eighea, eighi | feighlí /ˈfʲəilʲiː/ "overseer", leigheas /l̠ʲəisˠ/ "healing", feighil /fʲəilʲ/ "vigilance" | ||||
| idh, (u)igh | stressed | /iː/ | /ɪɟ/ | ligh /l̠ʲiː/ "sit", guigh /giː/ "pray" | |
| unstressed | /iː/ | /ə/ | /əɟ/ | tuillidh /ˈt̪ˠɪl̠ʲiː/ "addition" (gen.), coiligh /ˈkɛlʲiː/ "rooster" (gen.) | |
| oidh, oidhea, oidhi | /əi/ | oidhre /əiɾʲə/ "heir", oidheanna /əin̪ˠə/ "tragedies" | |||
| oigh, oighea, oighi | oighreach /ˈəiɾʲəx/ "glacial", oigheann /əin̪ˠ/ "oven", loighic /l̪ˠəic/ "logic" | ||||
| (e)obh, (e)obha, (e)obhai | /oː/ | /əu/ | lobhra /ˈl̪ˠəuɾˠə/ "leprosy", lobhar /l̪ˠəuɾˠ/ "leper", lobhair /l̪ˠəuɾʲ/ "lepers" | ||
| (e)odh, (e)odha, (e)odhai | bodhrán /ˈbˠəuɾˠaːnˠ/ "deaf person", bodhar /bˠəuɾˠ/ "deaf", bodhair /bˠəuɾʲ/ "deaf people" | ||||
| (e)ogh, (e)ogha, (e)oghai | doghra /ˈd̪ˠəuɾˠə/ "misery", bogha /bˠəu/ "bow", broghais /bˠɾˠəuʃ/ "afterbirth (of animal)" | ||||
| (e)omh, (e)omha, (e)omhai | /oː/ | Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx/ "Sunday", comhar /koːɾˠ/ "partnership", domhain /d̪ˠoːnʲ/ "deep" | |||
| (i)ubh | /uː/ | /ʊ(w)/ | /ʊw/ | dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black", tiubh /tʲʊw/ "dense" | |
| (i)umh, (i)umha, (i)umhai | /uː/ | cumhra /ˈkuːɾˠə/ "fragrant", Mumhan /ˈmˠuːnˠ/ "Munster" (gen.), ciumhais /cuːʃ/ "edge" | |||
Epenthesis
[edit]After a short vowel, an unwritten epenthetic /ə/ gets inserted between ⟨l, n, r⟩ + ⟨b, bh, ch, f, g, mh⟩ (as well as ⟨p⟩, when derived from devoiced ⟨b, bh, mh⟩), when within a morpheme boundary, e.g. gorm /ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ/ "blue", dearg /ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red", dorcha /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ "dark", ainm /ˈanʲəmʲ/ "name", deilgneach /ˈdʲɛlʲəɟnʲəx/ "prickly, thorny"’ leanbh /ˈl̠ʲanˠəw/ "child", airgead /ˈaɾʲəɟəd̪ˠ/ "silver, money". The main exception to this is ⟨ng⟩ which is mainly used for /ŋ/ or /ɲ/.
Epenthesis does not occur after long vowels and diphthongs, e.g. téarma /tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ "term" or dualgas /ˈd̪ˠuəlˠɡəsˠ/ "duty", or across morpheme boundaries (i.e. after prefixes and in compound words), e.g. garmhac /ˈɡaɾˠwak/ "grandson" (from gar- "close, near" + mac "son"), an-chiúin /ˈan̪ˠçuːnʲ/ "very quiet" (from an- "very" + ciúin "quiet"), carrbhealach /ˈkaːɾˠvʲalˠəx/ "carriageway, roadway" (from carr "car" + bealach "way, road").
In Munster, epenthesis also occurs across morpheme boundaries, when ⟨l, n, r⟩ follow ⟨b, bh, ch, g, mh⟩ (after any vowel) or ⟨th⟩ (after short vowels), and when ⟨n⟩ follows ⟨c, g, m, r⟩.
