Психотерапия

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Psychotherapy
MeSH	D011613

Психотерапия (также психологическая терапия , разговорная терапия или разговорная терапия ) — это использование психологических методов, особенно если они основаны на регулярном личном взаимодействии , чтобы помочь человеку изменить поведение, повысить уровень счастья и преодолеть проблемы. человека Психотерапия направлена ​​на улучшение благополучия и психического здоровья , на устранение или смягчение проблемного поведения, убеждений, принуждений, мыслей или эмоций, а также на улучшение отношений и социальных навыков . Многочисленные виды психотерапии были разработаны как для отдельных взрослых, семей, так и для детей и подростков. Определенные виды психотерапии считаются научно обоснованными для лечения некоторых диагностированных психических расстройств ; другие типы подвергались критике как лженаука .

Существуют сотни психотерапевтических техник, некоторые из которых представляют собой незначительные вариации; другие основаны на совершенно других концепциях психологии. Most involve one-to-one sessions, between the client and therapist, but some are conducted with groups, включая семьи .

Psychotherapists may be mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health nurses, clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors. Psychotherapists may also come from a variety of other backgrounds, and depending on the jurisdiction may be legally regulated, voluntarily regulated or unregulated (and the term itself may be protected or not).

Definitions

The term psychotherapy is derived from Ancient Greek psyche (ψυχή meaning "breath; spirit; soul") and therapeia (θεραπεία "healing; medical treatment"). The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "The treatment of disorders of the mind or personality by psychological means...", however, in earlier use it denoted the treatment of disease through hypnotic suggestion. Psychotherapy is often dubbed as a "talking therapy" or "talk therapy", particularly for a general audience, though not all forms of psychotherapy rely on verbal communication. Children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication (or not in the usual way) are not excluded from psychotherapy; indeed some types are designed for such cases.

The American Psychological Association adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed by American psychologist John C. Norcross: "Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable". Influential editions of a work by psychiatrist Jerome Frank defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially authorized methods in a series of contacts primarily involving words, acts and rituals—which Frank regarded as forms of persuasion and rhetoric. Historically, psychotherapy has sometimes meant "interpretative" (i.e. Freudian) methods, namely psychoanalysis, in contrast with other methods to treat psychiatric disorders such as behavior modification.

Some definitions of counseling overlap with psychotherapy (particularly in non-directive client-centered approaches), or counseling may refer to guidance for everyday problems in specific areas, typically for shorter durations with a less medical or "professional" focus. Somatotherapy refers to the use of physical changes as injuries and illnesses, and sociotherapy to the use of a person's social environment to effect therapeutic change. Psychotherapy may address spirituality as a significant part of someone's mental / psychological life, and some forms are derived from spiritual philosophies, but practices based on treating the spiritual as a separate dimension are not necessarily considered as traditional or 'legitimate' forms of psychotherapy.

Delivery

Psychotherapy may be delivered in person (one on one, or with couples, or in groups) or via telephone counseling or online counseling (see also § Telepsychotherapy). There have also been developments in computer-assisted therapy, such as virtual reality therapy for behavioral exposure, multimedia programs to teach cognitive techniques, and handheld devices for improved monitoring or putting ideas into practice (see also § Computer-supported).

Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation. Some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story or music. Psychotherapy with children and their parents often involves play, dramatization (i.e. role-play), and drawing, with a co-constructed narrative from these non-verbal and displaced modes of interacting.

Regulation

See also: Psychologist § Licensing and regulations, Counseling psychology § Counseling ethics and regulation, Psychiatrist § Professional requirements, Health professional requisites, Social work § Qualifications, and Mental health professional § Professional distinctions

Psychotherapists traditionally may be mental health professionals like psychologists and psychiatrists; professionals from other backgrounds (family therapists, social workers, nurses, etc.) who have trained in a specific psychotherapy; or (in some cases) academic or scientifically trained professionals.Psychiatrists are trained first as physicians, and as such they may prescribe prescription medication; and specialist psychiatric training begins after medical school in psychiatric residencies: however, their specialty is in mental disorders or forms of mental illness. Clinical psychologists have specialist doctoral degrees in psychology with some clinical and research components. Other clinical practitioners, social workers, mental health counselors, pastoral counselors, and nurses with a specialization in mental health, also often conduct psychotherapy. Many of the wide variety of psychotherapy training programs and institutional settings are multi-professional. In most countries, psychotherapy training is completed at a postgraduate level, often at a master's degree (or doctoral) level, over four years, with significant supervised practice and clinical placements. Mental health professionals that choose to specialize in psychotherapeutic work also require a program of continuing professional education after basic professional training.

A listing of the extensive professional competencies of a European psychotherapist was developed by the European Association of Psychotherapy (EAP) in 2013.

As sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. The critical importance of client confidentiality—and the limited circumstances in which it may need to be broken for the protection of clients or others—is enshrined in the regulatory psychotherapeutic organizations' codes of ethical practice. Examples of when it is typically accepted to break confidentiality include when the therapist has knowledge that a child or elder is being physically abused; when there is a direct, clear and imminent threat of serious physical harm to self or to a specific individual.

