Women in India

Women in India

A woman harvesting wheat in Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh, India
General Statistics
Maternal mortality (per 100,000)	112
Women in parliament	14.5%
Women over 25 with secondary education	41.8% [M: 53.6%]
Women in labour force	27.2% [M: 78.8%]
Gender Inequality Index
Value	0.490 (2021)
Rank	122nd out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index
Value	0.629 (2022)
Rank	135th out of 146

The status of women in India has been subject to many changes over the time of recorded India's history. Their position in society deteriorated early in India's ancient period, especially in the Indo-Aryan speaking regions, and their subordination continued to be reified well into India's early modern period.

During the British East India Company rule (1757–1857), and the British Raj (1858–1947), measures aiming at amelioration were enacted, including Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829, Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870, and Age of Consent Act, 1891. The Indian constitution prohibits discrimination based on sex and empowers the government to undertake special measures for them. Women's rights under the Constitution of India mainly include equality, dignity, and freedom from discrimination; additionally, India has various statutes governing the rights of women.

Several women have served in various senior official positions in the Indian government, including that of the President of India, the Prime Minister of India, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. However, many women in India continue to face significant difficulties. The rates of malnutrition are exceptionally high among adolescent girls and pregnant and lactating women in India, with repercussions for children's health. Violence against women, especially sexual violence, is a serious concern in India.

Women in India during British rule

Further information: History of women in the Indian subcontinent

• 
  A little Mussulman girl, Calcutta, 1844 lithograph of a Muslim girl in India wearing paijamas and kurti; drawn by Emily Eden, wife of the Governor-General of India, George Eden
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  Women and children bathing and collecting water at a ghat in Banares (Varanasi), the holy Hindu city on the banks of the Ganges river in northern India, 1885
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  Anandibai Joshi MD Class of 1886, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania
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  Pandita Ramabai Saraswati

During the British Raj, many reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Jyotirao Phule fought for the betterment of women. Peary Charan Sarkar, a former student of Hindu College, Calcutta and a member of "Young Bengal", set up the first free school for girls in India in 1847 in Barasat, a suburb of Calcutta (later the school was named Kalikrishna Girls' High School). While this might suggest that there was no positive British contribution during the Raj era, that is not entirely the case. Missionaries' wives such as Martha Mault née Mead and her daughter Eliza Caldwell née Mault are rightly remembered for pioneering the education and training of girls in south India. This practice was initially met with local resistance, as it flew in the face of tradition. Raja Rammohan Roy's efforts led to the abolition of Sati under Governor-General William Cavendish-Bentinck in 1829. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's crusade for improvement in the situation of widows led to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. Many women reformers such as Pandita Ramabai also helped the cause of women.

Kittur Chennamma, queen of the princely state Kittur in Karnataka, led an armed rebellion against the British in response to the Doctrine of lapse. Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Queen of Jhansi, led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British. She is now widely considered as a national hero. Begum Hazrat Mahal, the co-ruler of Awadh, was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857. She refused deals with the British and later retreated to Nepal. The Begums of Bhopal were also considered notable female rulers during this period. They were trained in martial arts. Chandramukhi Basu, Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were some of the earliest Indian women to obtain a degree.

In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women's political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women's Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927, it became a major organisation in the movement for social change. In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl. Mahatma Gandhi, himself a victim of child marriage at the age of thirteen, later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon young men to marry child widows.

Independent India

Female Safety Index per state according to the Tata Strategic Management Group. Light green indicates greatest safety; yellow, medium safety and light red, least safety.

Women in India now participate fully in areas such as education, sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc. Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime Minister of India for an aggregate period of fifteen years, is the world's longest serving female prime minister.

The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)) and Article 42. In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).

Feminist activism in India gained momentum in the late 1970s. One of the first national-level issues that brought women's groups together was the Mathura rape case. The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station led to country-wide protests in 1979–1980. The protest, widely covered by the national media, forced the Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code, and the Indian Penal Code; and created a new offence, custodial rape.

Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India, many women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and other states. Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law and have criticised the triple talaq system (see below about 2017).

Mary Roy won a lawsuit in 1986, against the inheritance legislation of her Keralite Syrian Christian community in the Supreme Court. The judgement ensured equal rights for Syrian Christian women with their male siblings in regard to their ancestral property. Until then, her Syrian Christian community followed the provisions of the Travancore Succession Act of 1916 and the Cochin Succession Act, 1921, while elsewhere in India the same community followed the Indian Succession Act of 1925.

In the 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) have played a major role in the advancement of women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local movements; for example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

In 1991, the Kerala High Court restricted the entry of women above the age of 10 and below the age of 50 from Sabarimala Shrine, as they were of the menstruating age. However, on 28 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India lifted the ban on the entry of women. It said that discrimination against women on any grounds, even religious, is unconstitutional.

The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment (Swashakti). The National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women was passed that same year.

In 2006, the case of Imrana, a Muslim rape victim, was highlighted by the media. Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to widespread protests, and finally Imrana's father-in-law was sentenced to 10 years in prison. The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.

According to a 2011 poll conducted by the Thomson Reuters Foundation, India was the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women, India was also noted as the worst country for women among the G20 countries, however, this report has faced criticism for promoting inaccurate perceptions.On 9 March 2010, one day after International Women's day, Rajya Sabha passed the Women's Reservation Bill requiring that 33% of seats in India's Parliament and state legislative bodies be reserved for women. In October 2017 another poll published by Thomson Reuters Foundation found that Delhi was the fourth most dangerous megacity (total 40 in the world) for women and it was also the worst megacity in the world for women when it came to sexual violence, risk of rape and harassment.

The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 is a legislative act in India that seeks to protect women from sexual harassment at their place of work. The Act came into force from 9 December 2013. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 introduced changes to the Indian Penal Code, making sexual harassment an expressed offence under Section 354 A, which is punishable up to three years of imprisonment and or with fine. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, stalking and sexual acts by person in authority an offense. It also made acid attacks a specific offence with a punishment of imprisonment not less than 10 years and which could extend to life imprisonment and with fine.

In 2014, an Indian family court in Mumbai ruled that a husband objecting to his wife wearing a kurta and jeans and forcing her to wear a sari amounts to cruelty inflicted by the husband and can be a ground to seek divorce. The wife was thus granted a divorce on the ground of cruelty as defined under section 27(1)(d) of Special Marriage Act, 1954.

On 22 August 2017, the Indian Supreme Court deemed instant triple talaq (talaq-e-biddat) unconstitutional.

A 2018 poll by Thomson Reuters Foundation termed India as the world's most dangerous country for women. The National Commission for Women and the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies rejected the survey for its methodology and lack of transparency.

Also in 2018, the Supreme Court of India struck down a law making it a crime for a man to have sex with a married woman without the permission of her husband.

Prior to November 2018, women were forbidden to climb Agasthyarkoodam. A court ruling removed the prohibition.

