Head of state

This article is about the type of political position. For other uses, see Head of state (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Head of government.

Absolute monarch

• Salman, King of Saudi Arabia

Executive head (presidential system)

• Joe Biden, President of the United States
• Dina Boluarte, President of Peru

Executive head (semi-presidential system)

• Emmanuel Macron, President of France

Executive head (parliamentary system)

• Cyril Ramaphosa, President of South Africa
• Hilda Heine, President of the Marshall Islands

Ceremonial head (parliamentary system)

• Droupadi Murmu, President of India

Constitutional monarch (parliamentary system)

• Charles III, King of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms
• Naruhito, Emperor of Japan

A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona of a state or sovereign state. The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers; the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more.

In a parliamentary system, such as India or the United Kingdom, the head of state usually has mostly ceremonial powers, with a separate head of government. However, in some parliamentary systems, like South Africa, there is an executive president that is both head of state and head of government. Likewise, in some parliamentary systems the head of state is not the head of government, but still has significant powers, for example Morocco. In contrast, a semi-presidential system, such as France, has both heads of state and government as the de facto leaders of the nation (in practice they divide the leadership of the nation between themselves).

Meanwhile, in presidential systems, the head of state is also the head of government. In one-party ruling communist states, the position of president has no tangible powers by itself; however, since such a head of state, as a matter of custom, simultaneously holds the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party, they are the executive leader with their powers deriving from their status of being the party leader, rather than the office of president.

Former French president Charles de Gaulle, while developing the current Constitution of France (1958), said that the head of state should embody l'esprit de la nation ("the spirit of the nation").

Constitutional models

Grassalkovich Palace in Bratislava is the seat of the President of Slovakia.

Some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of "models".

An independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions. In terms of protocol: the head of a sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch, in the case of a monarchy; or the president, in the case of a republic.

Among the state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:

1. The parliamentary system, with two subset models;
   1. The standard model, in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but such power is exercised on the binding advice of a head of government (e.g. United Kingdom, India, Germany).
   2. The non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (e.g. Sweden, Japan, Israel).
2. The semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g. Russia, France, Sri Lanka); and
3. The presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g. United States, Indonesia, South Korea).

In a federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state. For example, in each Canadian province the role is fulfilled by the lieutenant governor, whereas in most British Overseas Territories the powers and duties are performed by the governor. The same applies to Australian states, Indian states, etc. Hong Kong's constitutional document, the Basic Law, for example, specifies the chief executive as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned.

Parliamentary system

World's parliamentary states (as of 2024):
  Republics with an executive president elected by a parliament
  Parliamentary republics
  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch usually does not personally exercise power
  Presidential republics, one-party states, and other forms of government

Standard model

In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state.

King Harald V of Norway

In parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment. In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain).

In republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.

In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.

For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and then the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had a de facto parliamentary system, but a de jure "presidential" system.

Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Leopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours.

Non-executive model

Two contemporary heads of state who are constitutional monarchs, but with no political power: King Norodom Sihamoni of Cambodia (left), and King Felipe VI of Spain (right).

These officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.

The Constitution of Japan (日本国憲法, Nihonkoku-Kenpō) was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor is defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.

Since the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates their commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.

In contrast, the only contact the president of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.

The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is the President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsoever. The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by the prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.

Executive model

Some parliamentary republics (like South Africa, Botswana and Kiribati) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.

Semi-presidential systems

Charles de Gaulle, President and head of state of the French Fifth Republic (1959–1969)

Main article: Semi-presidential system

Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.

Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German president, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.

Presidential system

George Washington, the first president of the United States, set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican systems of government

Main article: Presidential system

Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold the title of "president" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office.

Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called the "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system.

Presidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico and Venezuela; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état, as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g., Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.

Single-party states

In certain states under Marxist–Leninist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).

This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il Sung, the office was vacant for years. The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of "Eternal President". All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il. The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China.

In China, under the current country's constitution, the Chinese President is a largely ceremonial office with limited power. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one party system. The presidency is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative.

Complications with categorisation

George V, Emperor of India, and Empress Mary at the Delhi Durbar, 1911.

While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.

Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model.

Another complication exists with South Africa, in which the president is in fact elected by the National Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state. The offices of president of Nauru and president of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.

Panama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces.

Historically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920–1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India.

Roles

Coronation ceremony: Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in her coronation portrait on 2 June 1953.

Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.

Symbolic role

One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians".

In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.

Other common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.

Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.

At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.

The Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.

As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant.

For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.

Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:
  • The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws.
• Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:
  • (1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.
  • (2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand.
• Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:
  • The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.
• Example 4 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:
  • The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.
• Example 5 (parliamentary republic): Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:
  • The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
• Example 6 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:
  • The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
• Example 7 (presidential republic): Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:
  • (1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states.
  • (2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution.
• Example 8 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:
  • The President of the Republic shall be Head of State.
  • He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws.
• Example 9 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:
  • 1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State.
  • 2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms. In accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.
• Example 10 (presidential republic): Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:
  • The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of "President of the Argentine Nation".