Europe

As of 2015, there are still a lot of variations between different European countries about the regulation and delivery of psychotherapy. Several countries have no regulation of the practice or no protection of the title. Some have a system of voluntary registration, with independent professional organizations, while other countries attempt to restrict the practice of psychotherapy to 'mental health professionals' (psychologists and psychiatrists) with state-certified training. The titles that are protected also vary. The European Association for Psychotherapy (EAP) established the 1990 Strasbourg Declaration on Psychotherapy, which is dedicated to establishing an independent profession of psychotherapy in Europe, with pan-European standards. The EAP has already made significant contacts with the European Union & European Commission towards this end.

Given that the European Union has a primary policy about the free movement of labor within Europe, European legislation can overrule national regulations that are, in essence, forms of restrictive practices.

In Germany, the practice of psychotherapy for adults is restricted to qualified psychologists and physicians (including psychiatrists) who have completed several years of specialist practical training and certification in psychotherapy. As psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy meet the requirements of German health insurance companies, mental health professionals regularly opt for one of these three specializations in their postgraduate training. For psychologists, this includes three years of full-time practical training (4,200 hours), encompassing a year-long internship at an accredited psychiatric institution, six months of clinical work at an outpatient facility, 600 hours of supervised psychotherapy in an outpatient setting, and at least 600 hours of theoretical seminars. Social workers may complete the specialist training for child and teenage clients. Similarly in Italy, the practice of psychotherapy is restricted to graduates in psychology or medicine who have completed four years of recognised specialist training. Sweden has a similar restriction on the title "psychotherapist", which may only be used by professionals who have gone through a post-graduate training in psychotherapy and then applied for a licence, issued by the National Board of Health and Welfare.

Legislation in France restricts the use of the title "psychotherapist" to professionals on the National Register of Psychotherapists, which requires a training in clinical psychopathology and a period of internship which is only open to physicians or titulars of a master's degree in psychology or psychoanalysis.

Austria and Switzerland (2011) have laws that recognize multi-disciplinary functional approaches.

In the United Kingdom, the government and Health and Care Professions Council considered mandatory legal registration but decided that it was best left to professional bodies to regulate themselves, so the Professional Standards Authority for Health and Social Care (PSA) launched an Accredited Voluntary Registers scheme. Counseling and psychotherapy are not protected titles in the United Kingdom. Counsellors and psychotherapists who have trained and qualify to a certain standard (usually a level 4 Diploma) can apply to be members of the professional bodies who are listed on the PSA Accredited Registers.

United States

In some states, counselors or therapists must be licensed to use certain words and titles on self-identification or advertising. In some other states, the restrictions on practice are more closely associated with the charging of fees. Licensing and regulation are performed by various states. Presentation of practice as licensed, but without such a license, is generally illegal. Without a license, for example, a practitioner cannot bill insurance companies. Information about state licensure of psychologists is provided by the American Psychological Association.

In addition to state laws, the American Psychological Association requires its members to adhere to its published Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. The American Board of Professional Psychology examines and certifies "psychologists who demonstrate competence in approved specialty areas in professional psychology".

Canada

Regulation of psychotherapy is in the jurisdiction of, and varies among, the provinces and territories.

In Quebec, psychotherapy is a regulated activity which is restricted to psychologists, medical doctors, and holders of a psychotherapy permit issued by the Ordre des psychologues du Québec, the Quebec order of psychologists. Members of certain specified professions, including social workers, couple and family therapists, occupational therapists, guidance counsellors, criminologists, sexologists, psychoeducators, and registered nurses may obtain a psychotherapy permit by completing certain educational and practice requirements; their professional oversight is provided by their own professional orders. Some other professionals who were practising psychotherapy before the current system came into force continue to hold psychotherapy permits alone.

On 1 July 2019, Ontario's Missing Persons Act came into effect, with the purpose of giving police more power to investigate missing persons. It allows police to require (as opposed to permit) health professionals, including psychotherapists, to share otherwise confidential documents about their client, if there is reason to believe their client is missing. Some have expressed concern that this legislation undermines psychotherapy confidentiality and could be abused maliciously by police, while others have praised the act for how it respects privacy and includes checks and balances.

History

See also: History of psychotherapy and Timeline of psychotherapy

Psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as medics, philosophers, spiritual practitioners and people in general used psychological methods to heal others.

In the Western tradition, by the 19th century, a moral treatment movement (then meaning morale or mental) developed based on non-invasive non-restraint therapeutic methods. Another influential movement was started by Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) and his student Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur (1751–1825). Called Mesmerism or animal magnetism, it would have a strong influence on the rise of dynamic psychology and psychiatry as well as theories about hypnosis. In 1853, Walter Cooper Dendy introduced the term "psycho-therapeia" regarding how physicians might influence the mental states of patients and thus their bodily ailments, for example by creating opposing emotions to promote mental balance. Daniel Hack Tuke cited the term and wrote about "psycho-therapeutics" in 1872, in which he also proposed making a science of animal magnetism. Hippolyte Bernheim and colleagues in the "Nancy School" developed the concept of "psychotherapy" in the sense of using the mind to heal the body through hypnotism, yet further. Charles Lloyd Tuckey's 1889 work, Psycho-therapeutics, or Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion popularized the work of the Nancy School in English. Also in 1889 a clinic used the word in its title for the first time, when Frederik van Eeden and Albert Willem van Renterghem in Amsterdam renamed theirs "Clinique de Psycho-thérapeutique Suggestive" after visiting Nancy. During this time, travelling stage hypnosis became popular, and such activities added to the scientific controversies around the use of hypnosis in medicine. Also in 1892, at the second congress of experimental psychology, van Eeden attempted to take the credit for the term psychotherapy and to distance the term from hypnosis. In 1896, the German journal Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Suggestionstherapie, Suggestionslehre und verwandte psychologische Forschungen changed its name to Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Psychotherapie sowie andere psychophysiologische und psychopathologische Forschungen, which is probably the first journal to use the term. Thus psychotherapy initially meant "the treatment of disease by psychic or hypnotic influence, or by suggestion".