Timeline of women's achievements in India

Rukhmabai, the second practising female physician in India, the publicity around whose child marriage and subsequent dissolution led to the Age of Consent Act, 1891

Sarla Thakral became the first Indian woman to fly an aircraft in 1936.

The steady change in the position of women can be highlighted by looking at what has been achieved by women in the country:

• 1848: Savitribai Phule, along with her husband Jyotirao Phule, opened a school for girls in Pune, India. Savitribai Phule became the first woman teacher in India.
• 1879: John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune established the Bethune School in 1849, which developed into the Bethune College in 1879, thus becoming the first women's college in India.
• 1883: Chandramukhi Basu and Kadambini Ganguly became the first female graduates of India and the British Empire.
• 1886: Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi became the first women from India to be trained in Western medicine.
• 1898: Sister Nivedita Girls' School was inaugurated
• 1905: Suzanne RD Tata becomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.
• 1916: The first women's university, SNDT Women's University, was founded on 2 June 1916 by the social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve with just five students.
• 1917: Annie Besant became the first female president of the Indian National Congress.
• 1919: For her distinguished social service, Pandita Ramabai became the first Indian woman to be awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal by the British Raj.
• 1925: Sarojini Naidu became the first Indian born female president of the Indian National Congress.
• 1927: The All India Women's Conference was founded.
• 1936: Sarla Thakral became the first Indian woman to fly an aircraft.
• 1944: Asima Chatterjee became the first Indian woman to be conferred the Doctorate of Science by an Indian university.
• 1947: On 15 August 1947, following independence, Sarojini Naidu became the governor of the United Provinces, and in the process became India's first woman governor. On the same day, Amrit Kaur assumed office as the first female Cabinet minister of India in the country's first cabinet.
• Post independence:Rukmini Devi Arundale was the first ever woman in Indian History to be nominated a Rajya Sabha member. She is considered the most important revivalist in the Indian classical dance form of Bharatanatyam from its original 'sadhir' style, prevalent amongst the temple dancers, Devadasis. She also worked for the re-establishment of traditional Indian arts and crafts.
• 1951: Prem Mathur of the Deccan Airways becomes the first Indian woman commercial pilot.
• 1953: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit became the first woman (and first Indian) president of the United Nations General Assembly
• 1959: Anna Chandy becomes the first Indian woman judge of a High Court (Kerala High Court)
• 1963: Sucheta Kriplani became the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, the first woman to hold that position in any Indian state.
• 1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state airline, Indian Airlines.
• 1966: Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay wins Ramon Magsaysay award for community leadership.
• 1966: Indira Gandhi becomes the first woman Prime Minister of India
• 1970: Kamaljit Sandhu becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in the Asian Games
• 1972: Kiran Bedi becomes the first female recruit to join the Indian Police Service.
• 1978: Sheila Sri Prakash becomes the first female entrepreneur to independently start an architecture firm
• 1979: Mother Teresa wins the Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the first Indian female citizen to do so.
• 1984: On 23 May, Bachendri Pal became the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest.
• 1986: Surekha Yadav became the first Asian woman loco-pilot or railway driver.
• 1989: Justice M. Fathima Beevi becomes the first woman judge of the Supreme Court of India.
• 1991: Mumtaz M. Kazi became the first Asian woman to drive a diesel locomotive in September.
• 1992: Asha Sinha becomes the First Woman Commandant in the Paramilitary forces of India when she was appointed Commandant, Central Industrial Security Force in Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited.
• 1992: Priya Jhingan becomes the first lady cadet to join the Indian Army (later commissioned on 6 March 1993)
• 1999: On 31 October, Sonia Gandhi became the first female Leader of the Opposition (India).
• The first Indian woman to win an Olympic Medal, Karnam Malleswari, a bronze medal at the Sydney Olympics in the 69 kg weight category in Weightlifting event.
• 2007: On 25 July, Pratibha Patil became the first female President of India.
• 2009: On 4 June, Meira Kumar became the first female Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• 2011: On 20 October, Priyanka N. drove the inaugural train of the Namma Metro becoming the first female Indian metro pilot.
• 2011:Mitali Madhumita made history by becoming the first woman officer to win a Sena Medal for gallantry.
• 2014: A record 7 female ministers are appointed in the Modi ministry, of whom 6 hold Cabinet rank, the highest number of female Cabinet ministers in any Indian government in history. Ministries such as Defence and External Affairs are being held by Women Ministers.
• 2016: J. Jayalalithaa, became the first woman chief minister in India to rule the state consecutively 2 times by winning legislative assembly election.
• 2017: On 25 March, Tanushree Pareek became the first female combat officer commissioned by the Border Security Force.
• 2018: Archana Ramasundaram of 1980 Batch became the first Woman to become the Director General of Police of a Paramilitary Force as DG, Sashastra Seema Bal.
• 2018: In February, 24 year old Flying Officer Avani Chaturvedi of the Indian Air Force became the first Indian female fighter pilot to fly solo. She flew a MiG-21 Bison, a jet aircraft with the highest recorded landing and take-off speed in the world.
• 2019: On 2 December 2019, sub-lieutenant Shivangi became the first woman pilot in the Indian Navy.
• 2021:A twenty-seven-year-old girl from Manipur scripted history by winning the silver medal in the Women's 49 kg Weightlifting event at the Tokyo Olympics in 2021. Mirabai Chanu lifted a total of 202 kilograms.

Politics

Main article: Women's political participation in India

India has one of the highest number of female politicians in the world. Women have held high offices in India including that of the President, Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha and Leader of the Opposition.The Indian states Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tripura have implemented 50% reservation for women in PRIs. Majority of candidates in these Panchayats are women. In 2015, 100% of elected members in Kodassery Panchayat in Kerala are women. There are currently 16 female chief ministers in India as of 2020.

As of 2018, 12 out of 29 states and the union territory of Delhi have had at least one female Chief Minister.

Currently there are 81 women members and 458 male members in the Indian Parliament which equals 15.3% and 84.97% respectively.

Culture

The status of women in India is strongly connected to family relations. In India, the family is seen as crucially important, and in most of the country, the family unit is patrilineal. Families are usually multi-generational, with the bride moving to live with the in-laws. Families are usually hierarchical, with the elders having authority over the younger generations and men over women. The vast majority of marriages are monogamous (one husband and one wife), but both polygyny and polyandry in India have a tradition among some populations in India. Weddings in India can be quite expensive. Most marriages in India are arranged.

With regard to dress, a sari (a long piece of fabric draped around the body) and salwar kameez are worn by women all over India. A bindi is part of a woman's make-up. Despite common belief, the bindi on the forehead does not signify marital status; however, the Sindoor does.

Rangoli (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women.

In 1991, the Kerala High Court restricted entry of women above the age of 10 and below the age of 50 from Sabarimala Shrine as they were of the menstruating age. On 28 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India lifted the ban on the entry of women. It said that discrimination against women on any grounds, even religious, is unconstitutional.

