Революция 1911 года

Эта статья об историческом событии. Чтобы узнать о китайском телесериале, см. «Революция 1911 года» (сериал) .

Революция 1911 года Революция 1911 года
Часть антицинских движений
Нанкин-роуд в Шанхае после Шанхайского восстания , увешанная флагами пяти рас под одним Союзом, которые использовали революционеры в Шанхае и Северном Китае.
Дата 10 октября 1911 г. 12 1912-02-12 - февраля 1912 ( г. ) Расположение Китай Результат Революционная победа
Воюющие стороны
Династия Цин Китайские вооруженные силы Бэйянская армия Роялистская партия	Революционеры: Тунмэнхуэй Хубэя Военное правительство Общество желтого песка Шаньси Сычуань Юньнань Чжэцзян Гелаохуи Тяньдихуэй Сепаратисты: Богдийское ханство Монголии Тибет Закрывать
Командиры и лидеры
Император Сюаньтун Вдовствующая императрица Лунъюй Цзайфэн , принц Чун Юань Шикай Фэн Гочжан Ма Анлян Duan Qirui Zhang Zuolin Yang Zengxin Zhao Erfeng Ma Qi	Сунь Ятсен Чан Кайши Хуан Син Ли Юаньхун Сун Цзяорэнь Чэнь Цимэй Цай Гэньин Hu Hanmin Тубтен Гьяцо
Strength
200,000	100,000 Unknown
Casualties and losses
est. 170,000	est. 50,000 Unknown

1911 Revolution
"Xinhai Revolution" in Chinese characters
Chinese	辛亥革命
Literal meaning	"Xinhai (stem-branch) revolution"
showTranscriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Xīnhài gémìng Bopomofo ㄒㄧㄣ ㄏㄞˋ ㄍㄜˊ ㄇㄧㄥˋ Wade–Giles Hsin1-hai4 ko2-ming4 Tongyong Pinyin Sin-hài gé-mìng IPA [ɕín.xâɪ kɤ̌.mîŋ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Sān-hoih gaak-mihng Jyutping san1 hoi6 gaak3 ming6 IPA [sɐn˥ hɔj˨ kak̚˧ mɪŋ˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Sin-hāi kek-bēng

Революция 1911 года , также известная как Синьхайская революция или Синьхайская революция Китая , положила конец последней императорской династии , династии Цин , и привела к созданию Китайской Республики . Революция стала кульминацией десятилетия агитации, бунтов и восстаний. Его успех ознаменовал крах китайской монархии , конец более чем двухтысячелетнего имперского правления в Китае и более чем 200-летнюю династию Цин, а также начало ранней республиканской эпохи в Китае .

Династия Цин долгое время боролась за реформирование правительства и сопротивление иностранной агрессии, но программа реформ после 1900 года была встречена консерваторами при дворе Цин как слишком радикальная, а реформаторы - как слишком медленная. Несколько фракций, в том числе подпольные антицинские группы , революционеры в изгнании, реформаторы, которые хотели спасти монархию путем ее модернизации, а также активисты по всей стране, обсуждали, как и стоит ли свергать династию Цин. Горячая точка наступила 10 октября 1911 года во время Учанского восстания — вооруженного восстания среди членов Новой армии . Подобные восстания затем стихийно вспыхнули по всей стране, и революционеры во всех провинциях страны отреклись от династии Цин. 1 ноября 1911 года цинский суд назначил Юань Шикая (лидера могущественной армии Бэйян ) премьер-министром, и он начал переговоры с революционерами.

В Нанкине революционные силы создали временное коалиционное правительство . 1 января 1912 года Национальное собрание провозгласило создание Китайской Республики во главе с Сунь Ятсеном , лидером Тунмэнхуэй (Объединённой лиги) , президентом республики . Короткая гражданская война между Севером и Югом закончилась компромиссом. Сунь уйдет в отставку в пользу Юаня, который станет президентом нового национального правительства , если Юань сможет добиться отречения императора Цин. Указ об отречении шестилетнего императора Сюаньтуна был обнародован 12 февраля 1912 года. Юань был приведен к присяге в качестве президента 10 марта 1912 года.

В декабре 1915 года Юань восстановил монархию и провозгласил себя императором Хунсянь, но этот шаг встретил сильное сопротивление со стороны населения и армии, что привело к его отречению от престола в марте 1916 года и восстановлению республики. Неспособность Юаня консолидировать законное центральное правительство перед его смертью в июне 1916 года привела к десятилетиям политического раскола и военачальников , включая попытку имперской реставрации династии Цин .

The revolution is named Xinhai because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai (辛亥) stem-branch in the sexagenary cycle of the traditional Chinese calendar. The Republic of China on the island of Taiwan and the People's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including nationalism, republicanism, modernization of China and national unity. 10 October is the National Day of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution in the PRC.

Background

Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905.