Freud, seated left of picture with Jung seated at the right of the picture. 1909

Sigmund Freud visited the Nancy School and his early neurological practice involved the use of hypnotism. However following the work of his mentor Josef Breuer—in particular a case where symptoms appeared partially resolved by what the patient, Bertha Pappenheim, dubbed a "talking cure"—Freud began focusing on conditions that appeared to have psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. He went on to develop techniques such as free association, dream interpretation, transference and analysis of the id, ego and superego. His popular reputation as the father of psychotherapy was established by his use of the distinct term "psychoanalysis", tied to an overarching system of theories and methods, and by the effective work of his followers in rewriting history. Many theorists, including Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein and Heinz Kohut, built upon Freud's fundamental ideas and often developed their own systems of psychotherapy. These were all later categorized as psychodynamic, meaning anything that involved the psyche's conscious/unconscious influence on external relationships and the self. Sessions tended to number into the hundreds over several years.

Behaviorism developed in the 1920s, and behavior modification as a therapy became popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable contributors were Joseph Wolpe in South Africa, M.B. Shapiro and Hans Eysenck in Britain, and John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner in the United States. Behavioral therapy approaches relied on principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning theory to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. The approach became commonly used for phobias, as well as other disorders.

Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of existential philosophy. Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field (e.g., Irvin Yalom, Rollo May) and Europe (Viktor Frankl, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, R.D.Laing, Emmy van Deurzen) attempted to create therapies sensitive to common "life crises" springing from the essential bleakness of human self-awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers (e.g., Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Friedrich Nietzsche). The uniqueness of the patient-therapist relationship thus also forms a vehicle for therapeutic inquiry. A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with Carl Rogers. Based also on the works of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of human needs, Rogers brought person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus. The primary requirement was that the client receive three core "conditions" from his counselor or therapist: unconditional positive regard, sometimes described as "prizing" the client's humanity; congruence [authenticity/genuineness/transparency]; and empathic understanding. This type of interaction was thought to enable clients to fully experience and express themselves, and thus develop according to their innate potential. Others developed the approach, like Fritz and Laura Perls in the creation of Gestalt therapy, as well as Marshall Rosenberg, founder of Nonviolent Communication, and Eric Berne, founder of transactional analysis. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as humanistic psychotherapy today. Self-help groups and books became widespread.

During the 1950s, Albert Ellis originated rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Independently a few years later, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed a form of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy. Both of these included relatively short, structured and present-focused techniques aimed at identifying and changing a person's beliefs, appraisals and reaction-patterns, by contrast with the more long-lasting insight-based approach of psychodynamic or humanistic therapies. Beck's approach used primarily the socratic method, and links have been drawn between ancient stoic philosophy and these cognitive therapies.

Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were increasingly combined and grouped under the umbrella term cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the 1970s. Many approaches within CBT are oriented towards active/directive yet collaborative empiricism (a form of reality-testing), and assessing and modifying core beliefs and dysfunctional schemas. These approaches gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders. A "third wave" of cognitive and behavioral therapies developed, including acceptance and commitment therapy and dialectical behavior therapy, which expanded the concepts to other disorders and/or added novel components and mindfulness exercises. However the "third wave" concept has been criticized as not essentially different from other therapies and having roots in earlier ones as well. Counseling methods developed include solution-focused therapy and systemic coaching.

Postmodern psychotherapies such as narrative therapy and coherence therapy do not impose definitions of mental health and illness, but rather see the goal of therapy as something constructed by the client and therapist in a social context. Systemic therapy also developed, which focuses on family and group dynamics—and transpersonal psychology, which focuses on the spiritual facet of human experience. Other orientations developed in the last three decades include feminist therapy, brief therapy, somatic psychology, expressive therapy, applied positive psychology and the human givens approach. A survey of over 2,500 US therapists in 2006 revealed the most utilized models of therapy and the ten most influential therapists of the previous quarter-century.

