First Indochina War
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The First Indochina War (generally known as the Indochina War in France, and as the Anti-French Resistance War in Vietnam, and alternatively internationally as the French-Indochina War) was fought between France and Việt Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam), and their respective allies, from 19 December 1946 until 20 July 1954.[23] Việt Minh was led by Võ Nguyên Giáp and Hồ Chí Minh.[24][25] Most of the fighting took place in Tonkin in Northern Vietnam, although the conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.
At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the allied Combined Chiefs of Staff decided that Indochina south of latitude 16° north was to be included in the Southeast Asia Command under British Admiral Mountbatten. On V-J Day, September 2, Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed in Hanoi (Tonkin's capital) the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). In late September 1945, Chinese forces entered Tonkin, and Japanese forces to the north of that line surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. At the same time, British forces landed in Saigon (Cochinchina's capital), and Japanese forces in the south surrendered to the British. The Chinese accepted the DRV under Hồ Chí Minh, then in power in Hanoi. The British refused to do likewise in Saigon, and deferred to the French, despite the previous support of the Việt Minh by American OSS representatives. The DRV ruled as the only civil government in all of Vietnam for a period of about 20 days, after the abdication of Emperor Bảo Đại, who had governed under the Japanese rule. On 23 September 1945, with the knowledge of the British commander in Saigon, French forces overthrew the local DRV government, and declared French authority restored in Cochinchina. Guerrilla warfare began around Saigon immediately,[26] but the French gradually retook control of Indochina. Hồ Chí Minh agreed to talk with France but negotiations failed. After one year of low-level conflict, all-out war broke out in December 1946 between French and Việt Minh forces as Hồ Chí Minh and his government went underground. The French tried to stabilize Indochina by reorganizing it as a Federation of Associated States. In 1949, they put former Emperor Bảo Đại back in power, as the ruler of a newly established State of Vietnam.
The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against the French. By 1949 the conflict had turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons, with the French supplied by the United States, and the Việt Minh supplied by the Soviet Union and a newly communist China.[27] French Union forces included colonial troops from the empire – North Africans; Laotian, Cambodian and Vietnamese ethnic minorities; Sub-Saharan Africans – and professional French troops, European volunteers, and units of the Foreign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming more unpopular at home. It was called the "dirty war" (la sale guerre) by leftists in France.[28]
The French strategy of inducing the Việt Minh to attack well-defended bases in remote areas at the end of their logistical trails was validated during the Battle of Nà Sản. French efforts were hampered by the limited usefulness of tanks in a forested environment, the lack of a strong air force, and reliance on soldiers from French colonies. The Việt Minh used novel and efficient tactics, including direct artillery fire, convoy ambushes, and anti-aircraft weaponry to impede land and air resupplies together with a strategy based on recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by large popular support. They used guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction translated from early Chinese text, and used war materiel provided by the Soviet Union. This combination proved fatal for the French bases, culminating in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ.[29]
An estimated 400,000 to 842,707 soldiers died during the war[18][13] as well as between 125,000 and 400,000 civilians.[13][22] Both sides committed war crimes during the conflict, including killings of civilians (such as the Mỹ Trạch massacre by French troops), rape and torture.[30] At the International Geneva Conference on 21 July 1954, the new socialist French government and the Việt Minh made an agreement which gave the Việt Minh control of North Vietnam above the 17th parallel, an agreement that was rejected by the State of Vietnam and the United States. A year later, Bảo Đại would be deposed by his prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, creating the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). Soon an insurgency, backed by the communist north, developed against Diệm's anti-communist government. This conflict, known as the Vietnam War, included large U.S. military intervention in support of the South Vietnamese and ended in 1975 with the defeat of South Vietnam to the North Vietnamese and the reunification of Vietnam.
Background
[edit] | This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2012) |
Vietnam was absorbed into French Indochina in stages between 1858 and 1887. Vietnamese nationalism grew until World War II, providing a break in French control. Early Vietnamese resistance centered on the intellectual Phan Bội Châu. Châu looked to Japan, which had modernized and was one of the few Asian nations to successfully resist European colonization. With Prince Cường Để, Châu started the two organizations in Japan, the Duy Tân hội (Modernistic Association) and Vietnam Cong Hien Hoi.
Due to French pressure, Japan deported Phan Bội Châu to China. Witnessing Sun Yat-sen's Xinhai Revolution, Châu was inspired to commence the Viet Nam Quang Phục Hội movement in Guangzhou. From 1914 to 1917, he was imprisoned by Yuan Shikai's counterrevolutionary government. In 1925, he was captured by French agents in Shanghai and spirited to Vietnam. Due to his popularity, Châu was spared from execution and placed under house arrest until his death in 1940.
In September 1940, shortly before Phan Bội Châu's death, the Empire of Japan launched its invasion of French Indochina, mirroring its ally Germany's conquest of metropolitan France. Keeping the French colonial administration, the Japanese ruled from behind the scenes in a parallel of Vichy France. As far as Vietnamese nationalists were concerned, this was a double-puppet government. Emperor Bảo Đại collaborated with the Japanese, just as he had with the French, ensuring his lifestyle could continue.
From October 1940 to May 1941, during the Franco-Thai War, the Vichy French in Indochina defended their colony in a border conflict in which the forces of Thailand invaded while the Japanese sat on the sidelines. Thai military successes were limited to the Cambodian border area, and in January 1941 Vichy France's modern naval forces soundly defeated the inferior Thai naval forces in the Battle of Ko Chang. The war ended in May, with the French agreeing to minor territorial revisions which restored formerly Thai areas to Thailand.
Hồ Chí Minh, upon his return to Vietnam in 1941, formed the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (League for the Independence of Vietnam), better known as the Việt Minh. Despite his communist background, he founded the Việt Minh as an umbrella organization, seeking to appeal to a broader base by emphasizing national liberation instead of class struggle.[31][32]
In March 1945, Japan launched the Second French Indochina Campaign to oust the Vichy French and formally installed Emperor Bảo Đại as head of the nominally "independent" Vietnam. The Japanese arrested and imprisoned most of the French officials and military officers remaining in the country.
In Hanoi on 15–20 April 1945 the Tonkin Revolutionary Military Conference of the Việt Minh issued a resolution that was reprinted on pages 1–4 on 25 August 1970 in the Nhân Dân journal. It called for a general uprising, resistance and guerrilla warfare against the Japanese by establishing 7 war zones across Vietnam named after past heroes of Vietnam, calling for propaganda to explain to the people that their only way forward was violent resistance against the Japanese and exposing the Vietnamese puppet government that served them. The conference also called for training propagandists and having women spread military propaganda and target Japanese soldiers with Chinese language leaflets and Japanese language propaganda. The Việt Minh's Vietnamese Liberation Army published the "Resistance against Japan" (Khang Nhat) newspaper. They also called for the creation of a group called "Chinese and Vietnamese Allied against Japan" by sending leaflets to recruit overseas Chinese in Vietnam to their cause. The resolution called on forcing French in Vietnam to recognize Vietnamese independence and for the DeGaulle France (Allied French) to recognize their independence and cooperate with them against Japan.[33][34]
In an article from August 1945, republished on 17 August 1970, the North Vietnamese National Assembly Chairman Truong Chinh, denounced the Japanese claims to have liberated Vietnam from France with the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere announced by Hideki Tojo, saying that the Japanese wanted to plunder Asians for their own market and take it from the United States and the United Kingdom and were imperialists with no intent on liberating Vietnam, also accusing the Japanese of applying the Three Alls policy (San Kuang) and described atrocities like looting, slaughter and rape against the people of north Vietnam in 1945. According to Truong the Japanese also tried to pit different ethnic and political groups within Indochina against each other and attempted to infiltrate the Viet Minh.[35][36]
The Japanese forced Vietnamese women to become comfort women and with Burmese, Indonesian, Thai and Filipino women they made up a notable portion of Asian comfort women in general.[37] Japanese use of Malaysian and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] There were comfort women stations in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea.[45][46] A Korean comfort woman named Kim Ch'un-hui stayed behind in Vietnam and died there when she was 44 in 1963, owning a dairy farm, cafe, US cash and diamonds worth 200,000 US dollars.[47] 2 billion US dollars worth (1945 values) of damage, 148 million dollars of them due to destruction of industrial plants was incurred by Vietnam. 90% of heavy vehicles and motorcycles, cars and 16 tons of junks as well as railways, port installations were destroyed as well as one third of bridges.[48] Some Japanese soldiers married Vietnamese women like Nguyen Thi Xuan and[49] Nguyen Thi Thu and fathered multiple children with the Vietnamese women who remained behind in Vietnam while the Japanese soldiers themselves returned to Japan in 1955. The official Vietnamese historical narrative view them as children of rape and prostitution.[50][51]
In the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 1 to 2 million Vietnamese starved to death in the Red river delta of northern Vietnam due to the Japanese, as the Japanese seized Vietnamese rice and did not pay. In Phat Diem the Vietnamese farmer Di Ho was one of the few survivors who saw the Japanese steal grain.[52][53] The North Vietnamese government accused both France and Japan of the famine and said 1–2 million Vietnamese died.[54][55] Võ An Ninh took photographs of dead and dying Vietnamese during the great famine.[56][57][58] Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops by the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese and Vietnamese corpses were all throughout the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.[59]
Hồ Chí Minh himself, in the Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam blamed "the double yoke of the French and the Japanese" for the deaths of "more than two million" Vietnamese.[60]
On 25 March 2000, the Vietnamese journalist Trần Khuê wrote an article "Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại" where he harshly criticized ethnographers and historians in Ho Chin Minh city's Institute of Social Sciences like Đinh Văn Liên and professor Mạc Đường who tried to whitewash Japan's atrocities against the Vietnamese by portraying Japan's aid to the South Vietnamese regime against North Vietnam as humanitarian aid; portraying the Vietnam war against America as a civil war; changing the death toll of 2 million Vietnamese dead at the hands of the Japanese famine to 1 million; calling the Japanese invasion as a "presence"; and referring to Japanese fascists as simply Japanese at the Vietnam-Japan international conference. Moreover, the Presidium of international Vietnamese studies in Hanoi did not include any Vietnamese women. Khuê charged the men with changing history in exchange for only a few tens of thousands of dollars. The Vietnamese professor Văn Tạo and Japanese professor Furuta Moto both conducted a study in the field on the Japanese induced famine of 1945 admitting that Japan killed 2 million Vietnamese by starvation.[61]
American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and General Joseph Stilwell privately made it clear that France was not to reacquire French Indochina after the war was over. Roosevelt suggested that Chiang Kai-shek place Indochina under Chinese rule; Chiang Kai-shek supposedly replied: "Under no circumstances!"[62] Following Roosevelt's death in April 1945, U.S. resistance to French rule weakened.[63]
After the surrender of Japan
[edit]
An armistice was signed between Japan and the United States on August 20, 1945. The Provisional Government of the French Republic wanted to restore its colonial rule in French Indochina as the final step of the Liberation of France.
On August 22, 1945, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission to liberate Allied POWs, and were accompanied by French government official Jean Sainteny.[64] As the only force capable of maintaining law and order, Imperial Japanese Army remained in power, keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny detained.[65]
Beginning with the August Revolution, Japanese forces allowed the Việt Minh and other nationalist groups to take over public buildings and weapons without resistance. On August 25, Hồ Chí Minh persuaded Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate. In exchange, Bảo Đại was appointed "supreme advisor" to the new Việt Minh-led government in Hanoi.