Executive role

In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:
  • Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.
• Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:
  • The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.
• Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:
  • The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.
• Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:
  • The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.
• Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:
  • The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.
• Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:
  • The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.
• Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:
  • The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.

The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.

Appointment of senior officials

The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.

In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.

In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.

The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:
  • The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.
    The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.
• Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:
  • The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.
• Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:
  • The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.
• Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:
  • The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:
    • I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State:
    • XIII -...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them;
    • XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law;
    • XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts;
    • XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union;
    • XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII
    • XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law.

Some countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.

Diplomatic role

Tekiso Hati, ambassador of the Kingdom of Lesotho, presenting his credentials to Russian president Vladimir Putin

Daniel B. Shapiro, U.S. ambassador to Israel, presents his credentials to Israeli president Shimon Peres on 3 August 2011

A 1992 letter of credence, written in French, for the Czechoslovakian Ambassador to Lithuania, signed by the President of Czechoslovakia and addressed to his Lithuanian counterpart

Although many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognised as such by other countries. In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state. The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) their country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a letter of credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts. Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2017) 191 sovereign states has ratified.

However, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).

The head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature. The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states. However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g., between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:
  • 1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.
  • 2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.
• Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:
  • The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..
• Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
  • The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.
• Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:
  • The President of the Russian Federation:
    • a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;
    • b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;
    • c) shall sign instruments of ratification;
    • d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.
• Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:
  • The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.

In Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the royal prerogative, but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.

Military role

Main article: Commander in Chief

Albert II, King of the Belgians inspecting troops on Belgium's national day in 2011

Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France and General Jean-Louis Georgelin, Chief of the Defence Staff, reviewing troops during the 2008 Bastille Day military parade on the Champs-Élysées in Paris

A head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.

In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military manoeuvres is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.

In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond the normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:
  • The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen.
• Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:
  • The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting.
  • The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.
• Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:
  • The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy.
• Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
  • The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees.
• Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:
  • The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.
• Example 6 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:
  • The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.
• Example 7 (executive monarchy): Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:
  • The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. He shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.

Some countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers.

• In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peacetime (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the federal chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.
• In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the minister of defence on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the minister is the chief of general staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.

The armed forces of the Communist states are under the absolute control of the Communist party.

• In China, the command-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army is the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but not the President of China, however, in practice, these offices are held by the same person, who is also General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party.

Legislative roles

It is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America, or the State of the Nation Address in South Africa.

Most countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure royal assent.

• Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:
  • The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.
• Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:
  • Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.
• Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:
  • The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.
• Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:
  • The President of the Russian Federation:
    • a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;
    • c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;
    • d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;
    • e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;
    • f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.
• Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:
  • Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated...
• Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:
  • The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:
    • III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;
    • IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;
    • V - veto bills, wholly or in part;
    • XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary;
    • XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution;
    • XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session.
• Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:
  • 1. Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.
  • 2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.
  • 3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.

In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain discretionary powers in relation to bills to be exercised. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.

If the head of state also serves as the chief executive, the head of state can politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

Summoning and dissolving the legislature

A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g., Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.

• Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:
  • The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.
• Example 2 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
  • The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.
• Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:
  • The President of the Russian Federation:
    • b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;

Other prerogatives

Granting titles and honours

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:
  • The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.
• Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:
  • The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honourably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.
    No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.
• Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:
  • The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.

Immunity

See also: Sovereign immunity and Immunity from prosecution (international law)

• Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:
  • The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State.
• Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:
  • The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council.
• Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:
  • (1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offence or other administrative delict.
  • (2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.
  • (3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offences committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever.
• Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:
  • 1. The President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions.
  • 2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office.
  • 3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election.
  • 4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended.
• Example 5 (executive monarchy): Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:
  • The Emir is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.

Reserve powers

See also: reserve power

• Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
  • Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.
    He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.
    The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties. The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.
    Parliament shall sit as of right.
    The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.
    After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.
• Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:
  • Article 69
    • The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.
  • Article 70
    • The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.

Right of pardon

See also: Pardon

• Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:
  • The King can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament.
• Example 2 (parliamentary republic): According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:
  • He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation.
• Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
  • The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons.
• Example 4 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:
  • ...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.
• Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic): Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:
  • The President may-
    • (a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;
    • (b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;
    • (c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or
    • (d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.

Official title

In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or have had other titles. Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g., Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.

Though president and various monarchical titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning leader in the national language, e.g., Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the Führer between 1934 and 1945.

In 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara ("head of state" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first president.

In 1959 after the resignation of Vice President Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; "panglima" meaning "commander or martial figurehead", "tertinggi" meaning "highest"; roughly translated to English as "Supreme Commander of the Revolution"). He was praised as "Paduka Yang Mulia", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.