Types

See also: List of psychotherapies

There are hundreds of psychotherapy approaches or schools of thought. By 1980 there were more than 250; by 1996 more than 450; and at the start of the 21st century there were over a thousand different named psychotherapies—some being minor variations while others are based on very different conceptions of psychology, ethics (how to live) or technique. In practice therapy is often not of one pure type but draws from a number of perspectives and schools—known as an integrative or eclectic approach. The importance of the therapeutic relationship, also known as therapeutic alliance, between client and therapist is often regarded as crucial to psychotherapy. Common factors theory addresses this and other core aspects thought to be responsible for effective psychotherapy.Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), a Viennese neurologist who studied with Jean-Martin Charcot in 1885, is often considered the father of modern psychotherapy. His methods included analyzing his patient's dreams in search of important hidden insights into their unconscious minds. Other major elements of his methods, which changed throughout the years, included identification of childhood sexuality, the role of anxiety as a manifestation of inner conflict, the differentiation of parts of the psyche (id, ego, superego), transference and countertransference (the patient's projections onto the therapist, and the therapist's emotional responses to that). Some of his concepts were too broad to be amenable to empirical testing and invalidation, and he was critiqued for this by Jaspers. Numerous major figures elaborated and refined Freud's therapeutic techniques including Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott, and others. Since the 1960s, however, the use of Freudian-based analysis for the treatment of mental disorders has declined substantially. Different types of psychotherapy have been created along with the advent of clinical trials to test them scientifically. These incorporate subjective treatments (after Beck), behavioral treatments (after Skinner and Wolpe) and additional time-constrained and centered structures, for example, interpersonal psychotherapy. In youth issue and in schizophrenia, the systems of family treatment hold esteem. A portion of the thoughts emerging from therapy are presently pervasive and some are a piece of the tool set of ordinary clinical practice. They are not just medications, they additionally help to understand complex conduct.

Therapy may address specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in managing or maintaining interpersonal relationships or meeting personal goals. A course of therapy may happen before, during or after pharmacotherapy (e.g. taking psychiatric medication).

Psychotherapies are categorized in several different ways. A distinction can be made between those based on a medical model and those based on a humanistic model. In the medical model, the client is seen as unwell and the therapist employs their skill to help the client back to health. The extensive use of the DSM-IV, the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders in the United States is an example of a medically exclusive model. The humanistic or non-medical model in contrast strives to depathologise the human condition. The therapist attempts to create a relational environment conducive to experiential learning and help build the client's confidence in their own natural process resulting in a deeper understanding of themselves. The therapist may see themselves as a facilitator/helper.

Another distinction is between individual one-to-one therapy sessions, and group psychotherapy, including couples therapy and family therapy.

Therapies are sometimes classified according to their duration; a small number of sessions over a few weeks or months may be classified as brief therapy (or short-term therapy), others, where regular sessions take place for years, may be classified as long-term.

Some practitioners distinguish between more "uncovering" (or "depth") approaches and more "supportive" psychotherapy. Uncovering psychotherapy emphasizes facilitating the client's insight into the roots of their difficulties. The best-known example is classical psychoanalysis. Supportive psychotherapy by contrast stresses strengthening the client's coping mechanisms and often providing encouragement and advice, as well as reality-testing and limit-setting where necessary. Depending on the client's issues and situation, a more supportive or more uncovering approach may be optimal.

Humanistic

Main article: Humanistic psychology

These psychotherapies, also known as "experiential", are based on humanistic psychology and emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, being dubbed the "third force". They are primarily concerned with the human development and needs of the individual, with an emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some posit an inherent human capacity to maximize potential, "the self-actualizing tendency"; the task of therapy is to create a relational environment where this tendency might flourish. Humanistic psychology can, in turn, be rooted in existentialism—the belief that human beings can only find meaning by creating it. This is the goal of existential therapy. Existential therapy is in turn philosophically associated with phenomenology.

Person-centered therapy, also known as client-centered, focuses on the therapist showing openness, empathy and "unconditional positive regard", to help clients express and develop their own self.

Humanistic Psychodrama (HPD) is based on the human image of humanistic psychology. So all rules and methods follow the axioms of humanistic psychology. The HPD sees itself as development-oriented psychotherapy and has completely moved away from the psychoanalytic catharsis theory.Self-awareness and self-realization are essential aspects in the therapeutic process. Subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts and one's own experiences are the starting point for a change or reorientation in experience and behavior in the direction of more self-acceptance and satisfaction. Dealing with the biography of the individual is closely related to the sociometry of the group.

Gestalt therapy, originally called "concentration therapy", is an existential/experiential form that facilitates awareness in the various contexts of life, by moving from talking about relatively remote situations to action and direct current experience. Derived from various influences, including an overhaul of psychoanalysis, it stands on top of essentially four load-bearing theoretical walls: phenomenological method, dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom.

A briefer form of humanistic therapy is the human givens approach, introduced in 1998–99. It is a solution-focused intervention based on identifying emotional needs—such as for security, autonomy and social connection—and using various educational and psychological methods to help people meet those needs more fully or appropriately.

Insight-oriented

Main article: Insight-oriented psychotherapy

Insight-oriented psychotherapies focus on revealing or interpreting unconscious processes. Most commonly referring to psychodynamic therapy, of which psychoanalysis is the oldest and most intensive form, these applications of depth psychology encourage the verbalization of all the patient's thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the nature of the past and present unconscious conflicts which are causing the patient's symptoms and character problems.

There are six main schools of psychoanalysis, which all influenced psychodynamic theory: Freudian, ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology, interpersonal psychoanalysis, and relational psychoanalysis. Techniques for analytic group therapy have also developed.

Cognitive-behavioral

Main article: Cognitive behavioral therapy

Behavior therapies use behavioral techniques, including applied behavior analysis (also known as behavior modification), to change maladaptive patterns of behavior to improve emotional responses, cognitions, and interactions with others. Functional analytic psychotherapy is one form of this approach. By nature, behavioral therapies are empirical (data-driven), contextual (focused on the environment and context), functional (interested in the effect or consequence a behavior ultimately has), probabilistic (viewing behavior as statistically predictable), monistic (rejecting mind-body dualism and treating the person as a unit), and relational (analyzing bidirectional interactions).