On September 2, aboard USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, CEFEO Expeditionary Corps leader General Leclerc signed the armistice with Japan on behalf of France.[66] The same day, Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France. Deliberately borrowing from the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, Hồ Chí Minh proclaimed:
We hold the truth that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, among them life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.[67]
On 26 September 1945, Ho Chi Minh penned a letter calling for struggle against the reimposition of French rule, accusing them of selling out the Vietnamese to the Japanese twice in four years.[68][69][70][71]
For the most part, the Japanese Army either destroyed their military equipment or surrendered it to Allied forces. That said, some units and individual soldiers provided weapons to the Việt Minh. This reportedly included captured French equipment. [72][73] The Japanese kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender, which likewise benefited the nationalists. OSS officers met repeatedly with Hồ Chí Minh and other Việt Minh officers during this period.[74] The Việt Minh also recruited more than 600 Japanese soldiers and gave them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers.[75][76]
After the August Revolution, Truong Chinh published an article in which he claimed that after the Japanese surrendered on 15 August 1945 the Viet Minh started attacking and slaughtering Japanese and disarming them in a nationwide rebellion on 19 August, saying that the Viet Minh led a brutal, deadly campaign against the Japanese from 9 March to 19 August 1945. According to Truong, the Viet Minh had begun fighting in 1944, when the French were attacked on Dinh Ca in October and in Cao Bang and Bac Can in November. French and Japanese forces fought each other during the Japanese coup, so in Tonkin the Viet Minh began disarming French soldiers and attacking the Japanese, taking control of 6 provinces. He also said that Meo (Hmong) and Muong tribesmen also attacked the Japanese.[77][78] Although some of these claims are contested by historian David G. Marr.[79]
On September 13, 1945, a Franco-British task force landed in Java, main island of the Dutch East Indies (for which independence was being sought by Sukarno), and Saigon, capital of Cochinchina (southern part of French Indochina), both being occupied by the Japanese and ruled by Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, Commander-in-Chief of Japan's Southern Expeditionary Army Group based in Saigon.[80] Allied troops in Saigon were an airborne detachment, two British companies of the Indian 20th Infantry Division and the French 5th Colonial Infantry Regiment, with British General Sir Douglas Gracey as supreme commander. The latter proclaimed martial law on September 21. The following night the Franco-British troops took control of Saigon.[81]
Almost immediately afterward, as agreed to at the Potsdam Conference (and under Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers' "General Order no. One"[82][83]), 200,000 troops of the Chinese 1st Army occupied Indochina as far south as the 16th parallel. They had been sent by Chiang Kai-shek under General Lu Han to accept the surrender of Japanese forces occupying that area, then to supervise the disarming and repatriation of the Japanese Army. In the North, the Chinese permitted the DRV government to remain in charge of keeping the peace and the supply of rice to the occupiers.[84] Initially, the Chinese kept the French Colonial soldiers interned, with the acquiescence of the Americans.[65] The Chinese used the VNQDĐ, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and put pressure on their opponents.[85]
On October 9, 1945, General Leclerc arrived in Saigon, accompanied by French Colonel Massu's March Group (Groupement de marche). Leclerc's primary objectives were to restore public order in south Vietnam and to militarize Tonkin (north Vietnam). Secondary objectives were to wait for French backup in view to take back Chinese-occupied Hanoi, then to negotiate with the Việt Minh officials.[81]
Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Hồ Chí Minh against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender and renounce all of their concessions and ports in China, such as Shanghai, in exchange for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March 1946.[86][87][88][89] Following the Ho–Sainteny agreement, VNQDĐ forces became vulnerable due to the withdrawal of Chinese forces and were attacked by Việt Minh and French troops. The Việt Minh massacred thousands of VNQDĐ members and other nationalists in a large-scale purge.[90][91]
Chiang Kai-shek deliberately withheld his crack and well trained soldiers from occupying Vietnam, probably because he was going to use them to fight the Communists inside China, and instead sent undisciplined warlord troops from Yunnan under Lu Han to occupy Vietnam north of the 16th parallel and accept the Japanese surrender.[92][93]In total, 200,000 of General Lu Han's Chinese soldiers occupied north Vietnam starting August 1945. 90,000 arrived by October, the 62nd army came on 26 September to Nam Dinh and Haiphong, later arriving at Lang Son and Cao Bang and the Red River region and Lai Cai were occupied by a column from Yunnan. Vietnamese VNQDD fighters accompanied the Chinese soldiers. Lu Han occupied the French governor general's palace after ejecting the French staff under Sainteny.[94] While the Chinese soldiers occupied northern Indochina, the British under the South-East Asia Command of Lord Mountbatten occupied the south.[95][96]
Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh tried to organize welcome parades for the Chinese soldiers in Hanoi and Haiphong in order to appease the Chinese army, and try to reassure the Vietnamese that the warlord troops of Lu Han were only there temporarily and that China supported Vietnam's independence. Viet Minh newspapers said that the same ancestors (huyết thống) and culture were shared by Vietnamese and Chinese and that the Chinese were attacked by western imperialists, had changed in the 1911 revolution and heroically fought Japan and so it was "not the same as feudal China".[97]
Ho Chi Minh was compelled to give in to demands made by the Chinese occupation forces: Lu Han extracted a deal out of him, by which he ordered his DRV administration to set quotas for rice to give to the Chinese soldiers.[94] Rice sent to Cochinchina by the French in October 1945 was divided by Ho Chi Minh, the northern Vietnamese only received one third while the Chinese soldiers were given the remaining two thirds. For 15 days elections were postponed by Ho Chi Minh in response to a demand by Chinese general Chen Xiuhe on 18 December 1945 so that the Chinese could get the Dong Minh Hoi and VNQDD to prepare.[98]
Despite the food quotas arranged, the occupiers seized several rice stockpiles, and other private and public goods. Along with this, the Chinese soldiers staged disturbances which resulted in the death of several Vietnamese, and were also accused of raping, beatings, occupying private dwellings and burning down others. The Chinese crimes went mostly unpunished, with the occupiers issuing apologies or partial compensations. On the other hand, Vietnamese crimes against the Chinese were dutifully investigated, Ho Chi Minh even surrendered Vietnamese who attacked Chinese soldiers to be executed as punishment. And forbade his soldiers from attacking Chinese soldiers.[99]
He also called on people to contribute gold taels, jewelry and coins in September 1945, in what was called "Gold Week", mostly to purchase weapons for the Viet Minh but also to finance the Chinese occupation, Ho Chi Minh gave golden smoking paraphernalia and a golden opium pipe to the Chinese general Lu Han after this.[100][101]
Ho Chi Minh appeased and granted numerous concessions to the Chinese soldiers to avoid the possibility of them clashing with the Viet Minh, with him ordering Vietnamese not to carry out anything against Chinese soldiers and pledging his life on his promise, hoping the Chinese would disarm the Japanese soldiers and finish their mission as fast as possible.[102]
While Chiang Kai-shek, Xiao Wen (Hsiao Wen) and the Kuomintang central government of China were uninterested in occupying Vietnam beyond the allotted time period and involving itself in the war between the Viet Minh and the French, the Yunnan warlord Lu Han held the opposite view and wanted to occupy Vietnam to prevent the French from returning and establish a Chinese trusteeship of Vietnam under the principles of the Atlantic Charter with the aim of eventually preparing Vietnam for independence.[103]
Ho Chi Minh sent a cable on 17 October 1945 to American President Harry S. Truman calling on him, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Premier Joseph Stalin and Prime Minister Clement Attlee to go to the United Nations against France and demand that they not be allowed to return to occupy Vietnam, accusing France of having sold out and cheated the Allies by surrendering Indochina to Japan and that France had no right to return.[104] Ho Chi Minh dumped the blame on Dong Minh Hoi and VNDQQ for signing the agreement with France which allowed its soldiers to return to Vietnam.[105][106]
Chinese communist guerrilla leader Chu Chia-pi came into northern Vietnam multiple times in 1945 and 1948 and helped the Viet Minh fight against the French from Yunnan. Other Chinese Communists also did the same.[107]
Intra-Vietnamese factions
[edit]In addition to British support, the French also received assistance from various southern groups that modern historians consider unambiguously Vietnamese.
After the August Revolution, the armed militias from the religious Hòa Hảo sect backed by the Japanese were in direct conflict with the Viet Minh who sought to take full control of the country. This ultimately led to the assassination of their leader in April 1947.[108]
The Bình Xuyên organized crime group also sought power in the country and although initially fought alongside the Việt Minh, they would later support Bảo Đại.[109][110][111]
Militias from the Cao Đài sect, which had initially joined the Viet Minh in their struggle against the return of the French, made a truce with France when their leader was captured on 6 June 1946. The Viet Minh later attacked the Cao Đài after open conflict had erupted with France, which led them to join the French side.[112][113][114]
Vietnamese society also polarized along ethnic lines: the Nung minority assisted the French, while the Tay assisted the Việt Minh.[115]
Course of the war
[edit]War breaks out (1946)
[edit]
In March 1946, a preliminary accord signed between the French and Ho Chi Minh which acknowledged the DRV as a free state within an Indochinese Federation in a "French Union" and allowed a limited number of French troops within its borders to replace the Chinese forces which started gradually returning to China. In further negotiations, the French would seek to ratify Vietnam's position within the Union and the Vietnamese main priorities were preserving their independence and the reunification with the Republic of Cochinchina, which had been created by High Commissioner Georges d'Argenlieu in June.[116] In September, once main negotiations had broken down in Paris over these two key issues, Ho Chi Minh and Marius Moutet, the French Minister of the Colonies, signed a temporary modus vivendi which reaffirmed the March Accord, although no specifications were made on the issue of a Nam Bộ (Cochinchina) reunification referendum and negotiations for a definitive treaty were set to begin no later than January 1947.[117]
In the north, an uneasy peace had been maintained during the negotiations, in November however, fighting broke out in Haiphong between the Việt Minh government and the French over a conflict of interest in import duty at the port.[118] On November 23, 1946, the French fleet bombarded the Vietnamese sections of the city killing 6,000 Vietnamese civilians in one afternoon.[119][120][121] The Việt Minh quickly agreed to a cease-fire and left the cities. This is known as the Haiphong incident.
There was never any intention among the Vietnamese to give up, as General Võ Nguyên Giáp soon brought up 30,000 men to attack the city. Although the French were outnumbered, their superior weaponry and naval support made any Việt Minh attack unsuccessful. In 19 December, hostilities between the Việt Minh and the French broke out in Hanoi, and Hồ Chí Minh, along with his government, was forced to evacuate the capital in favor of remote forested and mountainous areas. Guerrilla warfare ensued, with the French controlling most of the country except far-flung areas. By January the following year, most provincial capitals had fallen to the French, while Hue fell in February after a six-week siege.[122]
French offensives, creation of the State of Vietnam (1947–1949)
[edit]In 1947, Hồ Chí Minh and General Võ Nguyên Giáp retreated with his command into the Việt Bắc, the mountainous jungles of northern Vietnam. By March, France had taken control of the main population centers in the country. The French chose not to pursue the Việt Minh before the beginning of the seasonal rains in May, and military operations were postponed until their conclusion.[123]
Come October, the French launched Operation Léa with the objective of swiftly putting an end to the resistance movement by taking out the Vietnamese main battle units and the Việt Minh leadership at their base in Bắc Kạn. Léa was followed by Operation Ceinture in November, with similar aims. As a result of the French offensive, the Việt Minh would end up losing valuable resources and suffering heavy losses, 7,200–9,500 KIA. Nevertheless, both operations failed to capture Hồ Chí Minh and his key lieutenants as intended, and the main Vietnamese battle units managed to survive.[124][125]
In 1948, France started looking for means of opposing the Việt Minh politically, with an alternative government led by former emperor Bảo Đại to lead an "autonomous" government within the French Union of nations. This new state ruled over northern and central Vietnam, excluding the colony of Cochinchina, and had limited autonomy. This initial accord with the French was decried by non-Communist nationalists and Bảo Đại withdrew from the agreement. It would not be until March 1949 that the French would concede on the issue of unification and a final agreement would be reached.[126][127]
Two years prior, the French had refused Ho's proposal of a similar status within the French Union, albeit with some restrictions on French power and the latter's eventual withdrawal from Vietnam.[128] However, they were willing to deal with Bảo Đại as he represented a non-radical option who could rally behind him the non-Communist nationalist movement.[129]
In January 1950, France officially recognized the nominal "independence" of the unified State of Vietnam, led by Bảo Đại, as an associated state within the French Union. However, France still controlled all foreign policy, every defense issue and would have a French Union army stationed in the country with complete freedom of movement.[130] Within the framework of the French Union, France also granted independence to the other nations in Indochina, the Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia.