Exceptions in verb forms
[edit]In verb forms, some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | ||||||
| -dh | broad | preterite | /w/ | /ɡ/ | moladh é /ˈmˠɔlˠəw eː/ "he was praised" | |||
| elsewhere | before ⟨s⟩ initial pronouns | /tʲ/ | /x/ | osclaíodh sí /ˈɔsˠklˠiːtʲ ʃiː/ "let her open" | ||||
| usually | /w/ | /x/ | bheannódh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːx mʲeː/ "I would bless" | |||||
| slender | before subject pronouns | /∅/ | beannóidh /ˈbʲan̪ˠoː/ "will bless" | |||||
| -ea- | in forms of bí "be" | /ɛ/ | bheadh sé /ˈvʲɛtʲ ʃeː/ "he would be" | |||||
| -eo(i), ó(i)- | verb endings | /oːxə/ | /oː/ | bheannóinn /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːn̠ʲ/ "I would bless" | ||||
| -f- | in personal verb endings | /h/c | dhófadh /ˈɣoːhəx/ "would burn, déarfaidh /ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː/ "will say", brisfidh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː/ "will break", scuabfadh /ˈsˠkuəpəx/ "would sweep" | |||||
| -(a)im | /əmˠ/ | /əmʲ/ | molaim /ˈmˠɔlˠəmʲ/ "I praise" | |||||
| -(a)igh | before subject pronouns | /ə/ | bheannaigh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː/ "I blessed" | |||||
Diacritics
[edit]
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil currently uses one diacritic, the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer using ASCII, the overdot is replaced by a following ⟨h⟩, e.g. Ḃí sé → Bhí sé "He/It was" and there is no standard for replacing an acute accent, though sometimes it is indicated by a following slash, e.g. fírinne → fi/rinne "truth".[12]
The acute accent (⟨◌́⟩; agúid or (síneadh) fada "long (sign)")a is used to indicate a long vowel, as in bád /bˠaːd̪ˠ/ "boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:
- A following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩, e.g. ard /aːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "high", eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ "destruction", dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist", and, in Connacht, a word-final ⟨m⟩, e.g. am /aːmˠ/ "time".
- The digraphs ⟨ae, ao, eo⟩, e.g. aerach /ˈeːɾˠəx/ "gay", maol /mˠiːlˠ/ "bare", ceol /coːlˠ/ "music".
- The tri/tetragraphs ⟨omh(a), umh(a)⟩, e.g. comharsa /ˈkoːɾˠsˠə/ "neighbour", Mumhain /mˠuːnʲ/ "Munster".
- ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ before ⟨á⟩ or ⟨ó⟩, e.g. fiáin /ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg /ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine".
The overdot (⟨◌̇⟩; ponc séimhithe "dot of lenition") was traditionally used to indicate lenition, though An Caighdeán exclusively uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose. In Old Irish, the overdot was only used for ⟨ḟ, ṡ⟩, while the following ⟨h⟩ was used for ⟨ch, ph, th⟩ and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two methods were used in parallel to represent lenition of any consonant (except ⟨l, n, r⟩) until the standard practice became to use the overdot in Gaelic type and the following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type. Thus the dotted letters (litreacha buailte "struck letters") ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to letters followed by a ⟨h⟩, i.e. ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩.
Lowercase ⟨i⟩ has no tittle in Gaelic type, and road signs in the Republic of Ireland. However, as printed and electronic material like books, newspapers and web pages use Roman type almost invariably, the tittle is generally shown. Irish does not graphemically distinguish dotted i and dotless ı, i.e. they are not different letters as they are in, e.g. Turkish and Azeri.
Punctuation
[edit]
Irish punctuation is similar to English. An apparent exception is the Tironian et (⟨⁊⟩; agus) which abbreviates the word agus "and", like the ampersand (⟨&⟩) abbreviates "and" in English. It is generally substituted by a seven (⟨7⟩) in texts.
A hyphen (fleiscín) is used in Irish after ⟨t, n⟩ when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as an initial mutation, e.g. an t-arán "the bread", a n-iníon "their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g. an tAlbanach "the Scotsman", Ár nAthair "Our Father". No hyphen is used when ⟨h⟩ is prefixed to a vowel-initial word, e.g. a hiníon "her daughter".