Cognitive therapy focuses directly on changing the thoughts, in order to improve the emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy attempts to combine the above two approaches, focused on the construction and reconstruction of people's cognitions, emotions and behaviors. Generally in CBT, the therapist, through a wide array of modalities, helps clients assess, recognize and deal with problematic and dysfunctional ways of thinking, emoting and behaving.

The concept of "third wave" psychotherapies reflects an influence of Eastern philosophy in clinical psychology, incorporating principles such as meditation into interventions such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder.

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a relatively brief form of psychotherapy (deriving from both CBT and psychodynamic approaches) that has been increasingly studied and endorsed by guidelines for some conditions. It focuses on the links between mood and social circumstances, helping to build social skills and social support. It aims to foster adaptation to current interpersonal roles and situations.

Exposure and response prevention (ERP) is primarily deployed by therapists in the treatment of OCD. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) state that CBT drawing primarily on behavioral techniques (such as ERP) has the "strongest evidence base" among psychosocial interventions. By confronting feared scenarios (i.e., exposure) and refraining from performing rituals (i.e., responsive prevention), patients may gradually feel less distress in confronting feared stimuli, while also feeling less inclination to use rituals to relieve that distress. Typically, ERP is delivered in "hierarchical fashion", meaning patients confront increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli as they progress through a course of treatment.

Other types include reality therapy/choice theory, multimodal therapy, and therapies for specific disorders including PTSD therapies such as cognitive processing therapy, substance abuse therapies such as relapse prevention and contingency management; and co-occurring disorders therapies such as Seeking Safety.

Systemic

Main article: Systemic therapy

Group therapy, Ukraine

Systemic therapy seeks to address people not just individually, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics (includes family therapy and marriage counseling). Community psychology is a type of systemic psychology.

The term group therapy was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the US, such as Paul Schilder, who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. The power of groups was most influentially demonstrated in Britain during the Second World War, when several psychoanalysts and psychiatrists proved the value of group methods for officer selection in the War Office Selection Boards. A chance to run an Army psychiatric unit on group lines was then given to several of these pioneers, notably Wilfred Bion and Rickman, followed by S. H. Foulkes, Main, and Bridger. The Northfield Hospital in Birmingham gave its name to what came to be called the two "Northfield Experiments", which provided the impetus for the development since the war of both social therapy, that is, the therapeutic community movement, and the use of small groups for the treatment of neurotic and personality disorders. Today group therapy is used in clinical settings and in private practice settings.

Expressive

Main article: Expressive therapy

Expressive psychotherapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression (via improvisational, compositional, re-creative, and receptive experiences) as its core means of treating clients. Expressive psychotherapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities dance therapy, drama therapy, art therapy, music therapy, writing therapy, among others. This may include techniques such as affect labeling. Expressive psychotherapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.

Postmodernist

Also known as post-structuralist or constructivist. Narrative therapy gives attention to each person's "dominant story" through therapeutic conversations, which also may involve exploring unhelpful ideas and how they came to prominence. Possible social and cultural influences may be explored if the client deems it helpful. Coherence therapy posits multiple levels of mental constructs that create symptoms as a way to strive for self-protection or self-realization. Feminist therapy does not accept that there is one single or correct way of looking at reality and therefore is considered a postmodernist approach.

Other

Transpersonal psychology addresses the client in the context of a spiritual understanding of consciousness. Positive psychotherapy (PPT) (since 1968) is a method in the field of humanistic and psychodynamic psychotherapy and is based on a positive image of humans, with a health-promoting, resource-oriented and conflict-centered approach.

Hypnotherapy is undertaken while a subject is in a state of hypnosis. Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including: dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development.

Psychedelic therapy are therapeutic practices involving psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, psilocybin, DMT, and MDMA. In psychedelic therapy, in contrast to conventional psychiatric medication taken by the patient regularly or as needed, patients generally remain in an extended psychotherapy session during the acute psychedelic activity with additional sessions both before and after in order to help integrate experiences with the psychedelics. Psychedelic therapy has been compared with the shamanic healing rituals of indigenous people. Researchers identified two main differences: the first is the shamanic belief that multiple realities exist and can be explored through altered states of consciousness, and second the belief that spirits encountered in dreams and visions are real. The charitable initiative Founders Pledge has written a research report on cost-effective giving opportunities for funding psychedelic-assisted mental health treatments.

Body psychotherapy, part of the field of somatic psychology, focuses on the link between the mind and the body and tries to access deeper levels of the psyche through greater awareness of the physical body and emotions. There are various body-oriented approaches, such as Reichian (Wilhelm Reich) character-analytic vegetotherapy and orgonomy; neo-Reichian bioenergetic analysis; somatic experiencing; integrative body psychotherapy; Ron Kurtz's Hakomi psychotherapy; sensorimotor psychotherapy; Biosynthesis psychotherapy; and Biodynamic psychotherapy. These approaches are not to be confused with body work or body-therapies that seek to improve primarily physical health through direct work (touch and manipulation) on the body, rather than through directly psychological methods.

Some non-Western indigenous therapies have been developed. In African countries this includes harmony restoration therapy, meseron therapy and systemic therapies based on the Ubuntu philosophy.