Portrayal in Indian film

The Hindi film industry has had a significant impact on the portrayal of women in Indian society. The films often depict women as strong, independent, and capable of making their own choices, thus offering audiences a vision of gender equality. Historically, women in India have faced legal restrictions that limited their participation in various activities, and these limitations have raised concerns about the cultural practices and values of the country. Previously, these women could not apply simple and natural makeup on film characters because the law did not allow them to do it although the status quo has changed. Along with the media, the Indian film industry has played an important role in driving changes in the law and improving the lives of women in India; it has sent messages to its audiences that challenge the restrictive nature of society, promoting the idea that women should have the freedom to make their own choices and live their lives on their own terms.

The portrayal of women in Hindi cinema (Bollywood) has shifted over time as social norms have changed, and to include diverse representations. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, or DDLJ for short, is a 1995 Bollywood film whose main female character, Simran, represented the ideal Indian woman. The film depicts her as a modest, reserved, and respectful female who remains dutiful to her family and never compromises her "purity". Yet, at the same time Simran was discouraged by her father from having a relationship with a man before marriage, especially one he did not know and of whom he did not approve. This film illustrates how women who seek romance for themselves are villainized.

In contrast, films such as the 2006 Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna and 2022 Gehraiyaan explore more nonconforming female characters. In Gehraiyaan, the main characters struggle with mental illnesses, partake in infidelity, and come from broken families. The overall presence of such characters highlight how the modern Indian woman is less bound to traditional expectations and overall have been entering the workforce, been financially independent, and even sexually freed from earlier standards.

Other films with nonconforming female characters include: the 2016 film Dangal, the 2022 film Mili, the 2018 film Raazi, and more.

Military and law enforcement

Main article: Women in Indian Armed Forces

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  A female officer in the Indian Army briefing Russian soldiers during a joint exercise in 2015.
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  Women of the Border Security Force at the Indian Pakistan border.

The Indian Armed Forces began recruiting women to non-medical positions in 1992. The Indian Army began inducting women officers in 1992. The Border Security Force (BSF) began recruiting female officers in 2013. On 25 March 2017, Tanushree Pareek became the first female combat officer commissioned by the BSF.

On 24 October 2015, the Indian government announced that women could serve as fighter pilots in the Indian Air Force (IAF), having previously only been permitted to fly transport aircraft and helicopters. The decision means that women are now eligible for induction in any role in the IAF. In 2016, India announced a decision to allow women to take up combat roles in all sections of its army and navy.

As of 2014, women made up 3% of Indian Army personnel, 2.8% of Navy personnel, and 8.5% of Air Force personnel. As of 2016, women accounted for 5% of all active and reserve Indian Armed forces personnel.

In 1972 Kiran Bedi became the First Lady Indian Police Service Officer and was the only woman in a batch of 80 IPS Officers, she joined the AGMUT Cadre. In 1992 Asha Sinha a 1982 Batch IPS Officer became the First Woman Commandant in the Paramilitary forces of India when she was posted as Commandant, Central Industrial Security Force in Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited. Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya the second Lady IPS Officer of India belonging to the 1973 Batch became the first Lady Director General of Police of a State in India when she was appointed DGP of Uttarakhand Police. In 2018 an IPS Officer Archana Ramasundram of 1980 Batch became the first Woman to become the Director General of Police of a Paramilitary Force as DG, Sashastra Seema Bal. In March 2018, Delhi Police announced that it would begin to induct women into its SWAT team.

On February 17, 2020, the Supreme Court of India said that women officers in the Indian Army can get command positions at par with male officers. The court said that the government's arguments against it were discriminatory, disturbing and based on stereotype. The court also said that permanent commission to all women officers should be made available regardless of their years of service. The government had earlier said that women commanders would not be acceptable to some troops.

Education and economic development

Education

Further information: Education in India and History of female education in India

Women attend an adult literacy class in Thiruputkuzhi, Tamil Nadu state. The overall female literacy rate in the state in 2011 was 73.44%. In the previous decade, it increased by 9%.

Though it is sharply increasing, the female literacy rate in India is less than the male literacy rate. Far fewer girls than boys are enrolled in school, and many girls drop out. In urban India, girls are nearly on a par with boys in terms of education. However, in rural India, girls continue to be less educated than boys. According to the National Sample Survey Data of 1997, only the states of Kerala and Mizoram have approached universal female literacy. According to scholars, the major factor behind improvements in the social and economic status of women in Kerala is literacy.

Under the Non-Formal Education programme (NFE), about 40% of the NFE centres in states and 10% of the centres in UTs are exclusively reserved for women. As of 2000, about 300,000 NFE centres were catering to about 7.42 million children. About 120,000 NFE centres were exclusively for girls.

According to a 1998 report by the U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barriers to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in the curriculum (female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).

The literacy rate is lower for women compared to men: the literacy rate is 60.6% for women, while for men it is 81.3%. The 2011 census, however, indicated a 2001–2011 decadal literacy growth of 9.2%, which is slower than the growth seen during the previous decade. There is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India: effective literacy rates (age 7 and above) in 2011 were 82.14% for men and 65.46% for women. (population aged 15 or older, data from 2015).

Workforce participation

A woman working at an Aadhaar center in India.

A farm worker selling eggplants in Gujarat

Contrary to common perception, a large percentage of women in India are actively engaged in traditional and non-traditional work. Despite the large number of women involved in the workforce, the country has a female labor force participation rate of just 23%. National data collection agencies accept that statistics seriously understate women's contribution as workers. Reasons for these misleading statistics can be attributed to cultural biases and expectations about women's roles in society. Additionally, more Indian women are employed in the informal economy than their male counterparts. However, there are far fewer women than men in the paid workforce.

In urban India, women participate in the workforce in impressive numbers. For example, in the software industry 30% of the workforce is female. These high numbers are also due to the fact that 81% of the urban female workforce is employed in the informal sector. Studies have shown that higher education levels lead to higher income for urban-dwelling women.

In rural India in the agriculture and allied industrial sectors, women account for as much as 89.5% of the labour force. In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 94% of total employment in dairy production in India.

Women constitute 51% of the total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.

India is ahead of the world average on women in senior management.

Ramdei, a resident of Nadli, Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh, making leaf plates

Gender pay gap

In 2017, a study by Monster Salary Index (MSI) showed the overall gender pay gap in India was 20 percent. It found that the gap was narrower in the early years of experience.

While men with 0–2 years of experience earned 7.8 percent higher median wages than women, in the experience group of 6–10 years of experience, the pay gap was 15.3 percent. The pay gap becomes wider at senior level positions as the men with 11 and more years of tenure earned 25 percent higher median wages than women.

Based on the educational background, men with a bachelor's degree earned on average 16 percent higher median wages than women in years 2015, 2016 and 2017, while master's degree holders experience even higher pay gap. Men with a four- or five-year degree or the equivalent of a master's degree have on average earned 33.7 percent higher median wages than women.