In January 1949, the Vietnamese National Army was created to go along the formation of the new Vietnamese associated state. This was meant to bolster French numbers as their army found itself outnumbered by the People's Army of Vietnam at this point in the war. To this end, the CEFEO provided some of its officers to lead these new divisions.[131]
Việt Minh reorganization (1949–1950)
[edit]
Throughout 1948 and 1949, the Việt Minh engaged in ambushes and sabotage of French convoys and infrastructure. Meanwhile, the French government was still looking for a political solution and major military operations stalled for a lack of manpower.[132][133]
With the triumph of the communists in China's civil war in October 1949, the Vietnamese communists gained a major political ally on their northern border, who supported them with advisers, weapons and supplies along with camps where new recruits were trained. Between 1950 and 1951, Giap re-organized his local forces into five full conventional infantry divisions, the 304th, 308th, 312th, 316th and the 320th.[134]
In January 1950, Ho's government gained recognition from China and the Soviet Union. Shortly after in March, the government of Bảo Đại gained recognition by the United States and the United Kingdom. Along with Mao Zedong's victory in China, this gesture by the main Communist powers, played a part in shifting the US view of the war, which began to be seen as part of the global struggle against Communism.[135] Starting in May, the United States began to provide military aid to France in the form of weaponry and military observers.[136]
In June 1950, the Korean War broke out between communist North Korea (DPRK) supported by China and the Soviet Union, and South Korea (ROK) supported by the United States and its allies in the UN. The Cold War was turning 'hot' in East Asia, and the American government feared communist domination of the entire region would have deep implications for American interests. The US became strongly opposed to the government of Hồ Chí Minh, in part, because it was supported and supplied by China.
Throughout 1950, the DRV would seek to secure its control over the Chinese border, which would a greater flow of supplies. In February, Giáp launched "Operation Lê Hong Phong I", taking control of the border town of Lào Cai, in the high valley of the Red River[137] and by April, most of the northeastern border was under Viet-Minh control, save for a string of posts along the eastern Tonkinese frontier; Cao Bằng, Đông Khê, Thất Khê and Lạng Sơn, from North to South, connected by the Colonial Route 4 (RC 4).
On September 16 the Viet Minh launched a new offensive, "Operation Lê Hong Phong II", along this route under the command of General Hoàng Văn Thái. The Viet Minh attacked Đông Khê, which fell two days later.[138] In response, the French decided to evacuate Cao Bằng, which had become isolated. Soldiers and civilians were to march south and join a group marching north from Thất Khê tasked with recapturing the lost position. However, despite having been ordered to destroy all equipment, the commander of the Cao Bằng force decided to bring along its artillery when they left on October 3, causing delays and making them vulnerable to ambushes. The two forces approached Đông Khê four days later but by were eventually encircled and defeated.[139] This operation would cost the French around 6,000 soldiers.[140]
On October 17, faced with the PAVN's demonstrated ability to fight a conventional battle, the French command decided to abandon Lạng Sơn before it could come under attack, leaving behind considerable amounts of military supplies. The Viet-Minh now controlled most of the northern half of Tonkin.[141]
Renewed French success (January–June 1951)
[edit]
A new French commander in chief and high commissioner, General Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny, was appointed in December 1950.[142] With him began the construction of a defensive line of fortifications from Hanoi to the Gulf of Tonkin, around the Red River Delta, to protect Tonkin against a possible Chinese invasion and prevent Việt Minh infiltration. It became known as the De Lattre Line.[143]
In late 1950 Giáp decided to go on a "general counteroffensive", seeking the final defeat of the French.[144] On January 13, 1951, he moved the 308th and 312th Divisions, with more than 20,000 men, to attack Vĩnh Yên, 30 miles (48 km) northwest of Hanoi, which was manned by 6,000 French troops. Considered the first set-piece battle of the war, the Vietnamese saw initial success, although as the battle progressed, French aerial supremacy proved decisive as reinforcements flew in from the rest of Indochina and all available aircraft capable of dropping bombs was utilized to carry out what would be the largest aerial bombardment of the war. By noon of January 17, Giáp's troops withdrew in defeat. The Vietnamese had suffered 5,000–6,000 deaths and 500 combatants were captured.[145][146][147]
Giáp tried again to break the French defensive line, this time 20 miles (32 km) north-east of Haiphong in an attempt to cut the French access to the port city. On March 23, the Việt Minh's 316th Division, composed of 11,000 men, with the partly rebuilt 308th and 312th Divisions in reserve, launched an attack on Mạo Khê. With instances of hand-to-hand combat, the French, supported by paratroopers and naval artillery, repelled the attack and the Vietnamese were beaten by the morning of March 28.[148][149] About 1,500 – 3,000 Việt Minh soldiers were killed.[150][148][151]
Giáp launched yet another attack, the Battle of the Day River, on May 29 with the 304th Division at Phủ Lý, the 308th Division at Ninh Bình, and the main attack delivered by the 320th Division at Phát Diệm south of Hanoi. The attacks fared no better and the three divisions lost heavily. Taking advantage of this, de Lattre mounted his counteroffensive against the demoralized Việt Minh, driving them back into the forests and eliminating the enemy pockets in the Red River Delta by June 18, costing the Việt Minh over 10,000 killed.[152]
Every effort by Võ Nguyên Giáp to break the De Lattre Line failed, and every attack he made was answered by a French counter-attack that destroyed his forces. Việt Minh casualties rose alarmingly during this period, leading some to question the leadership of the Communist government, even within the party. However, any benefit this may have reaped for France was negated by the increasing domestic opposition to the war in France.
Stalemate (July 1951–1953)
[edit]On July 31, French General Charles Chanson was assassinated during a propaganda suicide attack at Sa Đéc in South Vietnam that was blamed on the Việt Minh although it was argued in some quarters that Cao Đài nationalist Trình Minh Thế could have been involved in its planning.[153][154]
Following the Viet Minh's defeats on the Hanoi perimeter, De Lattre decided to seize the city of Hòa Bình, 20 miles (32 km) west of the De Lattre Line, in an attempt to hinder the flow of supplies between Tonkin, which received direct Chinese support, and central and southern Vietnam. It also aimed to maintain the allegiance of the Muong troops. The city was captured by a parachute drop on November 14.[155][156]
The ensuing battle became increasingly costly to the French and after De Lattre fell ill from cancer and returned to Paris for treatment where he would die shortly thereafter in January 1952, his replacement as the overall commander of French forces in Indochina, General Raoul Salan, decided to pull back from the Hòa Bình salient.[157][158] The French lost nearly 5,000 men and the Viet Minh "at least that number" according to historian Phillip P. Davidson, while Spencer C. Tucker claims 894 French killed and missing and 9,000 Viet Minh casualties.[157][159] This campaign showed that the war was far from over.
Throughout the war theater, the Việt Minh cut French supply lines and wore down the resolve of the French forces. There were continued raids, skirmishes and guerrilla attacks, but through most of the rest of the year each side withdrew to prepare for larger operations. In the Battle of Nà Sản, starting on October 2, French commanders began using "hedgehog" tactics, consisting in setting up well-defended outposts to get the Việt Minh out of the forests and force them to fight conventional battles instead of using guerrilla tactics.
On October 17, 1952, Giáp launched attacks against the French garrisons along Nghĩa Lộ, northwest of Hanoi, and overran much of the Black River valley, except for the airfield of Nà Sản where a strong French garrison entrenched. Giáp by now had control over most of Tonkin beyond the De Lattre Line. Raoul Salan, seeing the situation as critical, launched Operation Lorraine along the Clear River to force Giáp to relieve pressure on the Nghĩa Lộ outposts.
On October 29, 1952, in the largest operation in Indochina to date, 30,000 French Union soldiers moved out from the De Lattre Line to attack the Việt Minh supply dumps at Phú Yên. Salan took Phú Thọ on November 5, and Phu Doan on November 9 by a parachute drop, and finally Phú Yên on November 13. Giáp at first did not react to the French offensive. He planned to wait until their supply lines were overextended and then cut them off from the Red River Delta.
Salan correctly guessed what the Việt Minh were up to and cancelled the operation on November 14, beginning to withdraw back to the De Lattre Line. The only major fighting during the operation came during the withdrawal, when the Việt Minh ambushed the French column at Chan Muong on November 17. The road was cleared after a bayonet charge by the Indochinese March Battalion, and the withdrawal could continue. The French lost around 1,200 men during the whole operation, most of them during the Chan Muong ambush. The operation was partially successful, proving that the French could strike out at targets outside the De Lattre Line. However, it failed to divert the Việt Minh offensive or seriously damage its logistical network.
On April 9, 1953, Giáp, after having failed repeatedly in direct attacks on French positions in Vietnam, changed strategy and began to pressure the French by invading Laos, surrounding and defeating several French outposts such as Muong Khoua. In May, General Henri Navarre replaced Salan as supreme commander of French forces in Indochina. He reported to the French government "... that there was no possibility of winning the war in Indo-China", saying that the best the French could hope for was a stalemate.
Navarre, in response to the Việt Minh attacking Laos, concluded that "hedgehog" centers of defense were the best plan. Looking at a map of the area, Navarre chose the small town of Điện Biên Phủ, located about 10 miles (16 km) north of the Lao border and 175 miles (282 km) west of Hanoi, as a target to block the Việt Minh from invading Laos. Điện Biên Phủ had a number of advantages: it was on a Việt Minh supply route into Laos on the Nam Yum River, it had an old airstrip for supply, and it was situated in the Tai mountains where the Tai troops, allied with the French, operated.
Operation Castor was launched on November 20, 1953, with 1,800 men of the French 1st and 2nd Airborne Battalions dropping into the valley of Điện Biên Phủ and sweeping aside the local Việt Minh garrison. The paratroopers gained control of a heart-shaped valley 12 miles (19 km) long and 8 miles (13 km) wide surrounded by heavily wooded mountains. Encountering little opposition, the French and Tai units operating from Lai Châu to the north patrolled the mountains.
The operation was a tactical success for the French. However, Giáp, seeing the weakness of the French position, started moving most of his forces from the De Lattre Line to Điện Biên Phủ. By mid-December, most of the French and Tai patrols in the mountains around the town were wiped out by Việt Minh ambushes.[citation needed] The fight for control of this position would be the longest and hardest battle for the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and would be remembered by the veterans as "57 Days of Hell".
French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, end of the war (1954)
[edit]
By 1954, despite official propaganda presenting the war as a "crusade against communism",[160][161] the war in Indochina was still growing unpopular with the French public. The political stagnation in the Fourth Republic meant that France was unable to extract itself from the conflict.
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu took place in 1954 between Việt Minh forces under Võ Nguyên Giáp, supported by China and the Soviet Union, and the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps, supported by US financing[162] and Indochinese allies. The battle was fought near the village of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam and became the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War.
The battle began on March 13 when a preemptive Việt Minh attack surprised the French with heavy artillery. The artillery damaged both the main and secondary airfields that the French were using to fly in supplies. With French supply lines interrupted, the French position became untenable, particularly when the advent of the monsoon season made dropping supplies and reinforcements by parachute difficult. With defeat imminent, the French sought to hold on until the opening of the Geneva peace meeting on April 26. The last French offensive took place on May 4, but it was ineffective. The Việt Minh then began to hammer the outpost with newly supplied Soviet Katyusha rockets.[163]
The final fall took two days, May 6 and 7, during which the French fought on but were eventually overrun by a huge frontal assault. General Cogny, based in Hanoi, ordered General de Castries, who was commanding the outpost, to cease fire at 5:30 pm and to destroy all matériel (weapons, transmissions, etc.) to deny their use to the enemy. A formal order was given to not use the white flag so that the action would be considered a ceasefire instead of a surrender. Much of the fighting ended on May 7; however, the ceasefire was not respected on Isabelle, the isolated southern position, where the battle lasted until May 8, 1:00 am.[164]
At least 2,200 members of the 20,000-strong French forces died, and another 1,729 were reported missing after the battle, and 11,721 were captured. The Viet Minh suffered approximately 25,000 casualties over the course of the battle, with as many as 10,000 Viet Minh personnel having been killed in the battle. Such a high amount of losses has led some historians to classify the Viet Minh's triumph as a pyrrhic victory and has been attributed as a factor motivating the Viet Minh's leadership to enter peace negotiations with France shortly thereafter.[165] The prisoners taken at Điện Biên Phủ were the greatest number the Việt Minh had ever captured: one-third of the total captured during the entire war.
One month after Điện Biên Phủ, the composite Groupe Mobile 100 (GM100) of the French Union forces evacuated the An Khê outpost and was ambushed by a larger Việt Minh force at the Battle of Mang Yang Pass from June 24 to July 17. The Việt Minh victory at Điện Biên Phủ heavily influenced the outcome of the 1954 Geneva accords that took place on July 21. In August Operation Passage to Freedom began, consisting of the evacuation of Catholic and other Vietnamese civilians from communist North Vietnamese persecution.
Geneva Conference and partition
[edit]
The Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, recognized the 17th parallel north as a "provisional military demarcation line", temporarily dividing the country into two zones, communist North Vietnam and pro-Western South Vietnam.