Integrative psychotherapy is an attempt to combine ideas and strategies from more than one theoretical approach. These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include multimodal therapy, the transtheoretical model, cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, cognitive analytic therapy, internal family systems model, multitheoretical psychotherapy and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time.

Child

Main article: Child psychotherapy

Psychotherapy needs to be adapted to meet the developmental needs of children. Depending on age, it is generally held to be one part of an effective strategy to help the needs of a child within the family setting. Child psychotherapy training programs necessarily include courses in human development. Since children often do not have the ability to articulate thoughts and feelings, psychotherapists will use a variety of media such as musical instruments, sand and toys, crayons, paint, clay, puppets, bibliocounseling (books), or board games. The use of play therapy is often rooted in psychodynamic theory, but other approaches also exist.

In addition to therapy for the child, sometimes instead of it, children may benefit if their parents work with a therapist, take parenting classes, attend grief counseling, or take other action to resolve stressful situations that affect the child. Parent management training is a highly effective form of psychotherapy that teaches parenting skills to reduce their child's behavior problems.

In many cases a different psychotherapist will work with the care taker of the child, while a colleague works with the child. Therefore, contemporary thinking on working with the younger age group has leaned towards working with parent and child simultaneously, as well as individually as needed.

Computer-supported

See also: Online counseling and Use of technology in treatment of mental disorders

Research on computer-supported and computer-based interventions has increased significantly over the course of the last two decades. The following applications frequently have been investigated:

• Virtual reality: VR is a computer-generated scenario that simulates experience. The immersive environment, used for simulated exposure, can be similar to the real world or it can be fantastical, creating a new experience.
• Computer-based interventions (or online interventions or internet interventions): These interventions can be described as interactive self-help. They usually entail a combination of text, audio or video elements.
• Computer-supported therapy (or blended therapy): Classical psychotherapy is supported by means of online or software application elements. The feasibility of such interventions has been investigated for individual and group therapy.

Telepsychotherapy

This section is an excerpt from Telepsychiatry.[edit]

Telemental health session

Telepsychiatry or telemental health refers to the use of telecommunications technology (mostly videoconferencing and phone calls) to deliver psychiatric care remotely for people with mental health conditions. It is a branch of telemedicine.

Telepsychiatry can be effective in treating people with mental health conditions. In the short-term it can be as acceptable and effective as face-to-face care.

It can improve access to mental health services for some but might also represent a barrier for those lacking access to a suitable device, the internet or the necessary digital skills. Factors such as poverty that are associated with lack of internet access are also associated with greater risk of mental health problems, making digital exclusion an important problem of telemental health services.

During the COVID-19 pandemic mental health services were adapted to telemental health in high-income countries. It proved effective and acceptable for use in an emergency situation but there were concerns regarding its long-term implementation.

Effects

Оценка

Существуют серьезные разногласия по поводу того, когда и когда эффективность психотерапии лучше всего оценивать с помощью рандомизированных контролируемых исследований или более индивидуализированных идиографических методов.

Одна из проблем с испытаниями заключается в том, что использовать в качестве группы, получающей плацебо, не получающей лечения или контрольной группы, . Часто в эту группу входят пациенты, находящиеся в списке ожидания, или те, кто получает какой-либо регулярный неспецифический контакт или поддержку. Исследователи должны подумать, как лучше всего сочетать использование инертных таблеток или имитаций лечения в плацебо-контролируемых исследованиях в фармацевтических исследованиях. Остаются несколько интерпретаций, различные предположения и формулировки. Другой проблемой является попытка стандартизировать и мануализировать методы лечения и связать их с конкретными симптомами диагностических категорий, что сделает их более доступными для исследований. Некоторые сообщают, что это может снизить эффективность или замалчивать индивидуальные потребности. По мнению Фонаги и Рота, преимущества научно обоснованного подхода перевешивают трудности.

Существует несколько формальных рамок оценки того, подходит ли психотерапевт пациенту. Одним из примеров является Психотерапевтическая самооценка Скарсдейла (SPSE). Однако некоторые шкалы, такие как SPS, позволяют выявить информацию, специфичную только для определенных школ психотерапии (например, суперэго).

Многие психотерапевты считают, что нюансы психотерапии невозможно уловить с помощью анкетного наблюдения, и предпочитают полагаться на свой собственный клинический опыт и концептуальные аргументы в поддержку того типа лечения, который они практикуют. Психодинамические терапевты все больше верят, что подходы, основанные на фактических данных, соответствуют их методам и предположениям, и все чаще принимают на себя задачу внедрения подходов, основанных на фактических данных, в свои методы.

Пионером в исследовании результатов различных психологических методов лечения был психолог Ганс Айзенк , который утверждал, что психотерапия не приводит к улучшению состояния пациентов. Он считал, что поведенческая терапия является единственной эффективной. Однако выяснилось, что Айзенк (умерший в 1997 году) фальсифицировал данные в своих исследованиях по этому вопросу, сфабриковав данные, которые указывали бы на то, что поведенческая терапия позволяет достичь результатов, в которые невозможно поверить. В 2020 году журналы отозвали четырнадцать его статей, а журналы опубликовали 64 заявления с обеспокоенностью по поводу его публикаций. Род Бьюкенен, биограф Айзенка, утверждал, что 87 публикаций Айзенка следует отозвать.