India passed the Equal Remuneration Act in 1976, which prohibits discrimination in remuneration on grounds of sex. But in practice, the pay disparity still exists and is one of many lingering forms of gender inequality in the Indian workforce.

Women-owned businesses

One of the most famous female business success stories, from the rural sector, is the Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad. Started in 1959 by seven women in Mumbai with a seed capital of only Rs.80, it had an annual turnover of more than Rs. 800 crore (over $109 million) in 2018. It provides employment to 43,000 (in 2018) women across the country.

One of the largest dairy co-operatives in the world, Amul, began by mobilizing rural women in Anand in the western state of Gujarat.

Notable women in business

In 2006, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, who founded Biocon, one of India's first biotech companies, was rated India's richest woman. Lalita D. Gupte and Kalpana Morparia were the only businesswomen in India who made the list of the Forbes World's Most Powerful Women in 2006. Gupte ran ICICI Bank, India's second-largest bank, until October 2006 and Morparia is CEO of JP Morgan India.

Shaw remained the richest self-made woman in 2018, coming in at 72nd place in terms of net worth in Forbes's annual rich list. She was the 4th and last female in the list, thereby showing that 96 of 100 the richest entities in the country continued to be male controlled directly or indirectly.

According to the ‘Kotak Wealth Hurun – Leading Wealthy Women 2018’ list, which compiled the 100 wealthiest Indian women based on their net worth as on 30 June 2018 Shaw was only one of two women, the other being Jayshree Ullal, who did not inherit their current wealth from family relatives in the top ten.

However, India has a strong history of many women with inherited wealth establishing large enterprises or launching successful careers in their own rights.

Land and property rights

Women harvesting rice paddy in Tamil Nadu. Women rarely own land in their own names, although they often work in agriculture.

In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental property. In India, women's property rights vary depending on religion, and tribe, and are subject to a complex mix of law and custom, but in principle the move has been towards granting women equal legal rights, especially since the passing of The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005.

The Hindu personal laws of 1956 (applying to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains) gave women rights to inheritances. However, sons had an independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters' shares were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral property, but a son would continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters, even those facing domestic abuse and harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home. Thanks to an amendment of the Hindu laws in 2005, women now have the same status as men.

In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an elderly divorced Muslim woman, was eligible for alimony. However, the decision was opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law. The Union Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act.

Similarly, Christian women have struggled over the years for equal rights in divorce and succession. In 1994, all churches, jointly with women's organizations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended the relevant laws. In 2014, the Law Commission of India has asked the government to modify the law to give Christian women equal property rights.

Crimes against women

Further information: Violence against women in India

The map shows the comparative rate of violence against women in Indian states and union territories in 2012. Crime rate data per 100,000 women in this map is the broadest definition of crime against women under Indian law. It includes rape, sexual assault, insult to modesty, kidnapping, abduction, cruelty by intimate partner or relatives, trafficking, persecution for dowry, dowry deaths, indecency, and all other crimes listed in Indian Penal Code.

Crime against women such as rape, acid attacks, dowry killings, honour killings, and the forced prostitution of young girls has been reported in India. TrustLaw, a London-based news service owned by the Thomson Reuters Foundation, ranked India as the fourth most dangerous place in the world for women to live based on a poll of 213 gender experts. Police records in India show a high incidence of crimes against women. The National Crime Records Bureau reported in 1998 that by 2010 growth in the rate of crimes against women would exceed the population growth rate. Earlier, many crimes against women were not reported to police due to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation. Official statistics show a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes against women.

Acid attacks

An analyses of Indian news reports determined that 72% of cases reported from January 2002 to October 2010 included at least one female victim. Sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid, the most common types of acid used in attacks, are generally cheap and widely available as a common cleaning supply. Acid attacks against women often are done as a form of revenge and are often done by relatives or friends. The number of acid attacks has been rising in recent years.

Child marriage

Main article: Child marriage in India

Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India but is not so continued in Modern India to this day. Historically, child brides would live with their parents until they reached puberty. In the past, child widows were condemned to a life of great agony, shaved heads, living in isolation, and being shunned by society. Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 is the relevant legislation in the country.

According to UNICEF's "State of the World’s Children-2009" report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, rising to 56% in rural areas. The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.

Domestic violence

Main article: Domestic violence in India

Domestic violence in India is endemic. Around 70% of women in India are victims of domestic violence, according to Renuka Chowdhury, former Union minister for Women and Child Development. Domestic violence was legally addressed in the 1980s when the 1983 Criminal Law Act introduced section 498A "Husband or relative of husband of a woman subjecting her to cruelty".

The National Crime Records Bureau reveal that a crime against a woman is committed every three minutes, a woman is raped every 29 minutes, a dowry death occurs every 77 minutes, and one case of cruelty committed by either the husband or relative of the husband occurs every nine minutes. This occurs despite the fact that women in India are legally protected from domestic abuse under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act.

In India, domestic violence toward women is considered as any type of abuse that can be considered a threat; it can also be physical, psychological, or sexual abuse to any current or former partner. Domestic violence is not handled as a crime or complaint, it is seen more as a private or family matter. In determining the category of a complaint, it is based on caste, class, religious bias and race which also determines whether action is to be taken or not. Many studies have reported about the prevalence of the violence and have taken a criminal-justice approach, but most woman refuse to report it. These women are guaranteed constitutional justice, dignity and equality but continue to refuse based on their sociocultural contexts. As the women refuse to speak of the violence and find help, they are also not receiving the proper treatment.

Dowry

Main articles: Dowry system in India, Dowry death, and Dowry law in India

A map of the Indian dowry death rate per 100,000 people, 2012.

In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act, making dowry demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such cases were reported.

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) Rules were framed. According to these rules, a signed list should be maintained of presents given at the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom. The list should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the name of who has given the present, and relationship to the recipient. However, such rules are rarely enforced.

A 1997 report claimed that each year at least 5,000 women in India die dowry-related deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The term for this is "bride burning" and is criticised within India itself.

In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths. Unofficial estimates claim the figures are at least three times as high.

Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion

A map of India's child sex ratio, 2011.

Main articles: Female foeticide in India and Missing women of Asia

In India, the male-female sex ratio is skewed dramatically in favour of men, the chief reason being the high number of women who die before reaching adulthood. Tribal societies in India have a less skewed sex ratio than other caste groups. This is in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower income levels, lower literacy rates, and less adequate health facilities. Many experts suggest the higher number of men in India can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions. The sex ratio is particularly bad in the north-western area of the country, particularly in Haryana and Jammu and Kashmir.

Ultrasound scanning constitutes a major leap forward in providing for the care of mother and baby, and with scanners becoming portable, these advantages have spread to rural populations. However, ultrasound scans often reveal the sex of the baby, allowing pregnant women to decide to abort female foetuses and try again later for a male child. This practice is usually considered the main reason for the change in the ratio of male to female children being born.