There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Chinese President Liu Shaoqi, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Vice Presidents Soong Ching-ling and Dong Biwu, then to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, but Chairman Mao Zedong was still the paramount leader. This situation was later changed: the President of the People's Republic of China is now the head of state. Although the presidency is a largely ceremonial office with limited power, the symbolic role of a head of state is now generally performed by Xi Jinping, who is also General Secretary of the Communist Party (Communist Party leader) and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (Supreme Military Command), making him the most powerful person in China.

In North Korea, the late Kim Il Sung was named "Eternal President" four years after his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the president were constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the de jure role of head of state lies within the President of the State Affairs Commission, currently Kim Jong Un, who as the General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of North Korea, is the most powerful person in North Korea.

There is debate as to whether Samoa was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.

В некоторых штатах должность главы государства не выражена в конкретном титуле, отражающем эту роль, а конституционно присуждается должности другого формального характера. Полковник Муаммар Каддафи первоначально правил одновременно главой государства и некоторое время главой правительства Ливийской Арабской Республики , называясь председателем Совета революционного командования. В 1977 году на смену предыдущей республике пришла Ливийская Джамахирия («государство масс»), а в марте 1979 года роль главы государства была передана генеральному секретарю Всеобщего народного конгресса (сопоставимому со спикером); Однако на практике Каддафи оставался де-факто лидером как «Руководитель революции» до своего свержения в 2011 году.

Иногда глава государства вступает в должность, когда государство становится юридической и политической реальностью, прежде чем будет определено официальное название высшей должности; таким образом, в независимой республике Камерун с 1 января 1960 года ( Камерун , бывшая французская колония) первый президент Ахмаду Бабатура Ахиджо сначала не назывался президентом , а был «просто» известен как шеф-повар (по-французски «глава государства»). «) до 5 мая 1960 года. В Уганде , Иди Амин военачальник после переворота 25 января 1971 года, был формально назначен военным главой государства до 21 февраля 1971 года, и только с тех пор в качестве обычного (но неконституционного, неизбираемого) президента.

В некоторых случаях необходим особый стиль, чтобы приспособить несовершенную государственность, например, титул Садр-и-Риясат использовался в Кашмире после его присоединения к Индии, а Организации освобождения Палестины лидер Ясир Арафат был назван первым «президентом Палестинская национальная администрация » в 1994 году. В 2008 году эта же должность была переименована в « Президент Государства Палестина ».

Исторические европейские перспективы

• Полис в греческой античности и эквивалентные ему города-государства в феодальную эпоху и позже (многие в Италии, Священной Римской империи , мавританская тайфа в Иберии , по существу племенного типа, но урбанизированные регионы по всему миру в цивилизации майя и т. д.). ) предлагают широкий спектр стилей, как монархических (в основном идентичных омонимам в более крупных штатах), так и республиканских, см. Главный магистрат .
• Дожи избирались своими итальянскими аристократическими республиками из патрицианской знати, но «царствовали» как суверенные герцоги.
• Парадоксальный термин « коронованная республика» относится к различным государственным устройствам, сочетающим в себе «республиканские» и «монархические» характеристики.
• были Исторически в Нидерландах чиновники, называемые штатгальтерами и генеральными штатгальтерами , титулы, означающие «лейтенант» или «губернатор», первоначально принадлежали монархам Габсбургов .

В средневековой католической Европе было общепринято, что Папа занимает первое место среди всех правителей, а за ним следует император Священной Римской империи . Папа также имел исключительное право определять приоритет всех остальных. Этот принцип был впервые оспорен протестантским правителем Густавом Адольфом из Швеции , а позже был поддержан его страной на Вестфальском конгрессе . Позже Великобритания заявила о нарушении старого принципа Четверного союза в 1718 году. Однако только на Венском конгрессе 1815 года было решено (из-за упразднения Священной Римской империи в 1806 году и слабой позиции Франции и других католических государств в плане самоутверждения) и остается таковым по сей день, что ко всем суверенным государствам относятся как к равным, будь то монархии или республики. В тех случаях, когда встречаются несколько глав государств или их представителей, приоритет определяется принимающей стороной, обычно определяемой в алфавитном порядке (на любом языке, который определяет принимающая сторона, хотя французский язык на протяжении большей части XIX и XX веков был лингва-франка дипломатии) или дата присоединения. Современное международное право о приоритете, построенное на общепризнанных принципах с 1815 года, вытекает из Венской конвенции о дипломатических сношениях (в частности, статей 13, 16.1 и Приложения iii).

• Европейские писатели 16-17 веков.
• 
  Титульный лист итальянского издания « Принца » Макиавелли 1550 года.
• 
  Боден назван на титульном листе книги Discorsi politici (1602 г.) Фабио Альбергати, который невыгодно сравнил политические теории Бодена с теориями Аристотеля.
• 
  Фронтиспис картины Томаса Гоббса « Левиафан » (1651 г.)