A hyphen is also used in compound words under certain circumstances:
- between two vowels, e.g. mí-ádh "misfortune"
- between two similar consonants, e.g. droch-chaint "bad language", grod-díol "prompt payment"
- in a three-part compound, e.g. buan-chomhchoiste "permanent joint committee"
- after the prefixes do-, fo-, so- before a word beginning with ⟨bha, bhla, bhra, dha, gha, ghla, ghra, mha⟩, e.g. do-bhlasta "bad tasting", fo-ghlac "subsume", so-mharfacht "mortality"
- in capitalised titles, e.g. An Príomh-Bhreitheamh "the Chief Justice"
- after an- "very" and dea- "good", e.g. an-mhór "very big", dea-mhéin "goodwill"
An apostrophe (uaschamóg) is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:
- the prepositions de "from" and do "to" both become d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in Thit sí d'each "She fell from a horse" and Tabhair d'fhear an tí é "Give it to the landlord"
- the possessive pronouns mo "my" and do "your (singular)" become m' and d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in m'óige "my youth", d'fhiacail "your tooth"
- the preverbal particle do becomes d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in d'ardaigh mé "I raised", d'fhanfadh sé "he would wait"
- the copular particle ba becomes b' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in B'ait liom é sin "I found that odd" and b'fhéidir "maybe". However, ba is used before the pronouns é, í, iad, as in Ba iad na ginearáil a choinnigh an chumhacht "It was the generals who kept the power"
Capitalisation
[edit]
Capitalisation rules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised (an tSín "China"). For text written in all caps, the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, or small caps (STAIR NA HÉIREANN "THE HISTORY OF IRELAND").[13] An initial capital is used for:[14]
- Start of sentences
- Names of people, places (except the words an, na, de),[15] languages, and adjectives of people and places (Micheál Ó Murchú "Michael Murphy"; Máire Mhac an tSaoi "Mary McEntee"; de Búrca "Burke"; Sliabh na mBan "Slievenamon"; Fraincis "French"; bia Iodálach "Italian food")
- Names of months, weeks and feast-days (Meán Fómhair "September"; an Luan "Monday"; Oíche Nollag "Christmas Eve")
- Dé "day" (Dé Luain "on Monday")
- Definite titles[16]
Abbreviations
[edit]Most Irish abbreviations are straightforward, e.g. leathanach → lch. ("page → p.") and mar shampla → m.sh. ("exempli gratia (for example) → e.g."), but two that require explanation are: is é sin → .i. ("that is → i.e.") and agus araile → ⁊rl./srl. ("et cetera (and so forth) → &c./etc.").[17] Like ⟨th⟩ in English, ⟨ú⟩ follows an ordinal numeral, e.g. Is é Lá Fheile Phádraig an 17ú lá den Márta "St. Patrick's day is the 17th [day] of March".
Spelling reform
[edit]The literary Classical Irish which survived till the 17th century was archaic; the first attempt at simplification was not until 1639.[18] The spelling represented a dialect continuum including distinctions lost in all surviving dialects by the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century.
The idea of a spelling reform, linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century.[19] The Irish Texts Society's 1904 Irish-English dictionary by Patrick S. Dinneen used traditional spellings.[19] After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, all Acts of the Oireachtas were translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accumulating over the years.[19] When Éamon de Valera became President of the Executive Council after the 1932 election, policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the 1937 Constitution.[19] In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations.[19][20] Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet, Litriú na Gaeilge: Lámhleabhar an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil, published in 1945.[20]
Some pre-reform spellings criticised by T. F. O'Rahilly and their modern forms include:[19] beirbhiughadh → beiriú, imthighthe → imithe, faghbháil → fáil, urradhas → urrús, filidheacht → filíocht.
The booklet was expanded in 1947,[21] and republished as An Caighdeán Oifigiúil "The Official Standard" in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953.[22] It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserve letters unpronounced in any dialect.[22] Its status was reinforced by use in the civil service and as a guide for Tomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary and Niall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary.[22] A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic".[23] The result was the 2017 update of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil.[24]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^a Vowels with an acute accent are read as [á/é/í/ó/ú] fada "long [á/é/í/ó/ú]".
- ^b In the verbal adjective suffix, -⟨th⟩- becomes ⟨t⟩ after ⟨d, gh, l, n, s, t, th⟩ (⟨gh, th⟩ are deleted before it is added) and it becomes ⟨f⟩ after ⟨bh, mh⟩ which are deleted before it is added.
- ^ c после согласных, / h / - это молчание, но предшествуют озвученным согласным. См. Ирландская фонология .
Ссылки
[ редактировать ]- ^ «Публикации у домов Oireachtas» . Дома Оиречтас . 2 февраля 2018 года . Получено 13 июля 2022 года .
- ^ «Ирландские гэльские диалекты» . www3.smo.uhi.ac.uk. Получено 13 декабря 2023 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в «Ирландская орфография» . www.nualeargais.ie . Архивировано из оригинала 26 марта 2023 года . Получено 23 октября 2022 года .
- ^ «Кельтские языки - ирландцы» . Британская . Получено 31 декабря 2022 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный «Ирландский язык, алфавит и произношение» . www.omniglot.com . Получено 13 декабря 2023 года .