In 1994 the Indian government passed a law forbidding women or their families from asking about the sex of the baby after an ultrasound scan (or any other test which would yield that information) and also expressly forbade doctors or any other persons from providing that information. In practice this law (like the law forbidding dowries) is widely ignored, and levels of abortion on female foetuses remain high and the sex ratio at birth keeps getting more skewed.

Female infanticide (killing of infant girls) is still prevalent in some rural areas. Sometimes this is infanticide by neglect, for example families may not spend money on critical medicines or withhold care from a sick girl.

Continuing abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.

Honour killings

Main article: Honor killings by region § India

Honour killings have been reported widely in India, most frequently in the northern regions of India. This is usually motivated by a girl (or, less commonly, a boy) marrying without the family's acceptance, especially for marrying outside their caste or religion or, more particular to northwestern India, between members of the same gotra. In 2010, the Supreme Court of India issued notice in regard to honor killings to the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Accusations of witchcraft

Violence against women related to accusations of witchcraft occurs in India, particularly in parts of Northern India. Belief in the supernatural among the Indian population is strong, and lynchings for witchcraft are reported by the media. In Assam and West Bengal between 2003 and 2008 there were around 750 deaths related to accusations of witchcraft. Officials in the state of Chhattisgarh reported in 2008 that at least 100 women are maltreated annually as suspected witches.

Rape

Main article: Rape in India

People in Delhi, India protesting after a young student was gang-raped in Delhi in December 2012.

Rape in India has been described by Radha Kumar as one of India's most common crimes against women and by the UN’s human-rights chief as a "national problem". Since the 1980s, women's rights groups lobbied for marital rape to be declared unlawful, but the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 still maintains the marital exemption by stating in its exception clause under Section 375, that: "Sexual intercourse or sexual acts by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not rape". While per-capita reported incidents are quite low compared to other countries, even developed countries, a new case is reported every 20 minutes. In fact, as per the NCRB data released by the government of India in 2018, a rape is reported in India in every 15 minutes.

New Delhi has one of the highest rate of rape-reports among Indian cities. Sources show that rape cases in India have doubled between 1990 and 2008.

Sexual harassment

Main article: Eve teasing

Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidence of sexual harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings or in any other manner.

Of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990, half related to molestation and harassment in the workplace. In 1997, in a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers. In 2013 India's top court investigated on a law graduate's allegation that she was sexually harassed by a recently retired Supreme Court judge. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act came into force in December 2013, to prevent Harassment of women at workplace.

Согласно отчету Хьюман Райтс Вотч, несмотря на то, что женщины все чаще осуждают сексуальные домогательства на работе, они по-прежнему сталкиваются со стигматизацией и опасаются возмездия, поскольку правительства поощряют, создают и контролируют комитеты по рассмотрению жалоб. Как объяснил директор Хьюман Райтс Вотч по Южной Азии: «В Индии действуют прогрессивные законы, защищающие женщин от сексуального насилия со стороны начальников, коллег и клиентов, но она не предприняла элементарных шагов для обеспечения соблюдения этих законов».

Исследование ActionAid UK показало, что 80% женщин в Индии подвергались сексуальным домогательствам, начиная от нежелательных комментариев, домогательств и нападений. О многих инцидентах не сообщается, поскольку жертвы опасаются, что их семьи будут избегать их .

Торговля людьми

Закон о предотвращении аморальной торговли был принят в 1956 году.

Законодательство по защите прав женщин

1. Закон об опекунах и подопечных 1890 г.
2. Уголовный кодекс Индии, 1860 г.
3. Закон о христианском браке 1872 г.
4. Закон об индийских доказательствах 1872 г.
5. Закон о собственности замужних женщин 1874 г.
6. Закон о компенсации рабочим 1923 года.
7. Закон о наследовании индейцев 1925 г.
8. Закон о предотвращении аморальной торговли 1956 года.
9. Закон о запрете приданого 1961 года
10. Закон о Комиссии Сати (профилактика), 1987 г.
11. Закон о кинематографии 1952 г.
12. Закон о регистрации рождений, смертей и браков 1886 г.
13. Закон о минимальной заработной плате 1948 года.
14. Закон о предотвращении сексуальных преступлений детей, 2012 г.
15. Закон об ограничении детских браков 1929 года.
16. Приложение мусульманского личного закона (шариата), 1937 г.
17. Закон о недостойном представительстве женщин (предупреждение), 1986 г.
18. Специальный закон о браке 1954 года.
19. Закон об индуистских браках 1955 года.
20. Закон о наследовании индусов, 1956 г.
21. Закон о браках с иностранцами 1969 года.
22. Закон о семейных судах 1984 года.
23. Закон о пособиях по беременности и родам 1961 года.
24. Закон об усыновлении и сохранении индуистов, 1956 г.
25. Уголовно-процессуальный кодекс 1973 года.
26. Закон о медицинском прерывании беременности 1971 года.
27. Закон о Национальной комиссии по делам женщин 1990 года.
28. Закон о методах пренатальной диагностики (запрет на выбор пола) 1994 года.
29. Закон о защите женщин от домашнего насилия 2005 г.
30. Закон о сексуальных домогательствах в отношении женщин на рабочем месте (предотвращение, запрет и возмещение ущерба), 2013 г.
31. Закон о разводе в Индии, 1969 г.
32. Закон о равном вознаграждении 1976 года.
33. Закон о повторном браке индуистских вдов 1856 г.
34. Закон о мусульманках (защита прав в браке), 2019 г.

Глухие/слабослышащие женщины

Образование

Как говорилось в предыдущих разделах, индийские женщины находятся в невыгодном положении по сравнению с мужчинами во многих областях, таких как навыки грамотности, способствующие проценту отсева, гендерная предвзятость и неадекватные условия. Предварительный доступ к человеку с ограниченными возможностями является фактором номер один, влияющим на отношение индийских учителей к ученикам с ограниченными возможностями. поэтому может быть сложно найти объективное образование. Глухие женщины сталкиваются с уникальными проблемами в сфере образования, поскольку они испытывают одновременное угнетение как женщина, так и глухой человек.

Образование во время COVID-19

Помимо обычных препятствий на пути к доступному образованию, пандемия COVID-19 добавила еще один уровень трудностей для глухих женщин. Пандемия создала новые проблемы, такие как отсутствие личного общения и маски, которые мешают читать по губам. Исследование, проведенное организацией Rising Flame Organization, показало, что более 90% глухих, слепых и слабослышащих женщин в Индии испытывали трудности, когда дело касалось доступности образования во время пандемии, а также других ресурсов.