Negotiations between France and the Việt Minh started in Geneva in April 1954 at the Geneva Conference, during which time the French Union and the Việt Minh were fighting a battle at Điện Biên Phủ. In France, Pierre Mendès France, opponent of the war since 1950, had been invested as Prime Minister on June 17, 1954, on a promise to put an end to the war, reaching a ceasefire in four months:
Today it seems we can be reunited in a will for peace that may express the aspirations of our country ... Since already several years, a compromise peace, a peace negotiated with the opponent seemed to me commanded by the facts, while it commanded, in return, to put back in order our finances, the recovery of our economy and its expansion. Because this war placed on our country an unbearable burden. And here appears today a new and formidable threat: if the Indochina conflict is not resolved—and settled very fast—it is the risk of war, of international war and maybe atomic, that we must foresee. It is because I wanted a better peace that I wanted it earlier, when we had more assets. But even now there is some renouncings or abandons that the situation does not comprise. France does not have to accept and will not accept settlement which would be incompatible with its more vital interests [applauding on certain seats of the Assembly on the left and at the extreme right]. France will remain present in Far-Orient. Neither our allies, nor our opponents must conserve the least doubt on the signification of our determination. A negotiation has been engaged in Geneva ... I have longly studied the report ... consulted the most qualified military and diplomatic experts. My conviction that a pacific settlement of the conflict is possible has been confirmed. A "cease-fire" must henceforth intervene quickly. The government which I will form will fix itself—and will fix to its opponents—a delay of 4 weeks to reach it. We are today on 17th of June. I will present myself before you before the 20th of July ... If no satisfying solution has been reached at this date, you will be freed from the contract which would have tied us together, and my government will give its dismissal to the President of the Republic.[166]
The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng,[167] who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions".[168] The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan", with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom.[169] It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation.[169] From his home in France, Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diem used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam.
When the elections failed to occur, Việt Minh cadres who stayed behind in South Vietnam were activated and started to fight the government. North Vietnam also invaded and occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying the National Liberation Front guerrillas fighting in South Vietnam. The war gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War, more commonly known as the Vietnam War in the West and the American War in Vietnam.
French domestic situation
[edit]The 1946 Constitution creating the Fourth Republic (1946–1958) made France a parliamentary republic. Because of the political context, it could find stability only by an alliance between the three dominantparties: the Christian Democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP), the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). Known as tripartisme, this alliance briefly lasted until the May 1947 crisis, with the expulsion from Paul Ramadier's SFIO government of the PCF ministers, marking the official start of the Cold War in France. This had the effect of weakening the regime, with the two most significant movements of this period, Communism and Gaullism, in opposition.
Unlikely alliances had to be made between left- and right-wing parties in order to form a government invested by the National Assembly, resulting in parliamentary instability, with 14 prime ministers in succession between 1947 and 1954's Battle of Dien Bien Phu. The rapid turnover of governments (there were 17 different governments during the war) left France unable to prosecute the war with any consistent policy, according to veteran General René de Biré (who was a lieutenant at Dien Bien Phu).[170] France was increasingly unable to afford the costly conflict in Indochina and, by 1954, the United States was paying 80% of France's war effort, which was $3,000,000 per day in 1952.[171][172]
A strong anti-war movement came into existence in France driven mostly by the powerful French Communist Party (outpowering the socialists) and its young militant associations, major trade unions such as the General Confederation of Labour, and notable leftist intellectuals.[173][174] The first occurrence was probably at the National Assembly on March 21, 1947, when the communist deputies refused to back the military credits for Indochina. The following year a pacifist event was organized, the "1st Worldwide Congress of Peace Partisans" (1er Congrès Mondial des Partisans de la Paix, the World Peace Council's predecessor), which took place March 25–28, 1948, in Paris, with the French communist Nobel laureate atomic physicist Frédéric Joliot-Curie as president. Later, on April 28, 1950, Joliot-Curie would be dismissed from the military and civilian Atomic Energy Commission for political reasons.[175]
Young communist militants (UJRF) were also accused of sabotage actions like the famous Henri Martin affair and the case of Raymonde Dien, who was jailed one year for having blocked an ammunition train, with the help of other militants, in order to prevent the supply of French forces in Indochina in February 1950.[170][173] Similar actions against trains occurred in Roanne, Charleville, Marseille, and Paris. Even ammunition sabotage by PCF agents has been reported, such as grenades exploding in the hands of legionaries.[170] These actions became such a cause for concern by 1950 that the French Assembly voted a law against sabotage between March 2–8. At this session tension was so high between politicians that fighting ensued in the assembly following communist deputies' speeches against the Indochinese policy.[175] This month saw the French navy mariner and communist militant Henri Martin arrested by military police and jailed for five years for sabotage and propaganda operations in Toulon's arsenal. On May 5 communist Ministers were dismissed from the government, marking the end of Tripartism.[175] A few months later on November 11, 1950, the French Communist Party leader Maurice Thorez went to Moscow.
Some military officers involved in the Revers Report scandal (Rapport Revers) such as Salan were pessimistic about the way the war was being conducted,[176] with multiple political-military scandals all happening during the war, starting with the Generals' Affair (Affaire des Généraux) from September 1949 to November 1950. As a result, General Georges Revers was dismissed in December 1949 and socialist Defense Ministry Jules Moch (SFIO) was brought on court by the National Assembly on November 28, 1950. The scandal started the commercial success of the first French news magazine, L'Express, created in 1953.[177] The third scandal was financial-political, concerning military corruption, money and arms trading involving both the French Union army and the Việt Minh, known as the Piastres affair. The war ended in 1954 but its sequel started in French Algeria where the French Communist Party played an even stronger role by supplying the National Liberation Front (FLN) rebels with intelligence documents and financial aid. They were called "the suitcase carriers" (les porteurs de valises).
In the French news, the Indochina War was presented as a direct continuation of the Korean War, where France had fought: a UN French battalion, incorporated in a U.S. unit in Korea, was later involved in the Battle of Mang Yang Pass of June and July 1954.[160] In an interview taped in May 2004, General Marcel Bigeard (6th BPC) argues that "one of the deepest mistakes done by the French during the war was the propaganda telling you are fighting for Freedom, you are fighting against Communism",[161] hence the sacrifice of volunteers during the climactic battle of Dien Bien Phu. In the latest days of the siege, 652 non-paratrooper soldiers from all army corps from cavalry to infantry to artillery dropped for the first and last time of their life to support their comrades. The Cold War excuse was later used by General Maurice Challe through his famous "Do you want Mers El Kébir and Algiers to become Soviet bases as soon as tomorrow?", during the Generals' putsch (Algerian War) of 1961, with limited effect though.[178]
A few hours after the French Union defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles made an official speech depicting the "tragic event" and "its defense for fifty seven days and nights will remain in History as one of the most heroic of all time." Later on, he denounced Chinese aid to the Việt Minh, explained that the United States could not act openly because of international pressure, and concluded with the call to "all concerned nations" concerning the necessity of "a collective defense" against "the communist aggression".[179]
The Viet Minh victory in the war had an inspirational effect to independence movements in various French colonies worldwide, most notably the FLN in Algeria. The Algerian War broke out on 1 November 1954, only six months after the Geneva Conference. Benyoucef Benkhedda, later became the head of the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, praised the Viet Minh feat at Dien Bien Phu as "a powerful incentive to all who thought immediate insurrection the only possible strategy".[180]
Atrocities
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Atrocities occurred in the conflict long before France ratified the 1949 Geneva Conventions on June 28, 1951, in which such acts committed afterwards in violation of the Conventions' provisions in force became war crimes.[181] Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions contains a minimum protection that only applies to humane treatment in a non-international conflict (i.e., war by a state against non-state armed groups or between non-state armed groups themselves). For the purpose of this section, however, atrocities committed before or after France's ratification of the 1949 Geneva Conventions are included.
French
[edit]During the war, there were many instances of war rapes against Vietnamese civilians by French soldiers. This occurred in Saigon, alongside robberies and killings, following the return of the French in August 1945.[182] Vietnamese women were also raped by French soldiers in northern Vietnam in 1948, following the defeat of the Viet Minh, including in Bảo Hà, Bảo Yên District, Lào Cai province and Phu Lu. This led to 400 French-trained Vietnamese defecting to the Viet Minh June 1948.[183] French killings of Vietnamese civilians were reported, many of them were caused by the tendency of Viet Minh troops to hide among civilian settlements.[184] One of the largest massacres by French troops was the Mỹ Trạch massacre of November 29, 1947, in which French soldiers killed over 200 women and children. Regarding this massacre and other atrocities during the conflict, Christopher Goscha wrote in The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam:
Rape became a disturbing weapon used by the Expeditionary Corps, as did summary executions. Young Vietnamese women who could not escape approaching enemy patrols smeared themselves with any stinking thing they could find, including human excrement. Decapitated [sic] heads were raised on sticks, bodies were gruesomely disemboweled, and body parts were taken as 'souvenirs'; Vietnamese soldiers of all political color also committed such acts. The non-communist nationalist singer, Phạm Duy, wrote a bone-chilling ballad about the mothers of Gio Linh village in central Vietnam, each of whom had lost a son to a French Army massacre in 1948. Troops decapitated their bodies and displayed their heads along a public road to strike fear into those tempted to accept the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's sovereignty. Massacres did not start with the Americans in My Lai, or the Vietnamese communists in Hue in 1968. And yet, the French Union's massacre of over two hundred Vietnamese women and children in My Tratch in 1948 remains virtually unknown in France to this day.[30]
The French Army also utilized torture against Việt Minh prisoners.[185] Benjamin Valentino estimates that the French were responsible for 60,000 to 250,000 civilian deaths.[186]
Viet Minh
[edit]According to Arthur J. Dommen, the Việt Minh assassinated 100,000–150,000 civilians during the war out of a total civilian death toll of 400,000.[187]
Viet Minh militants employed terrorist attacks throughout the conflict as a systematic practice, often targeting European and Eurasian civilians.[184] In 1947 wounded soldiers and French civilians who had returned to France from Vietnam reported that Vietnamese "suicide squads" had tortured and massacred French civilians. The Canberra Times reported that "The men were soaked with petrol and set afire. The women were killed after they were raped, and children were hacked to pieces." The witnesses also asserted that they had seen Japanese soldiers among the Viet Minh.[188] One of the worst attacks on Europeans was on 21 July 1952, when Viet Minh militants, using grenades, Sten guns, and machetes, massacred twenty unarmed people at a military hospital in Cap St. Jacques—eight officers on sick leave, six children, four Vietnamese servants, and two women.[189][190]
Many French Union and Vietnamese National Army prisoners died in the Việt Minh POW camps as a result of torture. In the Boudarel Affair, French Communist militant Georges Boudarel was discovered to have used brainwashing and torture against French Union POWs in Việt Minh reeducation camps.[191] The French national association of POWs brought Boudarel to court for a war crime charge.
French Union involvement
[edit]By 1946, France headed the French Union. As successive governments had forbidden the sending of metropolitan troops, the French Far East Expeditionary Corps (CEFEO) was created in March 1945. The Union gathered combatants from almost all French territories made of colonies, protectorates and associated states (Algeria, Morocco, Madagascar, Senegal, Tunisia, etc.) to fight in French Indochina, which was then occupied by the Japanese. About 325,000 of the 500,000 French troops were Indochinese, almost all of whom were used in conventional units.[192]
French West Africa (Afrique Occidentale Française, AOF) was a federation of African colonies. Senegalese and other African troops were sent to fight in Indochina. Some African alumni were trained in the Infantry Instruction Center no.2 (Centre d'Instruction de l'Infanterie no.2) located in southern Vietnam. Senegalese of the Colonial Artillery fought at the siege of Dien Bien Phu. As a French colony (later a full province), French Algeria sent local troops to Indochina including several RTA (Régiment de Tirailleurs Algériens) light infantry battalions. Morocco was a French protectorate and sent troops to support the French effort in Indochina. Moroccan troops were part of light infantry RTMs (Régiment de Tirailleurs Marocains) for the "Moroccan Sharpshooters Regiment".