- ^ Ó Dónaill, Niall (2007). Томас де Бхалдрате (ред.). Ирландско-английский словарь . Гум. ISBN 978-1-85791-038-4 Полем OCLC 670042711 .
- ^ Изучите ирландский розетту камень. Получено: 2020-06-21.
- ^ CBS . Гум. 22 сентября 1999 г. ISBN 9781857913279 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный «Письма алфавита на ирландском языке» . www3.smo.uhi.ac.uk. Получено 13 декабря 2023 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный «Ирландская орфография» . www.nualeargais.ie . Архивировано из оригинала 26 марта 2023 года . Получено 13 декабря 2023 года .
- ^ «Ключ произношения» . Студенты на Гейлге . Получено 13 декабря 2023 года .
- ^ Скотт, Брайан М. (8 апреля 1996 г.). «[Ответ] нужен гэльский перевод» . Usenet NewsGroup rec.org.sca - через groups.google.com.
... соответствующее ирландское гэльское слово - «ge/ar» (слэш, указывающий острый акцент на предыдущем гласном) .... ... более позднее написание патронима, которое я также пересмотрю в его женской форме, это 'ni/Chlu/mha/in'.
[Дальнейшие примеры в следующем комментарии Хизер Роуз Джонс, значительный голос в геральдике SCA.] - ^ Ирландская грамматика христианских братьев, §3.2
- ^ Выпускник ирландский язык Рождество, §3.1
- ^ Ирландская грамматика христианских братьев, §§ 3.1, 7.6, 10.2-10.3
- ^ Ирландская грамматика христианских братьев, §§ 3.1, 3.4
- ^ «Сокращения» . Студенты на Гейлге . Получено 13 декабря 2023 года .
- ^ Кроули, Тони (2005). «Кодирование Ирландии: словари и политику в истории ирландской истории». Эре-Ирландия . 40 (3): 119–139. doi : 10.1353/eir.2005.0017 . ISSN 1550-5162 . S2CID 154134330 .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в дюймовый и фон Ó Cearúil, Майкл; Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1999). «Скрипт и правописание». Конституция ирландцев: изучение ирландского текста (PDF) . Дублин: канцелярские товары. стр. 27–41. ISBN 0-7076-6400-4 Полем Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 21 июля 2011 года.
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный Dáil Devates Vol.99 № 17 с.3 7 марта 1946 г.
- ^ Правописание на Гейлдж - официальный стандартный справочник (по ирландцам). Дублин: офис канцелярских товаров / канцелярских товаров. 1947 . Получено 30 марта 2020 года .
- ^ Jump up to: а беременный в Ó laoire, Muiris (1997). «Стандартизация ирландского орфографии: обзор» . Журнал орфографического общества . 22 (2): 19–23. Архивировано из оригинала 22 июля 2011 года.
- ^ Центральный переводчик. «Объем процесса» . Обзор стандартного чиновника ирландцев . Департамент сообщества, по делам равенства и галтахта. Архивировано с оригинала 5 октября 2013 года . Получено 12 февраля 2012 года .
- ^ «Раздел перевода> Официальный стандарт» .
В сентябре 2014 года представители общественности и других сторон. Консультативный комитет также был создан. Дома службы Oireachtas в 2017 году.
Библиография
[ редактировать ]- Ирландская грамматика и ирландское правописание: Caighdeán oifigiúil . Дублин: канцелярские товары. 1994.
- Mac Eoin, Gearóid (1993). «Ирландцы». В Мартине Дж. Болл; Джеймс Файф (ред.). Кельтские языки . Лондон: Routledge. С. 101–44. ISBN 0-415-01035-7 .
- Ó Baoill, Dónall P. (1986). Центральный ирландский язык (на ирландском языке). Дублин: Институт лингвистики Ирландии. ISBN 0-946452-06-7 .
- Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1977). «Успехи и неудачи в модернизации ирландского орфографии» . В Фишмане, Джошуа А. (ред.). Достижения в области создания и пересмотра систем письма . Де Грюйтер. С. 267–289. ISBN 9783110807097 .
- Siadhail, Mícheál (1988). Изучение ирландцев (2 -е изд.). Нью -Хейвен: издательство Йельского университета. ISBN 0-300-04224-8 .
- Стенсон, Нэнси; Хикки, Тина (2018). Понимание ирландского написания справочника для учителей и учащихся (PDF) . Chomhairle um oideachas gaeltachta & gaelscolaiochta.
- CBS (по ирландцам). Дублин: Гум . 1999. ISBN 1-85791-327-2 .