Насилие в отношении глухих женщин

Женщины и девочки, имеющие инвалидность, в том числе глухоту, подвергаются гораздо большему риску сексуального насилия. Глухота, в частности, может ухудшить ситуационную осведомленность и способность быстро и эффективно сообщать о необходимости помощи другим (например, кричать «ПОМОГИТЕ!» Прохожему), что делает глухих женщин более легкой мишенью для насилия.

Сообщения о таком насилии также крайне редки из-за отсутствия доступа к адекватному общению – в таких случаях редко предоставляются такие услуги, как переводчик. Несмотря на то, что индийское правительство намеревалось сохранить и обеспечить соблюдение законов, касающихся сексуального насилия, особенно касательно женщин с ограниченными возможностями, после гражданских волнений по поводу изнасилования молодой женщины в 2013 году, эти законы не смогли эффективно выполняться.

Женщины-инвалиды в Индии также сталкиваются с проблемами, связанными с получением медицинской помощи, юридическим правосудием, компенсацией и многим другим. В « Руководстве и протоколах медико-правовой помощи жертвам/пережившим сексуальное насилие» 2014 года Министерства здравоохранения и благосостояния семьи Индии изложена их точка зрения на причину, по которой женщины с ограниченными возможностями часто испытывают трудности с сообщением о насилии:

…[быть]из-за очевидных препятствий для общения, а также их зависимости от лиц, осуществляющих уход, которые также могут быть жестокими. Когда они сообщают, их жалобы не воспринимаются всерьез, а проблемы, с которыми они сталкиваются при выражении своего мнения в системе, которая не создает благоприятную среду для такого выражения, еще больше усложняют ситуацию.

Когда дело доходит до подачи заявлений глухими женщинами, существуют очевидные препятствия, такие как отсутствие переводчиков, страх стигматизации и многое другое. Однако, помимо этого, система правосудия не реагирует должным образом, когда отчет действительно поступает. Хьюман Райтс Вотч даже обнаружила, что иногда женщинам и девочкам отказывают в доступе к жилью, если они не могут доказать, что являются инвалидами. Многие дела просто замалчиваются, несмотря на действующее законодательство.

Организации

В Индии пока не существует единого стандартизированного языка жестов, поэтому среди глухих женщин большое внимание уделяется родству. Будучи глухими и женщинами, они часто сталкиваются с угнетением. Появилось несколько организаций, возглавляемых глухими женщинами, которые разделяют чувство общности, учатся друг у друга и понимают свою идентичность как глухих женщин.

Делийский фонд глухих женщин

Делийский фонд глухих женщин (DFDW) был основан с целью создать пространство для карьерных возможностей и развития общественных и социальных навыков среди одинаковых женщин, разделяющих одну и ту же идентичность. Здесь проводится ряд мероприятий и социальных мероприятий, направленных на повышение осведомленности глухих и повышение гордости за самобытность глухих женщин. Мало того, он служит реабилитационным центром для глухих женщин. Хотя DFDW ориентирован в первую очередь на глухих женщин, поскольку их потребности специфичны, DFDW также помогает глухим мужчинам в развитии некоторых навыков, а несколько глухих мужчин являются руководителями некоторых конкретных программ DFDW.

Всеиндийский фонд глухих женщин

Всеиндийский фонд глухих женщин начал с удовлетворения потребностей сообщества в виде клуба глухих женщин, но признал, что глухие женщины нуждаются в более структурированной поддержке. С тех пор, в 1973 году, они превратились в реабилитационный центр для глухих женщин и других глухих. В настоящее время они предлагают поддержку, семинары и другие мероприятия.

Хайдарабадский фонд глухих женщин является филиалом Всеиндийского фонда глухих женщин с 2014 года. Этот фонд занимается расширением прав и возможностей глухих женщин в Индии и организует такие мероприятия, как Национальный культурный фестиваль глухих женщин, фестиваль, посвященный участию глухих женщин в искусстве, технологиях и других навыках.

Карьерные возможности

Есть определенные профессии, которые в культурном отношении не считаются подходящими для глухих. Имея это в виду, пересечение глухоты и женщины создает существенную социальную проблему, когда речь идет о глухих женщинах в Индии, которые ищут достойную карьеру.

При этом глухота в некоторой степени принята в Индии и не обязательно рассматривается как инвалидность, которая делает человека менее умным, что влияет на то, как работодатели могут относиться к глухим кандидатам.

Другие проблемы

Участие женщин в общественной жизни

Степень участия женщин в общественной жизни, то есть вне дома, варьируется в зависимости от региона и происхождения. Например, раджпуты , клан по отцовской линии, населяющий некоторые части Индии, особенно северо-западную часть, традиционно практиковали гунгхат , и многие до сих пор практикуют это явление. Однако в последние годы все больше женщин начали бросать вызов таким социальным нормам: например, женщины в сельской Харьяне все чаще отвергают гунхат . В Индии большая часть населения (около двух третей) Она живет в сельской местности и, как таковая, живет в дружных общинах, где женщине очень легко испортить «честь» своей семьи своим поведением. Понятие семейной чести особенно распространено в северной Индии. Иззат — это понятие чести, распространенное в культуре Северной Индии и Пакистана . Иззат относится к обоим полам, но по-разному. Женщины должны защищать «семейную честь», будучи целомудренными, пассивными и покорными, в то время как мужчины должны быть сильными, храбрыми и иметь желание и возможность контролировать женщин в своих семьях. Сельские районы, окружающие Дели, являются одними из самых консервативных в Индии: по оценкам, 30% всех убийств чести в Индии происходят в Западном Уттар-Прадеше . в то время как Харьяна описывается как «одна из самых консервативных стран Индии, когда дело касается каст, брака и роли женщин. Глубоко патриархальная, кастовая чистота имеет первостепенное значение, и браки заключаются для поддержания статус-кво».

В 2018 году Верховный суд Индии отменил многолетний запрет, запрещающий женщинам в возрасте от 10 до 50 лет входить в храм Сабаримала в Керале . В 2019 году две женщины вошли в храм под охраной полиции. Индуистские националисты протестовали против входа женщин, а Шридхаран Пиллаи , президент штата Керала отделения националистической партии Бхаратия Джаната (членом которой является премьер-министр Индии Нарендра Моди ), назвал вход женщин в храм «заговором атеистических правителей с целью разрушить индуистские храмы». что коммунисты не уважают индийскую историю, культуру и духовность, но никто не предполагал, что они будут испытывать такую ​​ненависть» . Премьер-министр Моди сказал: «Мы знали , женщин «загрязнят» это место и пойдут против воли божества-покровителя. Двум женщинам пришлось скрываться после входа в храм, и им была предоставлена ​​круглосуточная охрана полиции. Одну из женщин муж запер в доме, и ей пришлось переехать в приют. Десятки женщин, пытавшихся войти в храм, с тех пор были отвергнуты демонстрантами.

До ноября 2018 года женщинам было запрещено подниматься на Агастьяркудам . Решением суда запрет был снят.