As a French protectorate, Bizerte, Tunisia, was a major French base. Tunisian troops, mostly RTT (Régiment de Tirailleurs Tunisiens), were sent to Indochina. Part of French Indochina, then part of the French Union and later an associated state, Laos fought the communists along with French forces. The role played by Laotian troops in the conflict was depicted by veteran Pierre Schoendoerffer's famous 317th Platoon released in 1964.[193] The French Indochina state of Cambodia also played a role during the Indochina War through the Khmer Royal Army, which had been formed in 1946 in an agreement signed with the French.[194]
While Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam (formerly Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina) had the Vietnamese National Army supporting the French forces, some minorities were trained and organized as regular battalions (mostly infantry tirailleurs) that fought with French forces against the Việt Minh. The Tai Battalion 2 (BT2, 2e Bataillon Thai) is infamous for its desertion during the siege of Dien Bien Phu. Propaganda leaflets written in Tai and French sent by the Việt Minh were found in the deserted positions and trenches. Such deserters were called the Nam Yum rats by Bigeard during the siege, as they hid close to the Nam Yum river during the day and searched at night for supply drops.[195] Another allied minority was the Muong people (Mường). The 1st Muong Battalion (1er Bataillon Muong) was awarded the Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures after the victorious Battle of Vĩnh Yên in 1951.[196]
In the 1950s, the French established secret commando groups based on loyal Montagnard ethnic minorities referred to as "partisans" or "maquisards", called the Groupement de Commandos Mixtes Aéroportés (Composite Airborne Commando Group or GCMA), later renamed Groupement Mixte d'Intervention (GMI, or Mixed Intervention Group), directed by the SDECE counter-intelligence service. The SDECE's "Service Action" GCMA used both commando and guerrilla techniques and operated in intelligence and secret missions from 1950 to 1955.[197][198] Declassified information about the GCMA includes the name of its commander, famous Colonel Roger Trinquier, and a mission on April 30, 1954, when Jedburgh veteran Captain Sassi led the Meo partisans of the GCMA Malo-Servan in Operation Condor during the siege of Dien Bien Phu.[199]
In 1951, Adjutant-Chief Vandenberghe from the 6th Colonial Infantry Regiment (6e RIC) created the "Commando Vanden" (aka "Black Tigers", aka "North Vietnam Commando #24") based in Nam Định. Recruits were volunteers from the Thổ people, Nùng people and Miao people. This commando unit wore Việt Minh black uniforms to confuse the enemy and used techniques of the experienced Bo doi (Bộ đội, regular army) and Du Kich (guerrilla unit). Việt Minh prisoners were recruited in POW camps. The commando was awarded the Croix de Guerre des TOE with palm in July 1951; however, Vandenberghe was betrayed by a Việt Minh recruit, commander Nguien Tinh Khoi (308th Division's 56th Regiment), who assassinated him (and his Vietnamese fiancée) with external help on the night of January 5, 1952.[200][201][202] Coolies and POWs known as PIM (Prisonniers Internés Militaires, which is basically the same as POW) were civilians used by the army as logistical support personnel. During the battle of Dien Bien Phu, coolies were in charge of burying the corpses—during the first days only, after they were abandoned, hence giving off a terrible smell, according to veterans—and they had the dangerous job of gathering supply packets delivered in drop zones while the Việt Minh artillery was firing hard to destroy the crates. The Việt Minh also used thousands of coolies to carry the Chu-Luc (regional units) supplies and ammunition during assaults. The PIM were civilian males old enough to join Bảo Đại's army. They were captured in enemy-controlled villages, and those who refused to join the State of Vietnam's army were considered prisoners or used as coolies to support a given regiment.[203]
Foreign involvement
[edit]Japanese volunteers
[edit]Many former Imperial Japanese Army soldiers fought alongside the Việt Minh—perhaps as many as 5,000 volunteered their services throughout the war. These Japanese soldiers had stayed behind in Indochina after World War II concluded in 1945. The occupying British authorities then repatriated most of the rest of the 50,000 Japanese troops back to Japan.[204] For those that stayed behind, supporting the Việt Minh became a more attractive idea than returning to a defeated and occupied homeland. In addition the Việt Minh had minimal experience in warfare or government so the advice of the Japanese was welcome. Some of the Japanese were ex-Kenpeitai who were wanted for questioning by Allied authorities. Giap arranged for them all to receive Vietnamese citizenship and false identification papers.[204] Some Japanese were captured by the Việt Minh during the last months of World War II and were recruited into their ranks.
Most of the Japanese officers who stayed served as military instructors for the Việt Minh forces, most notably at the Quảng Ngãi Army Academy.[205] They imparted necessary conventional military knowledge – such as how to conduct assaults, night attacks, company/battalion level exercises, commanding, tactics, navigation, communications and movements. A few, however, actively led Vietnamese forces into combat.[205] The French also identified eleven Japanese nurses and two doctors working for the Việt Minh in northern Vietnam in 1951. The Yasukuni Shrine commemorates a number of Japanese involved in the First Indochina War.[206]
Notable Japanese officers serving in Việt Minh included:
- Colonel Mukaiyama – reportedly a staff officer in the 38th Army, who became a technical advisor to the Vietnamese. Credited as the leader of Japanese forces in Vietnam; killed in combat in 1946.
- Colonel Masanobu Tsuji – Operations Staff Officer.[207]
- Major Ishii Takuo – a staff officer in the 55th Division who had commanded a squadron of its cavalry regiment. Supposedly the youngest major in the Imperial Army at the time, he led a number of volunteers to the Vietnamese cause, becoming a colonel and military advisor to General Nguyễn Sơn. He headed the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy for a while before founding the Tuy Hòa Military Academy, and was killed by a land mine in 1950.
- Major Kanetoshi Toshihide – served with Major Igari in the 2nd Division and followed him to join the Việt Minh; he became Chief of Staff for General Nguyễn Giác Ngộ.
- Major Igawa Sei – a staff officer in the 34th Independent Mixed Brigade; he joined the Viet Minh forces, and was killed in action against the French in 1946. He allegedly conceived the idea of establishing the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy.
- Lieutenant Igari Kazumasa – the commander of an infantry company in the 2nd Division's 29th Infantry Regiment; he became an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy.
- Lieutenant Kamo Tokuji – a platoon leader under Lieutenant Igari; he also became an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy.
- 2nd Lieutenant Tanimoto Kikuo an intelligence officer who was originally supposed to remain behind in Indonesia, but linked up with the 34th Brigade to try to get home, only to end up as an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy until 1954.
- 2nd Lieutenant Nakahara Mitsunobu – an intelligence officer of the 34th Independent Mixed Brigade; became a decorated soldier in the Việt Minh forces, and later an instructor at the Quảng Ngãi Military Academy.[208][209][210]
China
[edit]
The victory of the Chinese communists in December 1949 proved decisive in the course of the war as during the early 1950s guerrilla troops used the southern areas of China as a sanctuary where new troops could be trained and fitted beyond the reach of the French.[27] The Việt Minh successfully carried out several hit-and-run ambushes against French Union military convoys along the Route Coloniale 4 (RC 4) roadway, which ran along the Chinese border, and was a major supply passage in Tonkin (northern Vietnam) for a series of frontier forts.[211] One of the most famous attacks of this nature was the Battle of Cao Bằng of 1947–1949.
China supplied and provided the Việt Minh guerrilla forces with almost every kind of crucial and important supplies and material required, such as food (including thousands of tonnes of rice), money, medics and medical aid and supplies, arms and weapons (ranging from artillery guns (24 of which were used at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu) to rifles and machine-guns), ammunition and explosives and other types of military equipment, including a large part of war-material captured from the then-recently defeated National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist Chinese government following the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Evidence of the People's Republic of China's secret aid and supplies were found hidden in caves during the French military's Operation Hirondelle in July 1953.[212][213] 2,000 military advisors from the PRC and the Soviet Union trained the Việt Minh guerrilla force with the aim of turning it into a full-fledged armed force to fight off their French colonial masters and gain national independence.[170] On top of this, the PRC sent two People's Liberation Army (PLA) artillery battalions to fight at the siege of Dien Bien Phu on May 6, 1954, with one battalion operating the Soviet Katyusha multiple-rocket launcher systems (MRLS) against French forces besieged at Dien Bien Phu's valley.[214]
From 1950 to 1954 the Chinese government shipped goods, materials, and medicine worth $51 billion (in 2023 dollars) to Vietnam. From 1950 to 1956 the Chinese government shipped 155,000 small arms, 58 million rounds of ammunition, 4,630 artillery pieces, 1,080,000 artillery shells, 840,000 hand grenades, 1,400,000 uniforms, 1,200 vehicles, 14,000 tons of food, and 26,000 tons of fuel to Vietnam. Mao Zedong considered it necessary to buttress the Viet Minh to secure his country's southern flank against potential interference by westerners, while the bulk of the PRC's regular military forces participated in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. After the end of the Korean War and the resolution of the First Taiwan Strait Crisis, China stepped up involvement in the Indochina Wars, viewing the presence of potentially hostile forces in Indochina as the main threat.[215][216]
Soviet Union
[edit]The Soviet Union was the other major ally of the Việt Minh, alongside the PRC. Moscow supplied GAZ-built trucks, truck engines and motor-parts, fuel, tyres, many different kinds of arms and weapons (including thousands of Škoda-manufactured light machine-guns of Czech origin), all kinds of ammunition (ranging from rifle to machine-gun ammunition), various types of anti-aircraft guns (such as the 37mm air-defense gun) and even cigarettes and tobacco products. During Operation Hirondelle, French Union paratroopers captured and destroyed many tonnes of Soviet-supplied material destined for Việt Minh use in the area of Ky Lua.[212][217] According to General Giap, the chief military leader of all Việt Minh forces, the Việt Minh used about 400 Soviet-produced GAZ-51 trucks at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Because the trucks were concealed and hidden with the use of highly effective camouflage (consisting predominantly of thick vegetation), French Union reconnaissance aircraft were not able to notice them and take note of the effective Việt Minh supply-train. On May 6, 1954, during the siege against French forces at the valley of Dien Bien Phu, Soviet-supplied Katyusha MLRS were successfully fielded against French Union military outposts, destroying enemy troop formations and bases and lowering their morale levels. Together with the PRC, the Soviet Union sent up to 2,000 military advisors to provide training to the Việt Minh guerrilla troops and to turn it into a conventional army.[170]
United States
[edit]Закон о взаимной защите (1950–1954 гг.)
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В начале войны США были нейтральными в конфликте из-за своей оппозиции европейскому колониализму, поскольку Вьетминь недавно был союзником США, а также потому, что в контексте « холодной войны » большая часть их внимания была сосредоточена на Европа, где Уинстон Черчилль утверждал, что « железный занавес » пал.
Победа Коммунистической партии Китая Мао Цзэдуна в гражданской войне в Китае в 1949 году, признание ДРВ СССР и вновь образованной Китайской Народной Республики в январе 1950 года, что побудило США и Великобританию в ответ признать государство Вьетнам. и подписание советско-китайского договора о дружбе вскоре после этого в феврале изменили позицию США по этому вопросу, и война стала рассматриваться как еще один фронт антикоммунистической борьбы. [135]
Правительство США объявило Индокитай и Юго-Восточную Азию в более широком смысле жизненно важными, а сдерживание коммунизма на границе с южным Китаем, а затем и с Кореей , стало одним из приоритетов американской внешней политики, поскольку считалось, что падение Индокитай в руках коммунистов приведет к потере других стран региона. [218] В то время коммунизм рассматривался как единый блок, в котором доминировал Советский Союз. В Вашингтоне опасались, что, если Хо выиграет войну, он создаст государство, политически связанное с Москвой, а Советский Союз в конечном итоге будет контролировать вьетнамские дела. [219] Эта перспектива побудила США поддержать Францию в ее военных усилиях, в первую очередь посредством Закона о взаимной оборонной помощи . В мае 1950 года, после того как китайские коммунистические силы оккупировали остров Хайнань , президент США Гарри С. Трумэн начал тайно разрешать прямую финансовую помощь французам, а 27 июня 1950 года, после начала Корейской войны, публично объявил, что США делают это. так. [220]
30 июня 1950 года были доставлены первые поставки США в Индокитай. [221] В сентябре Трумэн направил в Индокитай Консультативную группу военной помощи (MAAG) для оказания помощи французам. [222] Позже, в 1954 году, президент США Дуайт Д. Эйзенхауэр объяснил риск эскалации, представив то, что он назвал «принципом домино», который в конечном итоге стал концепцией теории домино . [223]
После встречи Моха и Маршалла 23 сентября 1950 года в Вашингтоне, США, начали поддерживать усилия Французского Союза политически, материально-технически и финансово. Официально участие США не включало применение вооруженной силы.