Empress Dowager Cixi (left, 1835–1908), who controlled court politics for 47 years, and the Guangxu Emperor (right, 1871–1908), who ruled over the Qing dynasty from 1875 until his death

Kang Youwei (left, 1858–1927) and Liang Qichao (1873–1929) who fled into exile, while Tan Sitong (right, 1865–1898) was executed. After the 1911 Revolution, Liang became Minister of Justice of the Republic of China. Kang remained a royalist and supported restoring the last Qing emperor Puyi in 1917.

After suffering its first defeat by the West in the First Opium War in 1842, a conservative court culture constrained efforts to reform and did not want to cede authority to local officials. Following defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860, the Qing began efforts to modernize by adopting Western technologies through the Self-Strengthening Movement. In the wars against the Taiping (1851–1864), Nian (1851–1868), Yunnan (1856–1873) and the Northwest (1862–1877), the court came to rely on armies raised by local officials. After a generation of relative success in importing Western naval and weapons technology, defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 was all the more humiliating and convinced many of the need for institutional change. The court established the New Army under Yuan Shikai and many concluded that Chinese society also needed to be modernized if technological and commercial advancements were to succeed.

In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor turned to reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao who offered a program inspired in large part by the reforms in Japan. They proposed basic reform in education, military, and economy in the so-called Hundred Days' Reform. The reform was abruptly canceled by a conservative coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi. The Emperor was put under house arrest in June 1898, where he remained until his death in 1908. Reformers Kang and Liang exiled themselves to avoid being executed. The Empress Dowager controlled policy until her death in 1908, with support from officials such as Yuan. Attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Boxer Rebellion, encouraged by the Empress Dowager, prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900.

After the Allies imposed a punitive settlement, the Qing court carried out basic fiscal and administrative reforms, including local and provincial elections. These moves did not secure trust or wide support among political activists. Many, like Zou Rong, felt strong anti-Manchu prejudice and blamed them for China's troubles. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao formed the Emperor Protection Society in an attempt to restore the emperor, but others, such as Sun Yat-sen organized revolutionary groups to overthrow the dynasty rather than reform it. They could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions, or exile overseas, but created a following among Chinese in North America and Southeast Asia, and within China, even in the new armies. The famine in 1906 and 1907 was also a major contributor to the revolution. Following the death of the Guangxu Emperor and the Empress Dowager Cixi in 1908, the throne was inherited by the two-years-old Xuantong Emperor, with Prince Chun as a regent. The Prince continued the reform path of Cixi, but conservative Manchu elements in the court opposed it, causing further support for revolutionaries.

Organization of the Revolution

Earliest groups

Many revolutionaries and groups wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish the Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as Yeung Ku-wan's Furen Literary Society, created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including Tse Tsan-tai, who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first-ever Chinese manhua, and who later became one of the core founders of the South China Morning Post.

Dr. Sun Yat-sen in London

Sun Yat-sen's Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society) was established in Honolulu in 1894 with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions. The two organizations merged in 1894.

Smaller groups

The Huaxinghui (China Revival Society) was founded in 1904 by notables like Huang Xing, Zhang Shizhao, Chen Tianhua, Sun Yat-sen, and Song Jiaoren, along with 100 others. Their motto was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise".

The Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by Cai Yuanpei. Other notable members include Zhang Binglin and Tao Chengzhang. Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen. One of the most famous female revolutionaries was Qiu Jin, who fought for women's rights and was also from Guangfuhui.

There were also many other minor revolutionary organizations, such as Lizhi Xuehui (勵志學會) in Jiangsu, Gongqianghui (公強會) in Sichuan, Yiwenhui (益聞會) and Hanzudulihui (漢族獨立會) in Fujian, Yizhishe (易知社) in Jiangxi, Yuewanghui (岳王會) in Anhui and Qunzhihui (群智會/群智社) in Guangzhou.

Criminal organizations also existed that were anti-Manchu, including the Green Gang and Hongmen Zhigongtang (致公堂). Sun Yat-sen himself came in contact with the Hongmen, also known as Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth society).

Gelaohui (Elder Brother Society) was another group, with Zhu De, Wu Yuzhang, Liu Zhidan (劉志丹) and He Long. This revolutionary group would eventually develop a strong link with the later Communist Party.

Sun Yat-sen with members of the Tongmenghui

Tongmenghui

Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified Tongmenghui (United League) in August 1905 in Tokyo. While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside the country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin. When the Tongmenghui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenghui members were between 17 and 26 years of age. Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications such as the Journal of Current Pictorial.

Later groups

In February 1906, Rizhihui (日知會) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu (孫武), Zhang Nanxian (張難先), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin. A nucleus of attendees at this conference evolved into the Tongmenghui's establishment in Hubei.

In July 1907, several members of Tongmenghui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the Yangtze River. Liu Quiyi (劉揆一), Jiao Dafeng (焦達峰), Zhang Boxiang (張伯祥) and Sun Wu (孫武) established Gongjinhui (Progressive Association) (共進會). In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary Society) (文學社). Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) was chosen as the leader. These two organizations would play a big role in the Wuchang Uprising.