Здоровье

Общественный медицинский работник готовит вакцину в Одише

Основная статья: Женское здоровье в Индии

Средняя продолжительность жизни женщин сегодня в Индии низкая по сравнению со многими странами, но с годами она постепенно улучшается. Во многих семьях, особенно в сельских, девочки и женщины сталкиваются с дискриминацией в отношении питания внутри семьи, страдают анемией и недоеданием. Почти половина девочек-подростков хронически недоедают. Кроме того, неправильное питание во время беременности часто приводит к осложнениям в родах.

Материнская смертность в Индии занимает 56-е место в мире. 42% родов в стране наблюдаются в медицинских учреждениях. В сельской местности большинство женщин рожают с помощью женщин в семье, что противоречит тому факту, что непрофессиональная или неквалифицированная родильница не имеет знаний о беременности.

Планирование семьи

Основная статья: Планирование семьи в Индии

Среднестатистическая женщина, живущая в сельской местности Индии, практически не может контролировать беременность. Женщины, особенно в сельской местности, не имеют доступа к безопасным и контролируемым методам контрацепции. Система общественного здравоохранения делает упор на постоянные методы, такие как стерилизация, или долгосрочные методы, такие как ВМС, которые не требуют последующего наблюдения. На долю стерилизации приходится более 75% общего объема контрацепции, при этом на женскую стерилизацию приходится почти 95% всех стерилизаций. Уровень распространенности противозачаточных средств в 2007/2008 году оценивался в 54,8%.

Коллегия Верховного суда Индии в составе трех судей по гражданской апелляции № 5802 от 2022 года вынесла решение 29 сентября 2022 года. Постановление определило « женщину » как всех лиц, которым требуется доступ к безопасному аборту, а также цисгендерных женщин, включая трансперсон и других людей с гендерным разнообразием, а также цисгендерных женщин. Суд отметил, что практикующие врачи должны воздерживаться от навязывания внеправовых условий тем, кто хочет сделать аборт, таких как получение согласия семьи женщины, ищущей аборт, представление документальных доказательств или судебного разрешения, и что только согласие женщины, ищущей аборт, является существенным, за исключением случаев, когда она был несовершеннолетним или психически больным. В нем также говорилось, что «каждая беременная женщина имеет неотъемлемое право делать или не делать аборт без какого-либо согласия или разрешения третьей стороны». и что женщина является единственным и «лицом, принимающим окончательное решение по вопросу, хочет ли она сделать аборт». Что касается разницы между сроком беременности, считающимся законным для замужних и незамужних женщин (24 недели для первой и 20 недель для второй), Суд постановил, что это различие является дискриминационным, искусственным, неустойчивым и нарушает статью 14 Конвенции. Конституция Индии, и что «все женщины имеют право на безопасный и легальный аборт». Что касается беременности, наступившей в результате изнасилования в браке , суд постановил, что женщины могут обращаться за абортом в срок от 20 до 24 недель в рамках категории «переживших сексуальное насилие или изнасилование».

Женщины из низших каст

Женщины из низших каст в Индии значительно улучшили свой статус. Образованные и финансово обеспеченные женщины-далиты использовали политику для достижения статуса, однако количество далитов, которые участвовали в политике, позже сократилось из-за роста доходов и уровня образования. Отмечается также улучшение положения далитских женщин в домохозяйствах.

Соотношение полов

Табличка в индийской больнице, гласящая, что пренатальное определение пола является преступлением.

В Индии наблюдается сильное перекос в соотношении полов, что объясняется селективными абортами по признаку пола и детоубийством женского пола, от которого ежегодно страдает примерно один миллион младенцев женского пола. В 2011 году правительство заявило, что Индии не хватает трех миллионов девочек, и теперь на 1000 мальчиков приходится на 48 девочек меньше. Несмотря на это, правительство предприняло дальнейшие шаги по улучшению этого соотношения, и, как сообщается, за последние годы оно улучшилось.

Число пропавших без вести женщин во всем мире составило 100 миллионов. Соотношение мужчин и женщин в развивающихся странах Азии, включая Индию, выше, чем в таких регионах, как Северная Америка. Наряду с абортами, высокая доля мужчин в Индии является результатом выбора пола, при котором врачам предоставляется возможность неправильно определить пол ребенка во время УЗИ. В настоящее время в Индии существует проблема, известная как «пропавшие женщины», но она существует уже довольно давно. Женская смертность в 2001 году составила 107,43. Смерть этих «пропавших без вести женщин» была связана с историческим уровнем смертности женщин в Индии, начиная с 1901 года.

Разрыв между двумя гендерными титулами является прямым ответом на гендерные предубеждения внутри Индии. Мужчины и женщины в Индии имеют неравные права на здоровье и образование. Образование и здоровье мужчин являются более приоритетными, поэтому уровень женской смертности растет. Спор продолжается что отсутствие независимости, которую женщинам не разрешается иметь, во многом способствует этим смертям. Женщины в Индии имеют высокий уровень рождаемости и выходят замуж в молодом возрасте. Те, кому предоставлено больше возможностей и прав, с большей вероятностью будут жить дольше и вносить вклад в экономику, чем женщины, которые должны выполнять роль жены, начиная с юного возраста, и продолжать выполнять те же обязанности до конца своей жизни. Поскольку женщины продолжают «исчезать», соотношение полов меняется в пользу мужчин. В свою очередь, это компенсирует воспроизводство и не позволяет контролировать репродуктивную тенденцию. Хотя избыточная смертность женщин относительно высока, ее нельзя полностью винить в неравном соотношении полов в Индии. Тем не менее, это большой вклад, учитывая преимущество индийских мужчин над женщинами.

Санитария

Дополнительная информация: Санитария в Индии.

Сообщается, что в сельских районах школы получили улучшенные санитарно-технические сооружения. Учитывая существующие социокультурные нормы и санитарное состояние школ, ученицы в отличие от мальчиков вынуждены не справлять нужду на открытом воздухе. Отсутствие удобств дома вынуждает женщин ждать ночи, чтобы справить нужду и не попасться на глаза посторонним. Обсуждался доступ к канализации в Бихаре. По оценкам 2013 года, около 85% сельских домохозяйств Бихара не имеют доступа к туалету; и это создает опасную ситуацию для женщин и девочек, за которыми следят, нападают и насилуют в полях.

Киран Беди

началась кампания «Право на мочу» (как ее называют в СМИ) . В 2011 году в Мумбаи , крупнейшем городе Индии, Женщины, но не мужчины, должны платить за мочеиспускание в Мумбаи, несмотря на правила, запрещающие эту практику. Женщины также подвергались сексуальному насилию во время мочеиспускания в полях. Так, активисты собрали более 50 тысяч подписей в поддержку своих требований о том, чтобы местные власти прекратили взимать с женщин плату за мочеиспускание, построили больше туалетов, содержали их в чистоте, обеспечили гигиеническими салфетками и мусорным баком, а также наняли служанок. В ответ городские власти согласились построить сотни общественных туалетов для женщин в Мумбаи, а некоторые местные законодатели теперь обещают построить туалеты для женщин в каждом из своих районов.