Когда в 1954 году ситуация в Дьенбьенфу ухудшилась, Франция запросила дополнительную поддержку у Соединенных Штатов, включая оборудование и прямое вмешательство. Например, 4 апреля премьер-министр Франции Жозеф Ланиэль и министр иностранных дел Жорж Бидо передали послу США К. Дугласу Диллону немедленное вооруженное вмешательство американской авианосной , что « для спасения ситуации сейчас необходимо авиации в Дьенбьенфу». Соединенные Штаты обсудили с союзниками множество вариантов, включая использование ядерного оружия . Ключевой проблемой при планировании была реакция Китая. Пока продолжалось планирование, Соединенные Штаты перебросили авианосную группу , в которую входили авианосцы «Боксер» и «Эссекс» , в Южно-Китайское море между Филиппинами и Индокитаем. Однако руководство Соединенных Штатов в конечном итоге решило, что не существует достаточной международной или внутренней поддержки для того, чтобы Соединенные Штаты могли напрямую участвовать в конфликте. [224]
Помощь ВМС США (1951–1954)
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USS Windham Bay доставил истребитель Grumman F8F Bearcat в Сайгон 26 января 1951 года. [225]
2 марта 1951 года ВМС США передали USS Agenor (LST 490) ВМС Франции в Индокитае в соответствии с MAP под руководством MAAG. Переименованный в RFS Vulcain (A-656), он использовался в операции Hirondelle в 1953 году. Авианосец USS Sitkoh Bay доставил самолет Grumman F8F Bearcat в Сайгон 26 марта 1951 года. В сентябре 1953 года авианосец USS Belleau Wood (переименованный в Bois Belleau ) был передан в аренду Франции и отправлен во Французский Индокитай на замену арроманшам . Ее использовали для поддержки защитников дельты в операции в заливе Холонг в мае 1954 года. В августе она присоединилась к франко-американской операции по эвакуации под названием «Проход к свободе».
В том же месяце Соединенные Штаты поставили дополнительные самолеты, снова используя USS Windham Bay . [226] 18 апреля 1954 года, во время осады Дьенбьенфу, военный корабль США Сайпан доставил 25 самолетов Корейской войны AU-1 Corsair для использования французскими Aeronavale для поддержки осажденного гарнизона.
Помощь ВВС США (1952–1954)
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Всего для Aeronavale в 1952 году было построено 94 F4U-7, причем последний из партии, последний построенный Corsair, был выпущен в декабре 1952 года. F4U-7 фактически были закуплены ВМС США и переданы Aeronavale. через Программу военной помощи США (MAP). Они были дополнены 25 бывшими самолетами AU-1 морской пехоты США (ранее использовавшимися во время Корейской войны) и переброшены из Йокосуки, Япония, на авиабазу Туран (Дананг), Вьетнам, в апреле 1952 года. Помощь ВВС США последовала в ноябре 1953 года, когда Французский командующий в Индокитае генерал Анри Наварра попросил генерала Честера Э. Маккарти , командующего дивизией боевых грузов, предоставить 12 самолетов Fairchild C-119 для операции «Кастор» в Дьенбьенфу. ВВС США также предоставили самолеты C-124 Globemasters для перевозки подкреплений французских парашютистов в Индокитай.
Под кодовым названием Project Swivel Chair [227] 3 марта 1954 года 12 самолетов C-119 483-го авианосного авиакрыла («Packet Rats»), базировавшегося в Ашии , Япония, были окрашены символами Франции и переданы Франции в аренду вместе с 24 пилотами ЦРУ для краткосрочного использования. Техническое обслуживание осуществляли ВВС США, а операциями по воздушным перевозкам командовал Маккарти. [228]
Тайные операции Центрального разведывательного управления (1953–1954)
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По просьбе французов правительство США поручило ЦРУ провести тайные операции по переброске самолетов для поддержки французских войск в Лаосе. С этой целью во время операции SQUAW , с 5 мая по 16 июля 1953 года, ЦРУ использовало 12 пилотов, официально нанятых авиакомпанией Civil Air Transport (принадлежащей ЦРУ) , для управления оборудованием на 6 самолетах C-119, поставленных ВВС США , с французскими подшипниками. цвета. [229]
Двадцать четыре пилота гражданской авиации снабжали гарнизон Французского Союза во время осады Дьенбьенфу — перебрасывая по воздуху десантников, боеприпасы, артиллерийские орудия, тонны колючей проволоки, медиков и другую военную технику. В результате сокращения площадей зоны высадки , ночных операций и атак зенитной артиллерии многие «пакеты» попали в руки Вьетминя. Пилоты ЦРУ совершили 682 десантирования под зенитным огнем в период с 13 марта по 6 мая 1954 года. Два пилота CAT, Уоллес Баффорд и Джеймс Б. Макговерн-младший, погибли в бою, когда их летающий товарный вагон Fairchild C-119. в мае был сбит 6, 1954. [228] 25 февраля 2005 года посол Франции в США Жан-Давид Левитт наградил семерых оставшихся пилотов ЦРУ Орденом Почётного легиона. [228] [230]
Операция «Проход к свободе» (1954)
[ редактировать ]В августе 1954 года в поддержку французского и торгового флота ВМС США начали операцию «Проход к свободе» и направили сотни кораблей, в том числе военный корабль США « Монтегю» , для эвакуации некоммунистических, особенно католических, вьетнамских беженцев из Северного Вьетнама после 20 июля 1954 года – перемирие и раздел Вьетнама . За этот период с севера на юг было перевезено до 1 миллиона вьетнамских гражданских лиц. [231] причем около одной десятой этого числа движется в противоположном направлении. Верные индокитайцы, эвакуированные в метрополию Францию, содержались в лагерях для задержанных.
Другая помощь
[ редактировать ]- Новая Зеландия
В 1952 и 1954 годах Новая Зеландия предоставила из своих устаревших и избыточных (но исправных) военных запасов различную военную технику для французских войск в Индокитае, в том числе: [232]
- 43 000 винтовок
- 1350 пулеметов
- 670 000 патронов для стрелкового оружия
- 10 000 выстрелов 40-мм бронебойным выстрелом
- 500 револьверов
- 50 зенитных орудий Bofors и боеприпасы к ним
- беспроводные наборы
- полевые телефоны
- зарядные комплекты
- различные предметы униформы
Популярная культура
[ редактировать ]
Хотя в метрополии Франции к войне относились по большей части безразлично, [233] «Грязная война» была показана в различных фильмах, книгах и песнях. С момента рассекречивания в 2000-х годах телевизионные документальные фильмы были выпущены с новыми взглядами на тайное участие США и открытой критикой французской пропаганды, использовавшейся во время войны.
Известный коммунистический пропагандист Роман Кармен отвечал за освещение в СМИ битвы при Дьенбьенфу. В своем документальном фильме «Вьетнам» (Вьетнам, 1955) он поставил знаменитую сцену с поднятием флага Вьетминя над бункером де Кастри, аналогичную той, которую он поставил над крышей берлинского Рейхстага во время Второй мировой войны ( Берин , 1945). ) и S-образная колонна военнопленных, идущая после боя, где он использовал ту же оптическую технику, с которой экспериментировал раньше, когда инсценировал немецких пленных после блокады Ленинграда ( Ленинград в регионе , 1942) и битвы за Москву ( Разгром войска под Москвой , 1942). [234] [235]
В 1955 году Голливуд снял фильм о Дьенбьенфу « Прыжок в ад » режиссера Дэвида Батлера по сценарию Ирвинга Уоллеса , еще до того, как он стал известным писателем-бестселлером. Голливуд также снял несколько фильмов о войне: Роберта Флори «Полк разбойников » (1948). Сэмюэля Фуллера Китайские ворота (1957). и Джеймса Клавелла » « Пять врат в ад (1959).
Первый французский фильм о войне, «Ударный патруль» ( Patrouille de Choc ), он же «Патруль без надежды» ( Patrouille Sans Espoir ) Клода Бернара-Обера, вышел в 1956 году. Французский цензор вырезал несколько жестоких сцен и заставил режиссёра изменить концовку. его фильм, который был воспринят как « слишком пессимистичный» . [236] Лео Жоаннона Фильм «Форт дю Фу» («Форт безумцев») / «Аванпост в Индокитае» был выпущен в 1963 году. Другой фильм «317-й взвод» ( La 317ème Division ) был выпущен в 1964 году, его режиссёром выступила компания «Война в Индокитае» (и осада Дьена). Бьен Фу) ветеран Пьер Шендорффер . С тех пор Шендорффер стал специалистом по средствам массовой информации, посвященным войне в Индокитае, и сосредоточил свое внимание на реалистичных фильмах о войне. Во время службы он был армейским оператором («Кинематографическая служба армий», SCA); более того, освещая войну во Вьетнаме, он выпустил «Взвод Андерсона» , который получил премию «Оскар» за документальный фильм .
Грэма Грина Действие романа «Тихий американец» происходит во время этой войны.
В 2011 году вьетнамский разработчик программного обеспечения Emobi Games выпустил шутер от первого лица под названием 7554 . Названный в честь даты 07.05.54 (7 мая 1954 г.), знаменующей окончание решающей битвы при Дьенбьенфу, он посвящен Первой Индокитайской войне с вьетнамской точки зрения.
Действие фильма Оливье Лореля « Сиэль Руж в главных ролях » 2017 года с Сирилом Дескуром и Одри Джакомини происходит в начале Первой Индокитайской войны. [237]
См. также
[ редактировать ]- Камбоджийско-вьетнамская война
- Гели Святого Марка
- Франко-тайская война
- Японское вторжение во Французский Индокитай
- Японский государственный переворот во Французском Индокитае
- Индокитайские войны
- Моя резня в Траче
- Вторжение Северного Вьетнама в Лаос
- Вторая Индокитайская война
- Третья Индокитайская война
- Патет Лао
- Объединенный Иссараковский фронт
- Мемориал войнам в Индокитае
- Алжирская война
Ссылки
[ редактировать ]- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Даллоз, Жак (1987). La Guerre d'Indochina 1945–1954 [ Индокитайская война 1945–1954 ] (на французском языке). Париж: Порог. стр. 129–130, 206.
- ^ Кирнан, Бен (1985). Как Пол Пот пришел к власти . Лондон: Verso Books . п. 80.
- ^ Ли Лэннинг, Майкл (2008). Внутри ВК и СВА . Издательство Техасского университета A&M . п. 119. ИСБН 978-1-60344-059-2 .
- ^ Крозье, Брайан (2005). Политическая победа: неуловимый приз военных войн . Издатели транзакций . п. 47. ИСБН 978-0-7658-0290-3 .
- ^ Осень 1994 г. , с. 63.
- ^ Логевалл, Фредрик (2012). Угли войны: падение империи и создание американского Вьетнама . Случайный дом . стр. 596–599. ISBN 978-0-375-75647-4 .
- ^ Виндроу 1998 , с. 23.
- ^ Форд, Дэн. «Японские солдаты с Вьетмином» .
- ^ Абулфараж, Зайнаб. «Индокитай: Когда 85 марокканских дезертиров были репатриированы из Вьетнама в Марокко] . Ябилади (на французском языке) . Проверено 25 октября 2022 г.
- ^ Виндроу 1998 , с. 11
- ^ Фолл, Бернард, Два Вьетнама (1963)
- ^ Экхардт, Уильям, Мировые военные и социальные расходы 1987–88 (12-е изд., 1987), Рут Леже Сивард.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б с д и Клодфелтер, Майкл (1995). Вьетнам в военной статистике .
- ^ Стэнли Катлер, Энциклопедия войны во Вьетнаме (1996)
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- ^ I. ДОКУМЕНТЫ ИЗ РЕЗОЛЮЦИИ АВГУСТОВСКОЙ РЕВОЛЮЦИИ ТОНКИНСКОЙ РЕВОЛЮЦИОННОЙ ВОЕННОЙ КОНФЕРЕНЦИИ [За исключением резолюции Тонкинской революционной военной конференции, состоявшейся с 15 по 20 апреля 1945 года; Ханой, Нхандан, вьетнамский язык, 25 августа 1970 г., стр. 1.4]
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- ^ Хо Ши Мин: Биография . Перевод Клэр Дуикер (иллюстрировано, переиздание). Издательство Кембриджского университета . 2007. с. 108. ИСБН 978-0-521-85062-9 – через Google Книги .
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- ^ Хронология Вьетнама, 1955 г. , VietnamGear.com , получено 18 июля 2015 г.
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- ^ Виндроу 2011 , с. 90.
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- ^ Шихан, Нил (1988). Яркая блестящая ложь . Нью-Йорк: Рэндом Хаус . п. 155 . ISBN 978-0-394-48447-1 .
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- ^ Сима, Р.Дж. (1987). Вьетнам: страновое исследование . Отдел федеральных исследований Библиотеки Конгресса . п. 54.