Many young revolutionaries adopted the anarchist program. In Tokyo, Liu Shipei proposed to overthrow the Manchus and return to Chinese classical values. In Paris, well-connected young intellectuals, Li Shizhen, Wu Zhihui and Zhang Renjie, agreed with Sun's revolutionary program and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that simply replacing one government with another would not be progress; fundamental cultural change, a revolution in family, gender and social values, would remove the need for government and coercion. Zhang Ji and Wang Jingwei were among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means to awaken the people to revolution, but others insisted that education was the only justifiable strategy. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei. Zhang Renjie gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in the Kuomintang (KMT).

Views

Main article: Anti-Qing sentiment

Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority Manchu and the ethnic majority Han Chinese from the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the final years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal was "to expel the Tatar barbarians, to revive Zhonghua, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權). Many underground groups promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming" (反清復明) that had been around since the days of the Taiping Rebellion. Others, such as Zhang Binglin, supported straight-up lines like "slay the Manchus" and concepts like "Anti-Manchuism" (興漢滅胡 / 排滿主義).

Strata and groups

Many groups supported the 1911 Revolution, including students and intellectuals returning from abroad, as well as participants of revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers, and others.

Overseas Chinese

Assistance from overseas Chinese was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ. Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in funding revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of Malaya (Singapore and Malaysia). Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution".

Newly-Emerged intellectuals

The Qing government established new schools and encouraged students to study abroad as part of the Self-Strengthening movement. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan. A new progressive class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren, Hu Hanmin, Liao Zhongkai, Zhu Zhixin and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like Zou Rong, known for writing Revolutionary Army, a book in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty, and tyranny, and turning the sons and grandsons of Yellow Emperor into George Washingtons.

Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings they would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like Sanhehui were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."

Gentry and businessmen

Prince Qing with some royal cabinet members

The gentry's strength in local politics became apparent. From December 1908, the Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a cabinet with Prince Qing as prime minister. By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from the imperial family.

Foreign supporters

Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. Miyazaki Touten was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and Ryōhei Uchida. Homer Lea, an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in the revolution. Some foreigners, such as English explorer Arthur de Carle Sowerby, led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912.

Yuan Shikai (1859–1916)

Beiyang Army being trained in Xiaozhan, Tianjin

Yuan rose to power in north China and built the Beiyang Army.

The far right-wing Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose the takeover. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and that Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlarge the opium trade in China, while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed. The far right-wing Japanese ultranationalist Gen'yōsha leader Tōyama Mitsuru supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including the ones organized by Sun Yat-sen and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing Tongmenghui was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered.

The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. The Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together, and there were Japanese like Tōten Miyazaki inside of the anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting. The Black Dragon Society had very intimate, long term and influential relations with Sun Yat-sen who sometimes passed himself off as Japanese. According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold the first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive the Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932. Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese woman, Kaoru Otsuki.

Soldiers of the New Armies

The New Army was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qings in the First Sino-Japanese War. They were launched by a decree from eight provinces. New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped. Recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions. Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated the New Army.

Prelude

The central foci of the uprisings were mostly connected with the Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed before the Wuchang Uprising.

Flag of the First Guangzhou Uprising

First Guangzhou Uprising

In the spring of 1895, the Revive China Society, based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising (廣州起義). Lu Haodong was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' Blue Sky with a White Sun flag. On 26 October 1895, Yeung Ku-wan and Sun Yat-sen led Zheng Shiliang and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government. The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed. The First Guangzhou Uprising was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong banned the two men from the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting the Chinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada, and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong. After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just a number: 6348.

Independence Army Uprising

In 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion started, Tang Caichang (唐才常) and Tan Sitong of the previous Foot Emancipation Society organized the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising (自立軍起義) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900. Their goal was to overthrow Empress Dowager Cixi to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by the governors-general of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed.

Huizhou Uprising

On 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the Huizhou Uprising (惠州起義). The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after the Japanese Prime Minister prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities on Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order the army to disperse. Accordingly, this uprising also failed. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in this uprising.

Zhang Zhidong

Li Hongzhang

Two important Qing figures at the time

Great Ming Uprising

Main article: Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Mingshun

A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" (大明順天國). This involved Tse Tsan-tai, Li Jitang (李紀堂), Liang Muguang (梁慕光) and Hong Quanfu (洪全福), who formerly took part in the Jintian uprising during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom era.

Ping-liu-li Uprising

Ma Fuyi (馬福益) and Huaxinghui was involved in an uprising in the three areas of Pingxiang, Liuyang and Liling, called "Ping-liu-li Uprising", (萍瀏醴起義) in 1905. The uprising recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed.

Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway assassination attempt

Wu Yue (吳樾) of Guangfuhui carried out an assassination attempt at the Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station (正陽門車站) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905.

Huanggang Uprising

The Huanggang Uprising (黃岡起義) was launched on 22 May 1907, in Chaozhou. The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu (許雪秋), Chen Yongpo (陳湧波) and Yu Tongshi (余通實), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city. Other Japanese that followed include 萱野長知 and 池亨吉. After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed.

Huizhou Qinühu Uprising

In the same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to Huizhou to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" (惠州七女湖起義). On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu (鄧子瑜) and Chen Chuan (陳純) gathered some followers, and together they seized Qing arms in the lake, 20 km (12 mi) from Huizhou. They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei (泰尾) on 5 June. The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited the opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed.

Anqing Uprising

A statue to honor revolutionary Qiu Jin

On 6 July 1907, Xu Xilin of Guangfuhui led an uprising in Anqing, Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising (安慶起義). Xu Xilin at the time was the police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. He led an uprising that aimed to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming (恩銘). They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them. His cousin Qiu Jin was executed a few days later.

Qinzhou Uprising

From August to September 1907, the Qinzhou Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義), to protest against heavy taxation from the government. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun (王和順) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September. After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou but were unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan, while Wang Heshun returned to Vietnam.

Zhennanguan Uprising

On 1 December 1907, the Zhennanguan Uprising (鎮南關起事) took place at Zhennanguan along the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang (黃明堂) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort. With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing and Hu Hanmin personally went to the tower to command the battle. The Qing government sent troops led by Long Jiguang and Lu Rongting to counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After this uprising's failure, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to anti-Sun sentiments within the revolutionary groups. He would not return to the mainland until after the Wuchang Uprising.

Qin-Lian Uprising

On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising (欽廉上思起義), from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities of Qinzhou and Lianzhou in Guangdong. The struggle continued for fourteen days but was forced to stop after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies.

Hekou Uprising

In April 1908, another uprising was launched in Yunnan, Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising (雲南河口起義). Huang Mingtang (黃明堂) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other participating revolutionaries included Wang Heshun (王和順) and Guan Renfu (關仁甫). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and the uprising failed.

Mapaoying Uprising

On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising (馬炮營起義) was launched by revolutionary group Yuewanghui (岳王會) member Xiong Chenggei (熊成基) at Anhui. Yuewanghui, at this time, was a subset of Tongmenghui. This uprising also failed.

Gengxu New Army Uprising

In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising (庚戌新軍起義), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising (廣州新軍起義), took place. This involved a conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, causing the uprising to fail.

Second Guangzhou Uprising

Main article: Second Guangzhou Uprising

The memorial for the 72 martyrs

On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising (辛亥廣州起義) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt (黃花岡之役). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified). The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as martyrs. Revolutionary Lin Juemin (林覺民) was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote "A Letter to My Wife" (與妻訣別書), later to be considered a masterpiece in Chinese literature.

Wuchang Uprising

The Iron Blood 18-star flag, used during the Wuchang Uprising

Paths of the uprising

Main articles: Wuchang Uprising and Battle of Yangxia

The Literary Society (文學社) and the Progressive Association (共進會) were revolutionary organizations involved in the uprising that mainly began with a Railway Protection Movement protest. In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell the Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers. Banner officers like Duanfang, the railroad superintendent, and Zhao Erfeng led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement.

The New Army units of Hubei had originally been the Hubei Army, which had been trained by Qing official Zhang Zhidong. On 24 September, the Literary Society and Progressive Association convened a conference in Wuchang, along with sixty representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established a headquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu (蔣翊武) and Sun Wu (孫武), were elected as commander and chief of staff. Initially, the date of the uprising was to be 6 October 1911. It was postponed to a later date due to insufficient preparations.

Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs, and on 9 October, one accidentally exploded. Sun Yat-sen himself had no direct part in the uprising and was traveling in the United States at the time to recruit more support from among overseas Chinese. The Qing Viceroy of Huguang, Rui Cheng (瑞澂), tried to track down and arrest the revolutionaries. Squad leader Xiong Bingkun (熊秉坤) and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer and launched the revolt on 10 October 1911, at 7:00 p.m. The revolt was a success; the entire city of Wuchang was captured by the revolutionaries on the morning of 11 October. That evening, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the "Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China". The conference chose Li Yuanhong as the governor of the temporary government. Qing officers like the bannermen Duanfang and Zhao Erfeng were killed by the revolutionary forces.

Revolutionaries killed a German arms dealer in Hankou as he was delivering arms to the Qing. Revolutionaries killed 2 Germans and wounded 2 other Germans at the battle of Hanyang, including a former colonel.

Provincial uprisings

Map of uprisings during the 1911 Revolution

After the success of the Wuchang Uprising, many other protests occurred throughout the country for various reasons. Some uprisings declared restoration (光復) of the Han Chinese rule. Other uprisings were a step toward independence, and some were protests or rebellions against the local authorities. Regardless of the reason for the uprising the outcome was that all provinces in the country renounced the Qing dynasty and joined the ROC.