См. также

• Программы социального обеспечения для женщин в Индии
• Женщины в индийских вооруженных силах
• Гендерное неравенство в Индии
• Избирательное право женщин в Индии
• Менструальное табу
• Изнасилование в Индии
• Социальные проблемы в Индии
• Женщины в сельском хозяйстве Индии
• Гендерный разрыв в оплате труда в Индии
• Права женщин в Джамму и Кашмире
• Женщины в индуизме
• Женщины в сикхизме
• Законопроект о резервировании женщин
• Национальная комиссия по делам женщин
• Министерство развития женщин и детей
• Центр равенства и инклюзивности
• Права женщин – это права человека

Списки индийских женщин по профессиям:

• Категория: Списки индийских женщин
• Список женщин-главных министров Индии
• Танцоры
• Киноактрисы
• Писатели
• Спортсменки

Дальнейшее чтение

• Али, Азра Асгар (2000). Появление феминизма среди индийских мусульманок 1920–1947 гг . Издательство Оксфордского университета.
• Альтекар, Анант Садашив (1956). Положение женщин в индуистской цивилизации с доисторических времен до наших дней . Мотилал Банарсидасс.
• Амин, Соня Нишат (1996). Мир мусульманских женщин в колониальной Бенгалии, 1876–1939 гг . Брилл .
• Анагол, Падма (2010). «Феминистское наследие и праматери: начало феминизма в современной Индии». Обзор женской истории . 19 (4): 523–546. дои : 10.1080/09612025.2010.502398 . S2CID   144279774 .

Прослеживает истоки феминизма в современной Индии до движений за социальные и религиозные реформы в Махараштре, Западная Индия.

• Бадер, Кларисса (2001) [1925]. Женщины в Древней Индии . Восточная серия Трубнера. Рутледж. ISBN  9780415244893 .
• Банерджи, Свапна М. (июнь 2010 г.). «Дебаты о домашней жизни и положении женщин в поздней колониальной Индии». Исторический компас . 8 (6): 455–473. дои : 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00688.x .
• Бортвик, Мередит (2015). Изменение роли женщин в Бенгалии, 1849–1905 гг . Издательство Принстонского университета .
• Бринкс, Эллен (2016). Англоязычные индийские писательницы, 1870–1920 гг . Рутледж .
• Чакраварти, Ума (2003). Гендерная каста через феминистскую призму . Популярные публикации. ISBN  9788185604541 .
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• Чоудхари, Рену (июнь 2013 г.). «Женщины в индийском обществе: историческая перспектива» . Журнал социальных наук Мадхья-Прадеша . 18 (1): 41–53.
• Форбс, Джеральдин (1999). Женщины в современной Индии . Издательство Кембриджского университета. , Крупный научный обзор.
• Готье, Франсуа (2010). Индийские женщины. (Новый обзор Индии.) Париж: L'Harmattan.
• Хили, Мадлен (2014). Индийские сестры: история медсестер и государства, 1907–2007 гг . Рутледж.
• Джоши, Рама; Лиддл, Джоанна (1986). Дочери независимости: пол, каста и класс в Индии . Нью-Брансуик: Издательство Университета Рутгерса. ISBN  9780862324063 .
• Джоши, Рама; Лиддл, Джоанна (октябрь 2006 г.). «Гендер и колониализм: женские организации при Радже» (PDF) . Международный форум женских исследований . 8 (5): 521–529. дои : 10.1016/0277-5395(85)90083-4 .
• Мадху Кишвар , В поисках ответов: голоса индийских женщин (совместно с Рут Ванита , Zed Books, 1984). ISBN   0862321786 .
• Мадху Кишвар, Женщины-поэты-бхакты: Мануши (Manushi Publications, 1989). АСИН Б001РПВЗВУ.
• Маджумдар, RC (2014). Великие женщины Индии. Калькутта: 2014 г. Редакторы: Свами Мадхавананда, Рамеш Чандра Маджумдар.
• Кумар, Радха (2003). История действий: иллюстрированный отчет о движениях за права женщин и феминизм в Индии 1800–1990 гг . Нью-Дели: Зубаан, сотрудник организации Kali for Women. ISBN  9788185107769 .
• Раман, Сита Ананта (2009). Женщины в Индии: социальная и культурная история (2 тома) . АВС-КЛИО.
• Сангари, Кумкум; Вайд, Судеш, ред. (1990), Изменение роли женщин: очерки индийской колониальной истории , издательство Rutgers University Press, ISBN  9780813515809
• Саркар, Сумит; Саркар, Таника (2008). Саркар, Сумит; Саркар, Таника (ред.). Женщины и социальные реформы в современной Индии: читатель . Издательство Университета Индианы. ISBN  978-0253220493 .
• Сет, Санджай (май 2013 г.). «Национализм, современность и «женский вопрос» в Индии и Китае». Журнал азиатских исследований . 72 (2): 273–297. дои : 10.1017/S0021911812002215 . JSTOR   43553178 . S2CID   145461651 .
• Шарма, Трибат (1987). Женщины в Древней Индии с 320 г. по 1200 г. н.э. Нью-Дели: Издательство ESS.
• Таракан, Софи М.; Таракан, Майкл (ноябрь – декабрь 1975 г.). «Положение женщин в Индии: историческая перспектива». Социолог . 4 (4–5): 115–123. дои : 10.2307/3516124 . JSTOR   3516124 .

Историография

• Басу, Апарна (1991), «Женская история в Индии: историографический обзор», в Оффене, Карен; Пирсон, Рут Роуч; Рендалл, Джейн (ред.), «Написание женской истории: международные перспективы» , издательство Indiana University Press, стр. 181, номер doi : 10.1007/978-1-349-21512-6_10 , hdl : 2027/heb.03316.0001.001 , ISBN  978-0-333-54161-6 .
• Forbes, Джеральдин Хэнкок (весна 2003 г.). «Размышления о женской/гендерной истории Южной Азии: прошлое и будущее». Журнал колониализма и колониальной истории . 4 (1). дои : 10.1353/cch.2003.0012 . S2CID   144912833 .
• Панде, Рекха (1999), «Женская история: Индия», в Бойд, Келли (редактор), Энциклопедия историков и исторических писаний, том 2 , Тейлор и Фрэнсис, стр. 1318–1321, ISBN  9781884964336 .
• Рамусак, Барбара Н. (1999), «Женщины в Южной Азии», Рамусак, Барбара Н.; Сиверс, Шэрон Л. (ред.), Женщины в Азии: возвращение женщин в историю , Блумингтон, Индиана: Издательство Индианского университета, ISBN  9780253212672 .

Внешние ссылки

• Женщины династии Великих Моголов