Никколо Макиавелли использовал «Принц» ( итальянский : Principe ) как общий термин для обозначения правителя, аналогичный современному использованию слова «глава государства» , в своем классическом трактате «Государь» , первоначально опубликованном в 1532 году: фактически этот конкретный литературный жанр, к которому он принадлежит, известен как Зеркала для принцев . Томас Гоббс в своем «Левиафане» (1651) использовал термин «Суверен» . В Европе роль монархов постепенно перешла от роли суверенного правителя – в смысле Божественного права королей , сформулированного Жаном Боденом , абсолютизмом и « L'etat c'est moi » – к роли конституционного монарха. ; параллельно с концептуальной эволюцией суверенитета от просто личного правления одного человека к Вестфальскому суверенитету ( Вестфальский мир, положивший конец Тридцатилетней войне и Восьмидесятилетней войне ) и народному суверенитету по согласию управляемых ; как показано в Славной революции 1688 года в Англии и Шотландии , Французской революции 1789 года и Немецкой революции 1918–1919 годов . Монархии, пережившие эту эпоху, были теми, кто был готов подчинить себя конституционным ограничениям.

Временные и исключительные случаи

Если глава государства по какой-либо причине недоступен, конституционные положения могут позволить временно передать эту роль назначенному лицу или коллективному органу. В республике это – в зависимости от положений, изложенных в конституции или импровизированных – вице-президент , глава правительства, законодательный орган или его председательствующий. В монархии это обычно регент или коллегиальное регентство (совет). Например, в Соединенных Штатах вице-президент действует, когда президент недееспособен, а в Соединенном Королевстве полномочия монарха могут быть делегированы государственным советникам , когда они находятся за границей или недоступны. Ни один из двух соправителей Андорры не является резидентом Андорры; каждый из них представлен в Андорре делегатом, хотя эти лица не имеют официального титула.

Существует также несколько методов преемственности главы государства в случае смещения, инвалидности или смерти действующего главы государства.

В исключительных ситуациях, таких как война, оккупация, революция или государственный переворот , конституционные институты, включая символически важного главу государства, могут быть низведены до номинального руководителя или приостановлены в пользу чрезвычайного ведомства (такого, как первоначальный римский диктатор ) или устранен новым «временным» режимом, таким как коллектив типа хунты , или устранен оккупационной силой, такой как военный губернатор (ранним примером является спартанский Хармост ).

Общий глава нескольких государств

В Европе раннего Нового времени один человек часто был монархом одновременно нескольких государств. Составная монархия — это ретроспективный ярлык для тех случаев, когда государства управлялись совершенно отдельно. Говоря современным языком, личный союз имел меньшую координацию со стороны правительства, чем настоящий союз . Один из двух соправителей Андорры является президентом Франции .

Такие механизмы не следует путать с наднациональными образованиями, которые не являются государствами и не определяются общей монархией, но могут (или не иметь) иметь символическую, по существу протокольную, титулованную высшую должность, например, Главу Содружества (занимаемую Британской империей). монарх, но не закреплен за ним по закону) или «Глава Арабского союза» (14 февраля — 14 июля 1958 г., принадлежал королю Ирака во время его недолговечной Хашимитской федерации с Иорданией ).

Царства Содружества

Основная статья: Генерал-губернатор § Современное Содружество

Лорд Твидсмюр (слева) был генерал-губернатором Канады с 1935 по 1940 год;
Сэр Паулиас Матане (справа) был генерал-губернатором Папуа-Новой Гвинеи с 2004 по 2010 год.

Королевства Содружества имеют одного монарха, в настоящее время Карла III . В других королевствах, кроме Соединенного Королевства, генерал-губернатор ( генерал-губернатор в Канаде) назначается сувереном, обычно по рекомендации соответствующего премьер-министра (хотя иногда это основано на результате голосования в соответствующем парламенте). , что относится к Папуа-Новой Гвинее и Соломоновым Островам ), в качестве представителя и осуществлять почти все королевские прерогативы в соответствии с установленной конституционной властью. В Австралии нынешний король обычно считается главой государства, поскольку генерал-губернатор и губернаторы штатов определяются как его «представители». Однако, поскольку генерал-губернатор выполняет почти все национальные королевские функции, генерал-губернатора иногда называют главой государства в политических дискуссиях и дискуссиях в средствах массовой информации. В меньшей степени неопределённость была выражена в Канаде относительно того, какое должностное лицо — монарх, генерал-губернатор или оба — может считаться главой государства. Новая Зеландия, Папуа-Новая Гвинея , и Тувалу прямо называть монарха своим главой государства (хотя конституция Тувалу гласит, что «ссылки в любом законе на главу государства должны читаться как включающие ссылку на генерал-губернатора» ). Во время государственных и официальных визитов с генерал-губернаторами часто обращаются как с главами государств; в ООН им предоставлен статус главы государства в дополнение к суверену.

Пример отступления генерал-губернатора от конституционного собрания , действуя в одностороннем порядке (то есть без указания министров, парламента или монарха), произошел в 1926 году, когда генерал-губернатор Канады отказался от официального совета главы правительства с просьбой о роспуске парламента и всеобщие выборы. В письме, информирующем монарха после этого события, генерал-губернатор сказал: «Я должен дождаться вердикта истории, чтобы доказать, что я выбрал неправильный курс, и я делаю это с чистой совестью, правильно или неправильно, я действовал. в интересах Канады и никого больше не вовлекал в свое решение».