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- ^ Такер 1999 , с. 54.
- ^ Осень 1994 г. , с. 28.
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- ^ Хаммер, Эллен Дж. (март 1950 г.). «Эксперимент Бао Дая». Тихоокеанские дела . 23 (1): 51–52. дои : 10.2307/2753754 . JSTOR 2753754 .
- ^ Хаммер, Эллен Дж. (март 1950 г.). «Эксперимент Бао Дая». Тихоокеанские дела . 23 (1): 57–58. дои : 10.2307/2753754 . JSTOR 2753754 .
- ^ Дар 2015 , стр. 274–278.
- ^ Виндроу 2011 , стр. 98–104.
- ^ Дар 2015 , стр. 180–181.
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- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Статлер, Кэтрин К. (июль 2007 г.). Замена Франции: истоки американской интервенции во Вьетнаме . Университетское издательство Кентукки . стр. 15–25. ISBN 978-0-8131-2440-7 .
- ^ Документы Пентагона , Часть IV, с. 22 через Викиисточник
- ^ Осень 1963 г. , стр. 108–109.
- ^ «Ключевая битва при Донг Кхе» . Народная армия (на вьетнамском языке) . Проверено 3 сентября 2023 г.
- ^ Осень 1963 г. , стр. 109–110.
- ^ Дар 2015 , с. 244.
- ^ Осень 1963 г. , стр. 110–111.
- ^ Дэвидсон 1988 , с. 101.
- ^ Виндроу 2011 , с. 116.
- ^ Осень 1994 г. , с. 34.
- ^ Виндроу 2011 , с. 79.
- ^ Осень 1994 г. , стр. 34–38.
- ^ Шрейдер 2015 , с. 218.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Шрейдер 2015 , с. 220.
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- ^ Виндроу 2011 , с. 80.
- ^ Такер 2011 , с. 497.
- ^ Гра, Ив (1979). История Индокитайской войны . Пэрис: Плон. п. 408. ИСБН 978-2-259-00478-7 .
- ^ Макфолл Уодделл III, Уильям (2014). В год Тигра: Война за Кочинчину, 1945–1951 гг. (доктор философии). Университет штата Огайо . стр. 338–339. Архивировано из оригинала 29 июля 2023 г. Проверено 29 июля 2023 г.
- ^ «Битва за Индо-Китай: Меченые люди» . Время . 13 августа 1951 года. Архивировано из оригинала 23 ноября 2010 года . Проверено 28 июля 2023 г.
- ^ Осень 1994 г. , стр. 47–48.
- ^ Дэвидсон 1988 , с. 129.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Дэвидсон 1988 , с. 133.
- ^ Осень 1994 г. , с. 59.
- ^ Такер, Спенсер К. (2002). Вьетнамская война и история . Рутледж . п. 65. ИСБН 978-1-135-35779-5 .
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б «Война в Индокитае» (видео) . кинохроника . 26 октября 1950 года . Проверено 20 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б «Bigard et Dien Bien Phu» (видео) . Новости телевидения . Канал 2 (Франция). 3 мая 2004 года . Проверено 20 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Государственный департамент США (1982). Международные отношения США 1952-1954 гг . Типография правительства США . стр. 814–817.
- ^ Дэвидсон 1988 , стр. 223–224.
- ^ «dienbienphu.org» . Архивировано из оригинала 24 октября 2003 года.
- ^ Асселин, Пьер (15 октября 2010 г.). «Демократическая Республика Вьетнам и Женевская конференция 1954 года: ревизионистская критика» . История холодной войны . 11 (2): 155–195. дои : 10.1080/14682740903244934 . S2CID 154533911 . Проверено 19 марта 2023 г.
- ^ Национальное собрание. «Временное правительство и Четвертая республика (1944–1958)» . Архивировано из оригинала 26 сентября 2007 г. Проверено 15 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ Документы Пентагона (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, с. 134.
- ^ Документы Пентагона (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, с. 119.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Документы Пентагона (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, с. 140.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б с д и Херкомб, Питер (2004). «Дьенбьенфу, Хроники забытой битвы» . документальный фильм . Transparences Productions/Channel 2 (Франция). Архивировано из оригинала 21 марта 2007 года.
- ^ «Во Франции бушует война против коммунистов» (видео) . кинохроника . Журнал новостей Screen/Warner Bros., май 1952 г. Проверено 20 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Ретроспектива Бернарда Фолла , презентация Бернарда Б. Фолла , Вьетнамского Свидетеля 1953–56 , Нью-Йорк, Прегер, 1966, Институт Людвига фон Мизеса
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Руссио, Ален (2 августа 2003 г.). «Война в Индокитае: Освободите Анри Мартена» (на французском языке). Человечество. Архивировано из оригинала 4 августа 2003 года . Проверено 20 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Нху Тан, Чыонг (12 марта 1986 г.). «Вьетконговские мемуары: внутренний отчет о войне во Вьетнаме и ее последствиях». Винтаж. ISBN 0-394-74309-1 .
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б с «История Франции, IV республика (1946–1958)» (на французском языке). Энциклопедия фунтов. Архивировано из оригинала 30 августа 2007 года . Проверено 20 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Патрик Песно Avec Rendez vous , -
- ^ « Мы хотели, чтобы газета говорила то, что мы хотели», интервью Дениса Жамбара и Роланда Михаила . Архивировано из оригинала 1 октября 2007 года . Проверено 4 апреля 2023 г.
- ^ «Обращение генерала Шаля (22 апреля 1961 г.)» . Архивировано из оригинала 14 июня 2007 года . Проверено 19 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Генрисальвадор (17 мая 2007 г.). «Джон Фостер Даллес о падении Дьенбьенфу» . Ежедневное движение . Проверено 19 августа 2015 г.
- ^ Ален Руссио (июль 2004 г.). «Дьенбьенфу, символ на все времена» . Дипломатический мир .
- ^ «Ратификация международных договоров по правам человека – Франция» . Библиотека по правам человека Университета Миннесоты.
- ^ Дональдсон, Гэри (1996). Америка в войне с 1945 года: политика и дипломатия в Корее, Вьетнаме и войне в Персидском заливе . Религиоведение; 39 (иллюстрированное изд.). Издательская группа Гринвуд. п. 75. ИСБН 0-275-95660-1 .
- ^ Чен, Кинг К. (2015). Вьетнам и Китай, 1938-1954 гг . Том. 2134 Принстонской библиотеки наследия (переиздание). Издательство Принстонского университета. п. 195. ИСБН 978-1-4008-7490-3 .
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Фонд «Мир во всем мире». «Индокитай: Первая Индокитайская война | Конец массовым злодеяниям» . Проверено 2 августа 2023 г.
- ^ «УКАМ | Индокитайская война | ПЫТКИ, ФРАНЦУЗСКИЙ» .
- ^ Валентино, Бенджамин (2005). Окончательные решения: массовые убийства и геноцид в ХХ веке . Издательство Корнелльского университета . п. 83. ИСБН 978-0-8014-7273-2 .
- ^ Доммен, Артур Дж (20 февраля 2002 г.). Индокитайский опыт французов и американцев: национализм и коммунизм в Камбодже, Лаосе и Вьетнаме . Издательство Университета Индианы. ISBN 978-0-253-10925-5 .
- ^ «Действуют вьетнамские отряды самоубийц» . Канберра Таймс . 30 января 1947 г. Проверено 30 января 2023 г.
- ^ «ИНДО-КИТАЙ: Резня в Кэпе» . Время . 04.08.1952. ISSN 0040-781X . Проверено 30 января 2023 г.
- ^ «Вьетминь протягивает руку помощи» НА СТАНЦИИ ОТДЫХА КАП-СЕН-ЖАК, считающейся больничным центром. Двадцать один человек убит и двадцать три ранены» . Le Monde.fr (на французском языке). 24 июля 1952 г. . Получено 03 февраля 2023 г.
- ^ «Аккуэйль» . Архивировано из оригинала 29 октября 2013 года . Проверено 19 августа 2015 г.
- ^ Альф Эндрю Хеггой и повстанческое движение и борьба с повстанцами в Алжире , Блумингтон, Индиана, Indiana University Press, 1972, стр.175
- ^ « 317-го взвода Сценарий » (PDF) . Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 14 июня 2007 г.
- ^ Конбой, Кеннет (2011). Война в Камбодже 1970–75 . Издательство Блумсбери. ISBN 978-1-78096-138-5 .
- ^ «Оригинальные аудиозаписи передач генерала де Кастри (Дьенбьенфу) и генерала Коньи (Ханой) 7 мая 1954 года во время боя при Дьенбьенфу (с корабля «Европейский навигатор», базирующегося в Люксембурге)» . Ena.lu?lang=2&doc=14652 . Проверено 12 февраля 2021 г.
- ^ «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции, ECPAD» . Архивировано из оригинала 14 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ Раймонд Мюэль; Эрик Деру (1992). Спецслужбы, вооружение, техника, миссии: ГКМА, Индокитай, 1950–1954… . Издания Крепен-Леблон. ISBN 978-2-7030-0100-3 .
- ^ Мишель Давид (2002). Тайная война в Индокитае: коренные маки против Вьетминя (1950–1955) . Лавозель. ISBN 978-2-7025-0636-3 .
- ^ Дьенбьенфу – Секретный отчет , Патрик Джуди, TF1 Video, 2005
- ^ «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции» . Архивировано из оригинала 15 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции» . Архивировано из оригинала 14 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции» . Архивировано из оригинала 16 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ «Доктор Жак Шено во Вьетнаме, 1954 год . Серия восемь» . Архивировано из оригинала 14 октября 2007 года . Проверено 19 мая 2007 г.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Гоща 2008 , стр. 46–49.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б Гоща 2008 , стр. 50–55.
- ^ Игава, Сэй (10 октября 2005 г.). «Японо-вьетнамские отношения основывались на действиях японских добровольцев в войне за независимость Вьетнама» (PDF) . Токийский фонд (на японском языке) . Проверено 6 сентября 2009 г.
- ^ «Полковник Масанобу Цудзи из Малайи» . www.warbirdforum.com . Проверено 15 декабря 2018 г.
- ^ Гоша, Кристофер Э. (2006). «Запоздалые азиатские союзники: технический и военный вклад японских дезертиров (1945–50)». Товарищ по войне во Вьетнаме . Блэквелл Издательская компания . стр. 37–64. дои : 10.1002/9780470997178.ch3 . ISBN 978-0-470-99717-8 .
- ^ «20 век. Какие японские офицеры помогли Хо Ши Мину?» . Обмен историческими стеками . Проверено 15 декабря 2018 г.
- ^ «Японские солдаты, служащие во Вьетмине» . www.warbirdforum.com . Проверено 15 декабря 2018 г.
- ^ Виндроу 2011 , с. 73.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции» . Архивировано из оригинала 27 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции» . Архивировано из оригинала 30 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ Китайский генерал Хоанг Минь Тао и полковник Хоанг Минь Фуонг, цитируется Пьером Журну (исследователем истории обороны (CHED) Парижского университета Пантеон-Сорбонна) в Париже, Ханое, Пекине, опубликовано в журнале Communisme и Парижском институте Пьера Ренувена, 20 июля 2004 г.
- ^ Сяобин, Ли. «Строительство армии Хо: китайская военная помощь Северному Вьетнаму». Издательство Кентуккиского университета, август 2019 г. Страницы 61–62.
- ^ Сяобин, с. 60.
- ^ «Архивы Министерства обороны Франции» . Архивировано из оригинала 14 сентября 2007 года.
- ^ Спектор 1983 , стр. 106–107.
- ^ Документы Пентагона , Часть IV, с. 14 , через Wikisource
- ^ Документы Пентагона , Часть IV, с. 23 - с. 24 , через Wikisource
- ^ Спектор 1983 , стр. 123.
- ^ Спектор 1983 , стр. 115–116.
- ^ «Международные отношения Соединенных Штатов, 1952–1954, Индокитай, Том XIII, Документ 716» . Кабинет историка . Проверено 12 августа 2023 г.
- ^ История Объединенного комитета начальников штабов: Объединенный комитет начальников штабов и первая война в Индокитае, 1947–1954 гг. (PDF) . Вашингтон, округ Колумбия: Типография правительства США. 2004. стр. 151–167. ISBN 0-16-072430-9 . Проверено 16 апреля 2021 г.
- ^ «Оборонная медиатека» . 23 ноября 2006 г. Архивировано из оригинала 23 ноября 2006 г.