Changsha Restoration

Main article: Battle of Changsha (1911)

On 22 October 1911, the Hunan Tongmenghui were led by Jiao Dafeng (焦達嶧) and Chen Zuoxin (陳作新). They headed an armed group, consisting partly of revolutionaries from Hongjiang and partly of defecting New Army units, in a campaign to extend the uprising into Changsha. They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. Then they announced the establishment of the Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China and announced their opposition to the Qing Empire.

Shaanxi Uprising

On the same day, Shaanxi's Tongmenghui, led by Jing Dingcheng (景定成) and Qian Ding (錢鼎) as well as Jing Wumu (井勿幕) and others including Gelaohui, launched an uprising and captured Xi'an after two days of struggle. The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries, while the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the Manchus. The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general Ma Anliang led more than twenty battalions of Hui Muslim troops to defend the Qing imperials and attacked Shaanxi, held by revolutionary Zhang Fenghui (張鳳翽). The attack was successful, and after news arrived that Puyi was about to abdicate, Ma agreed to join the new Republic. The revolutionaries established the "Qinlong Fuhan Military Government" and elected Zhang Fenghui, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society (原日知會), as new governor. After the Xi'an Manchu quarter fell on 24 October, Xinhai forces killed all the Manchus in the city, about 20,000 Manchus were killed in the massacre. Many of its Manchu defenders committed suicide, including Qing general Wenrui (文瑞), who threw himself down a well. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives. Young Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.

Hui General Ma Anliang abandoned the Qing cause upon the Qing abdication in the Xinhai Revolution while the Manchu governor general Shengyun was enraged at the revolution.

Pro-revolution Hui Muslims like Shaanxi Governor Ma Yugui and Beijing Imam Wang Kuan persuaded Qing Hui general Ma Anliang to stop fighting, telling him as Muslims not to kill each other for the sake of the Qing monarchists and side with the republican revolutionaries instead. Ma Anliang then agreed to abandon the Qing under the combination of Yuan Shikai's actions and these messages from other Hui.

A year before the massacre of Manchus in October 1911, an oath against Manchus was sworn at the Great Goose Pagoda in Xi'an by the Gelaohui in 1911. Manchu banner garrisons were slaughtered in Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Taiyuan, Xi'an and Wuchang The Manchu quarter was located in the north eastern part of Xi'an and walled off while the Hui Muslim quarter was located in the northwestern part of Xi'an but did not have walls separating it from the Han parts. Southern Xi'an was entirely Han. Xi'an had the biggest Manchu banner garrison quarter by area before its destruction.

The revolutionaries were led by students of the military academy who overcame the guards at the gates of Xi'an and shut them, secured the arsenal and slaughtering all Manchus at their temple and then storming and slaughtering the Manchus in the Manchu banner quarter of the city. The Manchu quarter was set on fire and many Manchus were burned alive. Manchu men, women and girls were slaughtered for three days and then after that, only Manchu women and girls were spared while Manchu men and boys continued to be slaughtered. Many Manchus committed suicide by overdosing on opium and throwing themselves into wells. The revolutionaries were helped by the fact that Manchus stored gunpowder in their houses so they exploded when set on fire, killing the Manchus inside. 10,000 to 20,000 Manchus were slaughtered.

Ma Anliang was ordered to attack the revolutionaries in Shaanxi by the baoyi bondservant Chang Geng and Manchu Shengyun.

Eastern soldiers of the new republic were mobilized by Yuan Shikai when the attack against Shaanxi began by Ma Anliang, but news of the abdication of the Qing emperor reached Ma Anliang before he attacked Xi'an, so Ma Anliang ended all military operations and changed his allegiance to the Republic of China. All pro-Qing military activity in the northwest was put to an end by this.

Yuan Shikai managed to induce Ma Anliang to not attack Shaanxi after the Gelaohui took over the province and accept the Republic of China under his presidency in 1912. During the National Protection war in 1916 between republicans and Yuan Shikai's monarchy, Ma Anliang readied his soldiers and informed the republicans that he and the Muslims would stick to Yuan Shikai until the end. Yuan Shikai ordered Ma Anliang to block Bai Lang (White Wolf) from going into Sichuan and Gansu by blocking Hanzhong and Fengxiangfu.

The Protestant Shensi mission operated a hospital in Xian. Some American missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an. A report claimed Manchus massacred missionaries in the suburbs of Xi'an. Missionaries were reported killed in Xi'an and Taiyuan. Shaanxi joined the revolution on October 24. Sheng Yun was governor of Shaanxi in 1905.