Другой пример произошел, когда во время австралийского конституционного кризиса 1975 года генерал-губернатор неожиданно уволил премьер-министра, чтобы выйти из тупика между Палатой представителей и Сенатом по поводу денежных законопроектов. Генерал-губернатор выступил с публичным заявлением, в котором заявил, что, по его мнению, это единственное решение, согласующееся с конституцией, его присягой при вступлении в должность, а также его обязанностями, полномочиями и долгом как генерал-губернатора. королевы личного секретаря В письме тогдашнего Мартина Чартерис подтверждалось, что единственным человеком, компетентным назначать австралийского премьер-министра, был генерал-губернатор, и что монарху было бы неправильно лично вмешиваться в вопросы, которые регулируются Конституцией. явно входит в юрисдикцию генерал-губернатора.

Другими королевствами Содружества, которые теперь имеют генерал-губернатора в качестве вице-королевского представителя Карла III, являются: Антигуа и Барбуда , Багамские Острова , Белиз , Гренада , Ямайка , Новая Зеландия , Сент-Китс и Невис , Сент-Люсия , Сент-Винсент и Гренадины .

Религиозные главы государств

Франциск , с марта 2013 года суверен города-государства Ватикан , по должности . должность Папы

Начиная с древности , различные династии или отдельные правители заявляли о праве на управление посредством божественной власти, например, на основании Небесного Мандата и божественного права королей . Некоторые монархи даже заявляли о своем божественном происхождении, например египетские фараоны и инки Сапа , которые заявляли о своем происхождении от своих богов Солнца и часто стремились сохранить эту родословную, практикуя кровосмесительные браки . В Древнем Риме , во времена принципата , титул divus («божественный») был присвоен (особенно посмертно) императору , что было символическим, легитимирующим элементом в установлении фактической династии.

христианство

В римском католицизме папа Папской когда-то был верховным понтификом и главой государства, прежде всего политически важной области . После объединения Италии Папа остается главой государства Ватикан . Более того, епископ Уржельский является по должности одним из двух соправителей Андорры . В англиканской церкви правящий монарх носит титул Защитника веры и выступает в качестве верховного правителя англиканской церкви, хотя это чисто символическая роль.

ислам

Абдул-Меджид II — 150-й и последний халиф ислама из династии Османов.

В ислама ранний период халифы были духовными и мирскими абсолютными преемниками Мухаммеда . С тех пор различные политические мусульманские лидеры называли себя халифами и выполняли функции династических глав государств, иногда в дополнение к другому титулу, например, османскому султану . Исторически сложилось так, что некоторые теократические исламские государства, известные как имаматы, возглавлялись имамами в качестве глав государств, например, на территории нынешнего Омана , Йемена и Саудовской Аравии .

В Исламской Республике Иран Верховный лидер в настоящее время Али Хаменеи является главой государства . Ага Ханы , уникальная династия светских/религиозных лидеров, возглавляющая низаритское ответвление шиитского ислама Британской Индии в Центральной и Южной Азии, когда-то входившая в число княжеств , продолжает существовать и по сей день.

индуизм

В индуизме некоторые династии принимали титул, выражающий их позицию «слуги» божества-покровителя государства, но в смысле наместника при отсутствующем боге-короле , правящем «от имени» бога-покровителя (бога-покровителя). , такие как Падманабха дас слуга Вишну) в случае махараджи Траванкора ( .

буддизм

Со времен 5-го Далай-ламы и до политического ухода 14-го Далай-ламы в 2011 году Далай-ламы были как политическими, так и духовными лидерами («королями-богами») Тибета .

Внешняя Монголия , бывшая родина императорской династии Чингисхана , была еще одной ламаистской теократией с 1585 года, использовавшей различные стили, такие как тулку . Создание Коммунистической Монгольской Народной Республики заменило этот режим в 1924 году.

Несколько или коллективные главы государств

См. Также: Директивная система и Категория: Коллективные главы государств.

Иногда несколько человек являются равноправными главами государства, или корпоративное лицо выполняет функции главы государства. В некоторых случаях старшинство среди членов коллектива меняется по мере прохождения срока полномочий. Среди множественных королевских систем диархию , в которой два правителя являются конституционной нормой, можно отличить от сосуществования , при котором монархия переживает исключительный период существования нескольких правителей. Примеры коллективных республиканских систем включают номинальные триумвираты ; Французская Директория 1790-х годов; , состоящий из семи членов Федеральный совет Швейцарии , где каждый член по очереди исполняет обязанности президента в течение одного года; Президиум Боснии и Герцеговины с членами из трех стран; два капитана-регента Сан -Марино , что поддерживает традицию итальянских средневековых республик, в которых всегда было четное количество консулов.