Результаты в отношении выбранных видов лечения

Крупномасштабные международные обзоры научных исследований пришли к выводу, что психотерапия эффективна при многих заболеваниях. Метаанализ метаанализов 2022 года показал, что размеры эффекта, сообщаемые как для психотерапии, так и для фармакотерапии, по сравнению с обычным лечением или плацебо, были небольшими для большинства расстройств и методов лечения, и пришел к выводу, что необходим «сдвиг парадигмы в исследованиях». для продвижения этой области и улучшения стратегий лечения психических расстройств.

Одно направление исследований последовательно показало, что предположительно разные формы психотерапии демонстрируют одинаковую эффективность. Согласно «Справочнику по консультативной психологии» за 2008 год : «Метаанализ психотерапевтических исследований последовательно демонстрировал отсутствие существенных различий в результатах лечения». В справочнике говорится, что «мало данных свидетельствуют о том, что какой-либо метод лечения всегда превосходит любой другой при каких-либо конкретных психологических расстройствах». Иногда это называют вердиктом птицы Додо в честь сцены/раздела из «Алисы в стране чудес», где каждого участника гонки называли победителем и вручали призы.

Дальнейший анализ направлен на выявление общих факторов психотерапии, которые, по-видимому, объясняют это, известные как теория общих факторов ; например, качество терапевтических отношений, интерпретация проблемы и противостояние болезненным эмоциям.

Исследования результатов подвергались критике за то, что они слишком оторваны от реальной практики, поскольку в них используются тщательно отобранные терапевты, прошедшие тщательное обучение и наблюдение, а также пациенты, которые могут быть нерепрезентативными для типичных пациентов в силу строгих критериев включения/исключения. Подобные опасения влияют на тиражирование результатов исследований и возможность их обобщения для практикующих терапевтов.

Тем не менее, конкретные методы лечения были протестированы на предмет использования при конкретных расстройствах. и регулирующие организации как в Великобритании, так и в США дают рекомендации для различных условий.

Хельсинкское психотерапевтическое исследование было одним из нескольких крупных долгосрочных клинических испытаний психотерапии. Пациенты с тревогой и депрессией, прошедшие два краткосрочных курса лечения (ориентированный на решение и краткий психодинамический курс), улучшились быстрее, но пятилетняя долгосрочная психотерапия и психоанализ дали больший эффект. Некоторые факторы пациента и терапевта, по-видимому, предсказывают пригодность различных психотерапий.

Метаанализ установил, что когнитивно-поведенческая терапия (КПТ) и психодинамическая психотерапия одинаково эффективны при лечении депрессии.

Мета-анализ более 11 000 пациентов, проведенный в 2014 году, показывает, что межличностная психотерапия (ИПТ) сравнима по эффективности с КПТ при депрессии, но уступает последней при расстройствах пищевого поведения. Согласно метаанализу почти 4000 пациентов, проведенному в 2014 году, для детей и подростков лучшими методами являются межличностная психотерапия и КПТ.

Механизмы изменений

Пока еще не понятно, как психотерапия может добиться успеха в лечении психических заболеваний. Различные терапевтические подходы могут быть связаны с конкретными теориями о том, что необходимо изменить в человеке для успешного терапевтического результата.

процессы эмоционального возбуждения и памяти В целом издавна считалось, что играют важную роль. Одна теория, объединяющая эти аспекты, предполагает, что постоянные изменения происходят в той степени, в которой срабатывает нейропсихологический механизм реконсолидации памяти , который способен включать новые эмоциональные переживания.

Приверженность

пациента Приверженность курсу психотерапии (продолжение посещения сеансов или выполнения заданий) является серьезной проблемой.

Уровень отсева — досрочное прекращение — колеблется от 30% до 60%, отчасти в зависимости от того, как он определяется. Диапазон ниже для исследовательских учреждений по разным причинам, например, из-за отбора клиентов и способа их привлечения. Раннее прекращение в среднем связано с различными демографическими и клиническими характеристиками клиентов, терапевтов и взаимодействия с лечением. Высокий уровень отсева вызвал некоторую критику актуальности и эффективности психотерапии.

Большинство психологов используют межсессионные задания в своей общей терапевтической работе, а в когнитивно-поведенческой терапии, в частности, используют их и рассматривают их как «активный ингредиент». Неясно, как часто клиенты не выполняют их, но считается, что это широко распространенное явление.

С другой стороны, также изучалась приверженность терапевтов протоколам и методам терапии, известная как «честность лечения» или «верность», со сложными и неоднозначными результатами. Однако в целом отличительной чертой доказательной психотерапии является использование мониторинга верности в рамках испытаний результатов терапии и постоянного контроля качества при клинической реализации.

Побочные эффекты

Исследования побочных эффектов психотерапии ограничены, однако можно ожидать, что ухудшение симптомов произойдет у 3–15% пациентов, с различиями в характеристиках пациента и терапевта. Потенциальные проблемы включают ухудшение симптомов или появление новых симптомов, напряжение в других отношениях, социальную стигму и зависимость от терапии. Некоторые методы или терапевты могут нести больше рисков, чем другие, а некоторые характеристики клиентов могут сделать их более уязвимыми. Побочные эффекты правильно проведенной терапии следует отличать от вреда, вызванного халатностью.