Some Gansu Hui led by Ma Fuxiang joined the republicans. Gansu Hui general Ma Fuxiang did not participate with Ma Anliang in the battles with Shaanxi revolutionaries and refused to join the Qing Manchu Shengyun and Changgeng in their attempts to defend the Qing before the Qing abdication, instead the independence of Gansu from Qing control was jointly declared by non-Muslim gentry with Hui Muslim Ma Fuxiang.

Jiujiang Uprising

Flag used by naval fleet during the Jiujiang Uprising

On 23 October, Lin Sen, Jiang Qun (蔣群), Cai Hui (蔡蕙) and other members of the Tongmenghui in the province of Jiangxi plotted a revolt of New Army units. A naval fleet of Qing Dynasty was also revolted against Qing Army, this was solidified the victory of Wuchang Uprising. After they achieved victory, they announced their independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was then established.

Shanxi Taiyuan Uprising

On 29 October, Yan Xishan of the New Army led an uprising in Taiyuan, the capital city of the province of Shanxi, along with Yao Yijie (姚以價), Huang Guoliang (黃國梁), Wen Shouquan (溫壽泉), Li Chenglin (李成林), Zhang Shuzhi (張樹幟) and Qiao Xi (喬煦).

The rebels in Taiyuan bombarded the streets where Banner people resided and killed all the Manchu. They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi (陸鍾琦). They then announced the establishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor. Yan Xishan would later become one of the warlords that plagued China during what was known as "the warlord era".

Kunming Double Ninth Uprising

On 30 October, Li Genyuan (李根源) of the Tongmenghui in Yunnan joined with Cai E, Luo Peijin (羅佩金), Tang Jiyao, and other officers of the New Army to launch the Double Ninth Uprising (重九起義). They captured Kunming the next day and established the Yunnan Military Government, electing Cai E as the military governor.

Nanchang Restoration

On 31 October, the Nanchang branch of the Tongmenghui led New Army units in a successful uprising. They established the Jiangxi Military Government. Li Liejun was elected as the military governor. Li declared Jiangxi as independent and launched an expedition against Qing official Yuan Shikai.

Shanghai Armed Uprising

Chen Qimei, military governor of Shanghai

On 3 November, Shanghai's Tongmenghui, Guangfuhui and merchants led by Chen Qimei (陳其美), Li Pingsu (李平書), Zhang Chengyou (張承槱), Li Yingshi (李英石), Li Xiehe (李燮和) and Song Jiaoren organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai. They received support from local police officers. The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop on the 4th and captured Shanghai soon after. On 8 November, they established the Shanghai Military Government and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor. He would eventually become one of the founders of the ROC four big families, along with some of the most well-known families of the era.

Guizhou Uprising

On 4 November, Zhang Bailin (張百麟) of the revolutionary party in Guizhou led an uprising along with New Army units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured Guiyang and established the Great Han Guizhou Military Government, electing Yang Jincheng (楊藎誠) and Zhao Dequan (趙德全) as the chief and vice governor respectively.

Zhejiang Uprising

Also on 4 November, revolutionaries in Zhejiang urged the New Army units in Hangzhou to launch an uprising. Zhu Rui (朱瑞), Wu Siyu (吳思豫), Lu Gongwang (吕公望) and others of the New Army captured the military supplies workshop. Other units, led by Chiang Kai-shek and Yin Zhirei (尹銳志), captured most of the government offices. Eventually, Hangzhou was under the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionalist Tang Shouqian (湯壽潛) was elected as the military governor.

Jiangsu Restoration

On 5 November, Jiangsu constitutionalists and gentry urged Qing governor Cheng Dequan (程德全) to announce independence and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself as the governor. Unlike some other cities, anti-Manchu violence began after the restoration on 7 November in Zhenjiang. Qing general Zaimu (載穆) agreed to surrender, but because of a misunderstanding, the revolutionaries were unaware that their safety was guaranteed. The Manchu quarters were ransacked, and an unknown number of Manchus were killed. Zaimu, feeling betrayed, committed suicide. This is regarded as the Zhenjiang Uprising (鎮江起義).

Anhui Uprising

Members of Anhui's Tongmenghui also launched an uprising on that day and laid siege to the provincial capital. The constitutionalists persuaded Zhu Jiabao (朱家寶), the Qing Governor of Anhui, to announce independence.

Guangxi Uprising

On 7 November, the Guangxi politics department decided to secede from the Qing government, announcing Guangxi's independence. Qing Governor Shen Bingkun (沈秉堃) was allowed to remain governor, but Lu Rongting would soon become the new governor. Lu Rongting would later rise to prominence during the "warlord era" as one of the warlords, and his bandits controlled Guangxi for more than a decade. Under leadership of Huang Shaohong, the Muslim law student Bai Chongxi was enlisted into a Dare to Die unit to fight as a revolutionary.