В Римской республике было два главы государства, называвшиеся консулами , оба из которых чередовали месяцы власти в течение года своего пребывания в должности; аналогичным образом в италийских республиках древней эпохи было четное число высших магистратов. В Афинской республике было девять высших магистратов, называемых архонтами . В Карфагене было два верховных магистрата, которых называли королями или суффетами (судьями). В древней Спарте было два потомственных царя, принадлежавших к двум династиям.

В Советском Союзе Президиум коллективного Верховного Совета (с 1938 по 1989 год) выполнял функции главы государства . После Второй мировой войны советскую модель впоследствии взяли на вооружение почти все страны, входившие в сферу ее влияния . Чехословакия оставалась единственной страной среди них, которая на протяжении всего этого периода сохраняла должность президента как форму единого главы государства; Польша и Венгрия , которые изначально имели конституции западного типа (и, следовательно, президентство западного типа), перешли на модель президиума с принятием новых конституций под советским влиянием; Румыния , которая до прихода к власти СССР была монархией, была единственной страной, которая перешла к унитарному президентству от коллективного главы государства, шаг, сделанный диктатором Николае Чаушеску в 1974 году.

Современный пример коллективного главы государства – Совет Суверенитета Судана , временный правящий совет Судана . В состав Суверенного совета входят 11 министров, которые вместе выполняли все правительственные функции Судана после падения президента Омара аль-Башира . Решения принимаются либо консенсусом, либо квалифицированным большинством голосов (8 членов).

Национальное правительство Китайской Республики , созданное в 1928 году, имело группу из примерно 40 человек в качестве коллективного главы государства. Хотя начиная с того же года временная конституция сделала Гоминьдан единственной правительственной партией , а национальное правительство было обязано подчиняться инструкциям Центрального исполнительного комитета этой партии.

Легитимность

Должность главы государства может создаваться по-разному и с разными источниками легитимности.

По вымыслу или указу

Власть может исходить от силы, но формальная легитимность часто устанавливается, даже если только посредством фиктивных заявлений о преемственности (например, поддельное заявление о происхождении от предыдущей династии ). Были случаи предоставления суверенитета преднамеренным действием, даже если оно сопровождалось приказом о престолонаследии (как это может быть в случае династического раскола). Такие гранты суверенитета обычно являются принудительными, как это часто бывает с самоопределением, предоставленным после националистических восстаний. Это произошло с последним Атталидом царем эллинистического Пергама , который по завещанию оставил свое царство Риму, чтобы избежать катастрофического завоевания.

По божественному назначению

В условиях теократии воспринимаемый божественный статус трансформировался в земную власть согласно божественному закону . Это может принимать форму высшей божественной власти над государственной, предоставляя священству инструмент политического влияния . Таким образом, жречество Амона обратило вспять реформы фараона Эхнатона после его смерти. Разделение теократической власти может быть оспорено, как это произошло между Папой и императором Священной Римской империи в конфликте об инвеституре , когда светская власть стремилась контролировать ключевые кандидатуры духовенства, чтобы гарантировать народную поддержку и, следовательно, свою собственную легитимность, путем включения формальной церемонии. помазания . во коронации время

По социальному контракту

Понятие общественного договора утверждает, что нация – либо весь народ, либо электорат – дает мандат посредством одобрения или выборов .

По конституции

Отдельные главы государств могут получить свою должность на основании конституции , обычно в качестве переходной меры в рамках установления новой формы правления, установленной конституцией: например, переходное положение 1 Конституции Италии гласит, что после вступления конституции в силу в силу, временный глава государства автоматически станет президентом Италии . Крайним примером такого подхода являются Сейшельские Острова , где в статье 31 Конституции независимости 1976 года говорилось, что Джеймс Мэнчем будет первым президентом Сейшельских островов по имени, а не по факту, что он был премьер-министром колониальных Сейшельских островов непосредственно перед обретением независимости.

По наследственной преемственности

Абсолютная когнатическая диаграмма первородства. Легенда:

• Серый: действующий президент
• Квадрат: мужской
• Круг: женский
• Черный: умер
• Диагональ: не может быть смещена

Положение монарха обычно передается по наследству , но в конституционных монархиях обычно существуют ограничения на осуществление полномочий действующего президента и запреты на возможность выбора преемника иными способами, чем по рождению. В наследственной монархии положение монарха наследуется в соответствии с установленным законом или обычным порядком наследования , обычно внутри одной королевской семьи, прослеживающей свое происхождение через историческую династию или родословную. Обычно это означает, что наследник престола известен задолго до того, как он станет монархом, чтобы обеспечить плавную преемственность. Однако многие случаи неопределенной преемственности в европейской истории часто приводили к войнам за престолонаследие .