Общие отзывы

Некоторые критики скептически относятся к целительной силе психотерапевтических отношений. Некоторые вообще отвергают психотерапию как научную дисциплину, требующую профессиональных практиков. вместо этого отдавая предпочтение непрофессиональной помощи или биомедицинское лечение. Другие указывали на то, как ценности и методы терапевтов могут быть как вредными, так и полезными для клиентов (или косвенно для других людей в жизни клиента).

Многие ресурсы, доступные человеку, испытывающему эмоциональный стресс, — дружеская поддержка друзей, сверстников, членов семьи, контактов со священнослужителями, личное чтение, здоровые упражнения, исследования и самостоятельное преодоление трудностей — все представляют значительную ценность. Критики отмечают, что люди сталкивались с кризисами, решали серьезные социальные проблемы и находили решения жизненных проблем задолго до появления психотерапии.

С другой стороны, некоторые утверждают, что психотерапия недостаточно используется и недостаточно исследована современной психиатрией, несмотря на то, что она предлагает больше перспектив, чем застой в разработке лекарств. США В 2015 году Национальный институт психического здоровья выделил лишь 5,4% своего бюджета на новые клинические испытания психотерапевтических препаратов (испытания лекарств в основном финансируются фармацевтическими компаниями ), несмотря на многочисленные доказательства того, что они могут работать и что пациенты с большей вероятностью отдадут им предпочтение.

Дальнейшая критика исходила из феминистских , конструкционистских и дискурс-аналитических источников. Ключевым моментом в этом является вопрос власти . В этом отношении существует обеспокоенность тем, что клиентов убеждают – как внутри, так и за пределами консультационного кабинета – понимать себя и свои трудности способами, которые согласуются с терапевтическими идеями. Это означает, что альтернативные идеи (например, феминистские, экономический, духовный ) иногда неявно подрываются. Критики предполагают, что мы идеализируем ситуацию, когда думаем о терапии только как о помогающих отношениях, вместо этого утверждая, что это по сути политическая практика, в которой одни культурные идеи и практики поддерживаются, в то время как другие подрываются или дисквалифицируются, и что, хотя это редко Предполагается, что отношения терапевта и клиента всегда участвуют в отношениях власти и политической динамике общества. Известным ученым, поддержавшим эту критику, был Мишель Фуко .

См. также

• Улучшение доступа к психологической терапии — инициатива Соединенного Королевства по улучшению доступа к психологической терапии. Страницы, отображающие описания из Викиданных в качестве запасного варианта.
• Список журналов по психотерапии
• Физиотерапия - профессия, которая помогает инвалиду функционировать в повседневной жизни.
• Психосоматическая медицина - междисциплинарная область медицины, изучающая различные влияния на процессы в организме.

Дальнейшее чтение

• Бартлетт, Стивен Дж. (1987). Когда вы не знаете, куда обратиться: Руководство по консультированию и терапии для самодиагностики . Современные книги. ISBN  9780809248292 .
• Блох, Сидни (2006). Введение в психотерапию (4-е изд.). Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  0198520921 .
• Картер, Роберт Т., изд. (2005). Справочник по расово-культурной психологии и консультированию . OCLC   54905669 . Два тома.
• Кори, Джеральд (2015). Теория и практика консультирования и психотерапии (10-е изд.). Cengage Обучение. ISBN  9781305263727 .
• Козолино, Луи (2017). Нейронаука психотерапии: исцеление социального мозга (3-е изд.). Национальные географические книги. ISBN  9780393712643 .
• ДеБорд, Курт А.; Фишер, Энн Р.; Бишке, Кэтлин Дж.; Перес, Руперто М., ред. (2017). Справочник по сексуальной ориентации и гендерному разнообразию в консультировании и психотерапии . Американская психологическая ассоциация. ISBN  9781433823060 .
• Фоски, Ренато; Иннаморати, Марко (2023). Критическая история психотерапии . Рутледж, Тейлор и Фрэнсис. ISBN  9781032364025 . Два тома.
• Хофманн, Стефан Г., изд. (2017). Международные перспективы психотерапии . Спрингер. ISBN  9783319561936 .
• Джонгсма, Артур Э.; Петерсон, Л. Марк; Брюс, Тимоти Дж. (2021). Полный план лечения психотерапией для взрослых (6-е изд.). Джон Уайли и сыновья. ISBN  978-1118067864 .
• Маколифф, Гаррет Дж., изд. (2021). Культурно-ориентированное консультирование: всестороннее введение (3-е изд.). Публикации SAGE. ISBN  9781483378213 .
• Прочаска, Джеймс О.; Норкросс, Джон К. (2018). Системы психотерапии: транстеоретический анализ (9-е изд.). Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  9780190880415 .
• Растоги, Мудита; Вилинг, Элизабет, ред. (2005). Цветные голоса: рассказы терапевтов из числа этнических меньшинств от первого лица . ISBN  0761928901 .
• Славни, Филипп Р. (2005). Психотерапия: введение для ординаторов психиатрии и других стажеров в области психического здоровья . Джу Пресс. ISBN  0801880963 .
• Уомполд, Брюс Э. (2019). Основы психотерапии: введение в теорию и практику (2-е изд.). Американская психологическая ассоциация. ISBN  9781433830198 .