Fujian Independence

One of the old buildings occupied by the Guangfuhui in Lianjiang County, Fujian

In November, members of Fujian's branch of the Tongmenghui, along with Sun Daoren (孫道仁) of the New Army, launched an uprising against the Qing army. The Qing viceroy, Song Shou (松壽), committed suicide. On 11 November, the entire Fujian province declared independence. The Fujian Military Government was established, and Sun Daoren was elected as the military governor.

Guangdong Independence

Near the end of October, Chen Jiongming, Deng Keng (鄧鏗), Peng Reihai (彭瑞海) and other members of Guangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to launch the uprising in Huazhou, Nanhai, Sunde and Sanshui in Guangdong Province. On 8 November, after being persuaded by Hu Hanmin, General Li Zhun (李準) and Long Jiguang (龍濟光) of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution. The Qing viceroy of Liangguang, Zhang Mingqi (張鳴岐), was forced to discuss with local representatives a proposal for Guangdong's independence. They decided to announce it the next day. Chen Jiongming then captured Huizhou. On 9 November, Guangdong announced its independence and established a military government. They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as Chief and Vice-Governor. Qiu Fengjia is known to have helped make the independence declaration more peaceful. It was unknown at the time if representatives from the European colonies of Hong Kong and Macau would be ceded to the new government.

Shandong Independence

On 13 November, after being persuaded by revolutionary Ding Weifen and several other officers of the New Army, the Qing governor of Shandong, Sun Baoqi, agreed to secede from the Qing government and announced Shandong's independence.

Ningxia Uprising

On 17 November, Ningxia Tongmenghui launched the Ningxia Uprising (寧夏會黨起義). The revolutionaries sent Yu Youren to Zhangjiachuan to meet Dungan Sufi Master Ma Yuanzhang to persuade him not to support the Qing. However, Ma did not want to endanger his relationship with the Qings. He sent the eastern Gansu Muslim militia under the command of one of his sons to help Ma Qi fight the Ningxia Gelaohui. Ma Anliang, Changgeng and Shengyun failed to capture Shaanxi from the revolutionaries. In Ningxia, Qing forces were attacked by both Hui Muslim Gelaohui and Han Gelaohui members, while Hui general Ma Qi and Ma Yuanzhang were in the Qing forces fighting against them but Ma Yuanzhang defected to the republicans after Ma Anliang gave up on the Qing. However, the Ningxia Revolutionary Military Government was established on 23 November. Some revolutionaries involved included Huang Yue (黃鉞) and Xiang Shen (向燊), who gathered New Army forces at Qinzhou (秦州). Ma Qi then pledged allegiance to Yuan Shikai and the Republic of China upon the abdication of the Qing like Ma Anliang did. Han general Dong Fuxiang's family, his wife Tung Chao-shih (Dong Zhaoshi), nephew Tung Wen (Dong Wen), and grandson Tung Kung (Dong Gong) fought for the Qing dynasty during the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 in Gansu.

Sichuan Independence

On 21 November, Guang'an organized the Great Han Shu Northern Military Government.

On 22 November, Chengdu and Sichuan began to declare independence. By the 27th, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government was established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianzun (蒲殿俊). Qing official Duanfang would also be killed.

Nanjing Uprising

1911 battle at Ta-ping gate, Nanjing. Painting by T. Miyano.

On 8 November, supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen (徐紹楨) of the New Army announced an uprising in Molin Pass (秣陵關), 30 km (19 mi) away from Nanjing. Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei and other generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanjing together. On 11 November, the united army headquarters was established in Zhenjiang. Between 24 November and 1 December, under the command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan (烏龍山), Mufushan (幕府山), Yuhuatai (雨花臺), Tianbao City (天保城) and many other strongholds of the Qing army. On 2 December, Nanjing was captured by the revolutionaries after the Battle of Nanjing, 1911. On 3 December, revolutionary Su Liangbi led troops in a massacre of a large number of Manchus (the exact number is not known). Shortly afterward he was arrested and his troops disbanded.

Dihua and Yili Uprising

Main article: Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang

In Xinjiang on 28 December, Liu Xianzun (劉先俊) and revolutionaries started the Dihua Uprising (迪化起義). This was led by more than 100 members of Gelaohui. This uprising failed. On 7 January 1912, the Yili Uprising (伊犁起義) with Feng Temin (馮特民) began. Qing governor Yuan Dahua (袁大化) fled and submitted his resignation to Yang Zengxin, because he could not handle fighting the revolutionaries.

On 8 January, a new Yili government was established for the revolutionaries. Today some Chinese historians believe this contributed to the Qing dynasty fall, because this prevented the Qing dynasty's plan to flee to the western country. The revolutionaries would be defeated at Jinghe in January and February, eventually, because of the abdication to come, Yuan Shikai recognized Yang Zengxin's rule, appointed him Governor of Xinjiang and had the province join the Republic. Eleven more former Qing officials would be assassinated in Zhenxi, Karashahr, Aksu, Kucha, Luntai and Kashgar in April and May 1912.

The revolutionaries printed new multi-lingual media.