Первородство , при котором старший ребенок монарха становится первым в очереди на то, чтобы стать монархом, является наиболее распространенной системой в наследственной монархии. На порядок преемственности обычно влияют правила, касающиеся пола. Исторически было предпочтительным «первородство по мужской линии» или «первородство по отцовской линии», то есть наследование в соответствии со старшинством рождения среди сыновей монарха или главы семьи , при этом сыновья и их потомки мужского пола наследовали раньше братьев и их потомков мужского пола, вплоть до полного исключения. женщин и потомков через женщин по наследству. Это полное исключение женщин из династической преемственности обычно называют применением закона Салика . Другим вариантом первородства по мужской линии был так называемый полусалический закон, или «родственно-родственное первородство», который позволял женщинам добиваться успеха только при исчезновении всех потомков мужского пола по мужской линии конкретного законодателя.

находились два короля До того, как первородство было закреплено в европейских законах и традициях, короли часто обеспечивали наследование, коронуя своего преемника (обычно старшего сына) при их жизни, поэтому какое-то время в соправительстве - старший король и младший. король. Примеры включают Генриха Молодого короля Англии и первых прямых капетингов во Франции.

Однако иногда первородство может действовать по женской линии. В некоторых системах женщина может править как монарх только тогда, когда мужская линия, восходящая к общему предку, исчерпана. В 1980 году Швеция , переписав Акт о престолонаследии 1810 года , стала первой монархией, объявившей равное (полное родственное) первородство, что означает, что старший ребенок монарха, будь то женщина или мужчина, восходит на трон. Другие европейские монархии (например, Нидерланды в 1983 году, Норвегия в 1990 году и Бельгия в 1991 году) с тех пор последовали этому примеру. Аналогичные реформы были предложены в 2011 году для Соединенного Королевства и других стран Содружества , которые вступили в силу в 2015 году после одобрения всеми затронутыми странами. Иногда религия затрагивается ; согласно Акту об урегулировании 1701 года все католики и все лица, вступившие в брак с католиками, не имеют права быть британскими монархами и исключаются в порядке наследования.

В некоторых монархиях действующий президент или какой-либо орган, созванный после смерти монарха, может иметь свободу выбирать из подходящих членов правящего дома , часто ограничиваясь законными потомками основателя династии. Правила наследования могут быть дополнительно ограничены государственной религией , местом жительства, равным браком или даже разрешением законодательного органа .

Другие наследственные системы преемственности включали танистрию , которая является полувыборной и придает значение заслугам и старшинству по мужской линии . В некоторых монархиях, таких как Саудовская Аравия , наследование престола обычно сначала переходит к следующему старшему брату монарха, и только после этого к детям монарха (старшинство по мужской линии).

По выборам

Страны, в которых избирательная система напрямую избирает главу государства, по типам

  Двухтуровая система (мажоритарное голосование)

  Множественное голосование (множественное голосование)

  Мгновенное второе голосование (ранжированное большинство голосов)

Выборы обычно являются конституционным способом избрания главы государства в республике и некоторых монархиях либо напрямую посредством всенародных выборов, либо косвенно членами законодательного органа, либо специальной коллегией выборщиков (например, Коллегией выборщиков в США ). или как исключительная прерогатива. Исключительная прерогатива позволяет главам государств составляющих монархий федерации выбирать между собой главу государства федерации, как в Объединенных Арабских Эмиратах и ​​Малайзии . Папа, глава государства Ватикан, избирается заранее назначенными кардиналами в возрасте до 80 лет из своей среды на папском конклаве .

По предварительной записи

Глава государства может быть уполномочен назначить своего преемника, например, лорда-протектора Содружества Оливера Кромвеля , которому наследовал его сын Ричард .

Силой или революцией

Глава государства может захватить власть силой или революцией . Это не то же самое, что использование силы для сохранения власти, как это практикуется авторитарными или тоталитарными правителями. Диктаторы часто используют демократические титулы, хотя некоторые провозглашают себя монархами. Примеры последних включают императора Франции Наполеона I и короля Албании Зога . В Испании генерал Франсиско Франко принял формальный титул Jefe del Estado , или главы государства, и утвердился в качестве регента вакантной монархии. из Уганды Иди Амин был одним из нескольких, назвавших себя пожизненным президентом .

По иностранному навязыванию

Иностранная держава может создать ветвь своей собственной династии или ветвь, дружественную их интересам. Часто это было результатом войн между Римской империей и Парфянской империей за контроль над Арменией , жизненно важным буферным государством между двумя царствами. Римско -парфянская война 58–63 годов закончилась компромиссом: отныне на армянском престоле должен был сидеть парфянский князь из линии Аршакидов , но его кандидатура должна была быть одобрена римским императором .

Потеря

Помимо насильственного свержения, пост главы государства может быть потерян несколькими способами, включая смерть, или истечение конституционного срока полномочий, отречение от престола или отставку. В некоторых случаях отречение не может произойти в одностороннем порядке, а вступает в силу только после одобрения актом парламента, как в случае с британским королем Эдуардом VIII . Эта должность также может быть упразднена путем внесения изменений в конституцию; в таких случаях действующему лицу может быть разрешено завершить свой срок. Конечно, должность главы государства перестанет существовать, если исчезнет само государство.