- ^ «Война в Индокитае: «добрые услуги» американцев» . Национальный аудиовизуальный институт.
- ^ Конбой, Моррисон, с. 6.
- ^ Перейти обратно: а б с «Пилоты США награждены за службу в Индокитае» (PDF) . Посольство Франции в США, 24 февраля 2005 г. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 11 августа 2011 г. . Проверено 30 марта 2010 г.
- ^ Лири, Уильям Р. (2007). Воздушные операции ЦРУ в Лаосе, 1955–1974 гг. (PDF) . Центральное разведывательное управление . п. 4.
- ^ Лири, Уильям Р. (2007). Воздушные операции ЦРУ в Лаосе, 1955–1974 гг. (PDF) . Центральное разведывательное управление . п. 5.
- ^ Линдхольм, Ричард (1959). Вьетнам, первые пять лет: международный симпозиум . Издательство Мичиганского государственного университета .
- ^ Рабель, Роберто Джорджио (2005). Новая Зеландия и война во Вьетнаме: политика и дипломатия . Окленд, Новая Зеландия: Издательство Оклендского университета . ISBN 1-86940-340-1 . OCLC 62369998 .
- ^ «Коллекционеры Ifop № 29 - 1945–1954: война в Индокитае» . ifop.com (на французском языке) . Проверено 4 апреля 2023 г.
- ↑ Интервью Пьера Шендорфера с Жаном Гинелем в «Некоторые отредактированные фотографии». Архивировано 28 сентября 2007 г., в Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Роман Кармен, кинорежиссёр на службе революции. Архивировано 14 сентября 2007 года, в Wayback Machine , Доминик Шапюи и Патрик Барбери, Kuiv Productions / Arte France, 2001.
- ^ «Синематека Тулузы» . www.lacinemathequedetoulouse.com .
- ^ Сиэль Руж - пресс-кит. Mille et une Productions и Jour2Fête, 2017.
Источники
[ редактировать ]- Баттингер, Джозеф (1972). Непокорный дракону: Краткая история Вьетнама . Нью-Йорк: Прегер. OCLC 583077932 .
- Шалиан, Жерар (1982). Партизанские стратегии: историческая антология от Великого похода в Афганистан . Калифорния: Издательство Калифорнийского университета . ISBN 978-0-520-04443-2 .
- Клодфелтер, М. (2008). Война и вооруженные конфликты: статистическая энциклопедия потерь и других цифр, 1494–2007 гг . Джефферсон, Северная Каролина: Макфарланд. ISBN 978-0-7864-3319-3 .
- Цзянь, Чен (1993). «Китай и Первая Индокитайская война, 1950–54». Китайский ежеквартальный журнал . 133 (март): 85–110. дои : 10.1017/s0305741000018208 . ISSN 0305-7410 . S2CID 155029840 .
- Подарок, Иван (2015). Индокитайская война - От французского Индокитая до прощания с Сайгоном 1940-1956 гг. (на французском языке). Талландье . ISBN 979-10-210-1022-2 – через Интернет-архив .
- Коган, Чарльз Г. (2000). «Отношение США к войне в Индокитае». В Вайсе, Морис (ред.). Французская армия в Индокитайской войне (1946–1954) [ Французская армия в Индокитайской войне (1946–1954) ] (на французском языке). Брюссель: Комплекс. стр. 51–88. ISBN 978-2-87027-810-9 .
- Конбой, Кеннет; Моррисон, Джеймс (1995). Теневая война: Секретная война ЦРУ в Лаосе . Боулдер, Колорадо: Paladin Press. ISBN 978-1-58160-535-8 .
- Девиллерс, Филипп; Лакутюр, Жан (1969). Конец войны: Индокитай, 1954 год . Нью-Йорк: Прегер. OCLC 575650635 .
- Дэвидсон, Филип Б. (1988). Вьетнам в войне: история, 1946–1975 гг . Издательство Оксфордского университета . ISBN 0-89141-306-5 .
- Девиллерс, Филипп (1952). История Вьетнама с 1940 по 1952 год . Порог.
- Девиллерс, Филипп, изд. (1988). Париж-Сайгон-Ханой: Архивы войны 1944–1947 годов [ Париж-Сайгон-Ханой: Архивы войны 1944–1947 годов ] (на французском языке). Галлимар. ISBN 978-2-07-071216-8 .
- Данстан, Саймон (2004). Следы Вьетнама: Броня в бою 1945–75 . Издательство Оспри. ISBN 978-1-84176-833-5 .
- Чепмен, Джессика М. (2010). «Кризис сект 1955 года и приверженность Америки Нго Динь Диму». Журнал вьетнамских исследований . 5 (1). Издательство Калифорнийского университета: 37–85. дои : 10.1525/vs.2010.5.1.37 .
- Фолл, Бернард Б. (1967). Ад в очень маленьком месте: Осада Дьенбьенфу . Филадельфия: Липпинкотт. OCLC 551565485 .
- Фолл, Бернард Б. (1994). Улица без радости: разгром Франции в Индокитае . Книги Стэкпола. ISBN 978-0-8117-1700-7 – через Google Книги .
- Фолл, Бернард Б. (1963). Два Вьетнама: политический и военный анализ . Нью-Йорк: Прегер. OCLC 582302330 – через Интернет-архив .
- Зиап, Во Нгуен (1971). Военное искусство народной войны . Нью-Йорк: Современный читатель. ISBN 978-0-85345-193-8 .
- Гоша, Кристофер Э. (2008). «Глава 3 Запоздалые азиатские союзники: технический и военный вклад японских дезертиров (1945–50)». В «Янг», Мэрилин Б.; Буццанко, Роберт (ред.). Товарищ по войне во Вьетнаме . Джон Уайли и сыновья . ISBN 978-1-4051-7204-2 .
- Хаммер, Эллен Джой (1954). Борьба за Индокитай . Стэнфорд: Издательство Стэнфордского университета . OCLC 575892787 .
- Хамфрис, Джеймс. Ф (1999). Через долину: Вьетнам, 1967–1968 гг . Издательство Линн Риннер. ISBN 978-1-55587-821-4 .
- Холкомб, Алек (2020). Массовая мобилизация в Демократической Республике Вьетнам, 1945–1960 гг . Гавайский университет Press . дои : 10.2307/j.ctv105bb0z . ISBN 978-0-8248-8447-5 . JSTOR j.ctv105bb0z . S2CID 241948426 .
- Марр, Дэвид Г. (2013). Вьетнам: государство, война и революция (1945–1946) . Книга Филиппа Э. Лилиенталя. Том. 6 книги «От Индокитая до Вьетнама: революция и война в глобальной перспективе» (иллюстрированное издание). Издательство Калифорнийского университета . ISBN 978-0-520-27415-0 . ISSN 2691-0403 – через Google Книги .
- Перкинс, Мандейли (2006). Ханой, прощай: горько-сладкие воспоминания о французском Индокитае . Сидней: Харпер Многолетник. ISBN 978-0-7322-8197-7 .
- Рой, Жюль (1963). Битва при Дьенбьенфу . Нью-Йорк: Книги Пирамиды. OCLC 613204239 .
- Шрейдер, Чарльз Р. (2015). Война логистических парашютов и носильщиков в Индокитае, 1945–1954 гг . Университетское издательство Кентукки . ISBN 978-0-8131-6576-9 – через Google Книги .
- Саммерс, Гарри Г. (1995). Исторический атлас Вьетнамской войны . Нью-Йорк: Хоутон Миффлин . ISBN 978-0-395-72223-7 .
- Ти, Лам Куанг (2002). Двадцатипятилетний век: южновьетнамский генерал вспоминает войну в Индокитае до падения Сайгона . Университет Северного Техаса . ISBN 978-1-57441-143-0 .
- Тачман, Барбара Вертхайм (1985). Марш безумия: от Трои до Вьетнама . Random House , Inc. ISBN 978-0-345-30823-8 . Проверено 28 ноября 2010 г. - через Google Книги .
- Такер, Спенсер К. (2011). Энциклопедия войны во Вьетнаме . АВС-КЛИО. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0 – через Google Книги .
- Такер, Спенсер К. (1999). Вьетнам . Университетское издательство Кентукки . ISBN 0-8131-2121-3 – через Интернет-архив .
- Вайс, Морис, изд. (2000). Французская армия в войне в Индокитае (1946–1954) [ L'Armée française dans la guerre d'Indochina (1946–1954) ] (на французском языке). Париж: Editions Complexe. ISBN 978-2-87027-810-9 .
- Уист, Эндрю, изд. (2006). Раскаты грома в нежной стране . Оксфорд: Издательство Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-020-8 .
- Виндроу, Мартин (1998). Французская война в Индокитае, 1946–1954 гг . Издательство Оспри. ISBN 978-1-85532-789-4 .
- Виндроу, Мартин (2011). Последняя долина: политическая, социальная и военная история . Орион. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0 .
- Спектор, Роланд Х. (1983). Совет и поддержка: первые годы 1941–1960 гг . Центр военной истории . ISBN 978-0-16-001600-4 .
- Тоннессон, Штейн (2009). Вьетнам, 1946 год: Как началась война . Издательство Калифорнийского университета . ISBN 978-0-520-25602-6 .
- Гоша, Кристофер Э. (2011). Исторический словарь Индокитайской войны (1945–1954): международный и междисциплинарный подход . NIAS Press / Гавайский университет Press. ISBN 978-87-7694-063-8 . Инструмент онлайн-поиска на веб-сайте UQÀM.
Дальнейшее чтение
[ редактировать ]- Гоша, Кристофер (2012). «Тотальная война» деколонизации? Социальная мобилизация и государственное строительство в коммунистическом Вьетнаме (1949–54)». Война и общество . 31 (2): 136–162. дои : 10.1179/0729247312Z.0000000007 . S2CID 154895681 .
- Гиймо, Франсуа (2012). « Будьте мужчинами!»: Борьба и смерть за государство Вьетнам (1951–54)». Война и общество . 31 (2): 184–210. дои : 10.1179/0729247312Z.0000000009 . S2CID 161301490 .
- Рейли, Бретт (2016). «Суверенные государства Вьетнама, 1945–1955». Журнал вьетнамских исследований . 11 (3–4): 103–139. дои : 10.1525/jvs.2016.11.3-4.103 .
- Лоуренс, Марк Этвуд; Логевалл, Фредрик, ред. (2007). Первая война во Вьетнаме: колониальный конфликт и кризис холодной войны . Издательство Гарвардского университета. ISBN 978-0-674-02392-5 .
- Макхейл, Шон Ф. (2021). Первая война во Вьетнаме: насилие, суверенитет и раскол Юга, 1945–1956 гг . Издательство Кембриджского университета. ISBN 978-1-108-93600-2 .
- Гоша, Кристофер (2022). Дорога на Дьенбьенфу: история первой войны за Вьетнам . Издательство Принстонского университета. ISBN 978-0-691-22865-5 .
Внешние ссылки
[ редактировать ]
- Документы Пентагона, глава 2. Архивировано 6 августа 2011 г. в Wayback Machine.
- Вьетнам: невозможная война
- Фолл, Бернард Б. Улица без радости: разгром Франции в Индокитае
- Официальный сайт ANAPI (Национальная ассоциация бывших военнопленных Индокитая)
- Ханой после возвращения армии с победой (велосипеды раскрыты) Вьетнамский портал
- Фотографии о Первой войне в Индокитае (Архив обороны Франции) (ECPAD) (на французском языке)
- Первая Индокитайская война
- Конфликты 1940-х годов
- 1940-е годы во Французском Индокитае.
- 1940-е годы во Вьетнаме
- Конфликты 1950-х годов
- 1950-е годы во Французском Индокитае.
- 1950-е годы во Вьетнаме
- 20 век во Франции
- 20 век во Вьетнаме
- Конфликты 20-го века
- Китайско-вьетнамские отношения
- Франция-Вьетнамские отношения
- Французская Четвертая Республика
- Индокитайские войны
- Мятежники в Азии
- Вторжения Франции
- Вторжения во Вьетнам
- Прокси-войны
- Сопротивление французской колониальной империи
- Советско-вьетнамские отношения
- Вьет Минь
- Вьетнамское движение за независимость
- Войны с участием Камбоджи
- Войны с участием Франции
- Войны с участием Лаоса
- Войны с участием Китайской Народной Республики
- Войны с участием Советского Союза
- Войны с участием США
- Войны с участием Вьетнама
- Войны за независимость
- Партизанские войны