Главы государств, как правило, пользуются самой широкой неприкосновенностью, хотя в некоторых штатах допускается импичмент или аналогичная конституционная процедура, посредством которой высшие законодательные или судебные органы имеют право отозвать мандат главы государства на исключительных основаниях. Это может быть общеуголовное преступление, политический грех или действие, которым глава государства нарушает такие положения, как установленная религия, обязательная для монарха. По аналогичной процедуре первоначальный мандат может быть признан недействительным.

Бывшие главы государств

Национальный памятник императору Вильгельму I в Берлине, Германия, посвященный 1897 году, почти через 10 лет после его смерти. Памятник был разрушен коммунистическим правительством в 1950 году.

Чучела , мемориалы и памятники бывшим главам государств могут быть спроектированы так, чтобы представлять историю или чаяния государства или его народа, например, конная бронзовая скульптура кайзера Вильгельма I , первого императора объединенной Германии. возведен в Берлине в конце девятнадцатого века; или Мемориал Виктории, возведенный перед Букингемским дворцом в Лондоне в память о королеве Виктории и ее правлении (1837–1901 гг.) и открытый в 1911 году ее внуком, королем Георгом V ; или памятник , установленный перед Мемориальным залом Виктории в Калькутте (1921 г.), посвященный правлению королевы Виктории в качестве императрицы Индии с 1876 г. Другим примером двадцатого века является Национальный мемориал на горе Рашмор , групповая скульптура, построенная (1927–1941) на заметном горизонте в Блэк-Хиллз Южной Дакоты ( 40-й штат Союза, 1889 г. ), на Среднем Западе Соединенных Штатов , представляющая собой территориальное расширение Соединенных Штатов в первые 130 лет с момента их основания, которое пропагандируется как «Храм демократии ».

Личное влияние или привилегии

Бывшие президенты Соединенных Штатов, хотя и не обладают политической властью как таковой , иногда продолжают оказывать влияние на национальные и мировые дела.

Монарх может сохранить свой стиль и определенные прерогативы после отречения, как это сделал король Бельгии Леопольд III , который оставил трон своему сыну после победы на референдуме, который позволил ему сохранить полный королевский двор и лишил его конституционной или представительской роли. Наполеон превратил итальянское княжество Эльба , где он был заключен в тюрьму, в миниатюрную версию своей Первой Империи, с большинством атрибутов суверенной монархии, пока его побег Cent Jours и повторный захват власти во Франции не убедили его противников, возобновив Венский конгресс в 1815 года, чтобы лишить его безвозмездных привилегий и отправить умирать в ссылку на бесплодную остров Святой Елены .

По традиции свергнутые монархи, которые не отреклись от престола добровольно, продолжают использовать свои монархические титулы в качестве знака вежливости до конца своей жизни. Следовательно, даже после того, как Константин II перестал быть королем эллинов , по-прежнему принято называть свергнутого короля и его семью так, как если бы Константин II все еще находился на троне, как это делают многие европейские королевские дворы и домохозяйства в списках гостей королевских дворов. свадьбы, как в Швеции в 2010 году , Великобритании в 2011 году и Люксембурге в 2012 году . Нынешняя Греческая Республика выступает против права своего свергнутого монарха и бывших членов королевской семьи называться по прежним титулам или носить фамилию, указывающую на королевский статус, и приняла закон, который препятствует получению греческого гражданства , если эти условия не будут выполнены. Бывший король подал этот вопрос, наряду с вопросами собственности, в Европейский суд по правам человека в связи с предполагаемыми нарушениями Европейской конвенции по правам человека , но проиграл в вопросе об имени.

государства Однако в некоторых других штатах нет проблем с тем, что свергнутых монархов называют по их прежнему титулу, и даже разрешают им путешествовать за границу по дипломатическому паспорту .

Конституция Италии предусматривает, что бывший президент Республики принимает титул почетного президента Итальянской Республики, а также является пожизненным сенатором и пользуется иммунитетом, статусом полета и определенными привилегиями официального проживания.

См. также

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Библиография

• Фокс, Джоан (2014). Позиция глав государств и старших должностных лиц в международном праве . Оксфордская библиотека международного права. Оксфорд, Великобритания: Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-19-964028-7 .
• Марквелл, Дональд (2016). Конституционные конвенции и главенство государства: опыт Австралии . Коннор Корт. ISBN  9781925501155 .
• Робертс, сэр Айвор , изд. (2009). Дипломатическая практика Сатоу (Шестое изд.). Оксфорд: Издательство Оксфордского университета . ISBN  978-0-19-969355-9 .
• Робертсон, Дэвид (2002). Словарь современной политики: третье издание . Лондон: Публикации Европы. п. 221 . ISBN  1-85743-093-Х . глава государства.
• Уоттс, сэр Артур (2010). «Главы государств» . В Вольфруме, Рюдигер (ред.). Энциклопедия международного публичного права Макса Планка . Оксфордское международное публичное право. Издательство Оксфордского университета . Проверено 5 октября 2015 г.