Uprisings in territories

Tibetan secession

Main articles: Xinhai Lhasa turmoil and Tibet (1912–1951)

In 1905, the Qing sent Zhao Erfeng to Tibet to retaliate against rebellions. By 1908, Zhao was appointed imperial resident in Lhasa. Zhao was beheaded in December 1911 by pro-Republican forces. The bulk of the area historically known as Kham was now claimed to be the Xikang Administrative District, created by the Republican revolutionaries. By the end of 1912, the last Qing troops were forced out of Tibet through India. Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, returned to Tibet in January 1913 from Sikkim, where he had been residing. When the new ROC government apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama to his former position, he replied he was not interested in Chinese ranks, that Tibet had never been subordinated to China, that Tibet was an independent country, and that he was assuming the spiritual and political leadership of Tibet. Because of this, many have read this reply as a formal declaration of independence. The Chinese side ignored the response, and Tibet had thirty years free of interference from China until 1951 and now Tibet is still ruled by China.

Outer Mongolian secession

Main articles: Mongolian Revolution of 1911 and Bogd Khanate of Mongolia

At the end of 1911, Outer Mongolians took action with an armed revolt against Qing authorities but were unsuccessful. The independence movement that took place was not limited to just Outer Mongolia but was a pan-Mongolian phenomenon. On 29 December 1911, Bogd Khan became the ruler of the Bogd Khanate. Inner Mongolia became a contested terrain between the Bogd Khanate and China. In general, Russia supported the independence of Outer Mongolia (including Tannu Uriankhai) during the time of the 1911 Revolution.

Tibet and Outer Mongolia then recognized each other in a treaty. In 1919, the Republic of China regained Outer Mongolia but then lost it again in 1921. The People's Republic of China, a member of the United Nations, has officially recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia since 1949. However, the Republic of China based on the island of Taiwan has not yet officially recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia from China, but its government has opened a cultural representative office and economy as an alternative to the official embassy in Ulaanbaatar since 2002.

Tannu Uriankhai secession

Main article: Uryankhay Republic

Change of government

Presidential seal of the provisional government of the Republic of China

North: Qing Court final transformation attempt

On 1 November 1911, the Qing government appointed Yuan Shikai as Prime Minister of the imperial cabinet, replacing Prince Qing. On 3 November, after a proposition by Cen Chunxuan from the Constitutional Monarchy Movement (立憲運動), the Qing court passed the Nineteen Articles (憲法重大信條十九條), which turned the Qing from an autocratic system with the emperor having unlimited power to a constitutional monarchy. On 9 November, Huang Xing even cabled Yuan Shikai and invited him to join the Republic. The court changes were too late, and the emperor was about to have to step down.

South: Provisional Government in Nanking

Main article: Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)

On 28 November 1911, Wuchang and Hanyang had fallen back to the Qing army. So for safety, the revolutionaries convened their first conference at the British Concession in Hankou on 30 November. By 2 December, the revolutionary forces were able to capture Nanking in the uprising; and the revolutionaries decided to make it the site of the new provisional government. At the time, Beijing was still the Qing capital.

North–South Conference

Tang Shaoyi, left. Edward Selby Little, middle. Wu Tingfang, right.

On 18 December, the North–South Conference (南北議和) was held in Shanghai to discuss the north and south issues. The reluctance of foreign financiers to give financial support to the Qing government or the revolutionaries contributed to both sides agreeing to start negotiations. Yuan Shikai selected Tang Shaoyi as his representative. Tang left Beijing for Wuhan to negotiate with the revolutionaries. The revolutionaries chose Wu Tingfang. With the intervention of six foreign powers, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Russia, Japan, and France, Tang Shaoyi and Wu Tingfang began to negotiate a settlement at the British concession. Foreign businessman Edward Selby Little (李德立) acted as the negotiator and facilitated the peace agreement. They agreed that Yuan Shikai would force the Qing emperor to abdicate in exchange for the southern provinces' support of Yuan as President of the Republic. After considering the possibility that the new republic might be defeated in a civil war or by foreign invasion, Sun Yat-sen agreed to Yuan's proposal to unify China under Yuan Shikai's Beijing government. Further decisions were made to let the emperor rule over his little court in the New Summer Palace. He would be treated as a ruler of a separate country and have expenses of several million taels in silver.

Establishment of the Republic

Sun Yat-sen and other members of the Government of the Republic of China visited the mausoleum of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty, 15 February 1912

Republic of China declared and national flag issued

On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat-sen was elected as the first provisional president. 1 January 1912 was set as the first day of the First Year of the ROC. On 3 January, the representatives recommended Li Yuanhong as the Provisional Vice-president.

Во время и после революции 1911 года многие участвовавшие группы хотели иметь собственный вымпел в качестве национального флага. Во время Учанского восстания воинские части Учана хотели иметь девятизвездочный флаг с Тайцзиту . Others in competition included Lu Haodong's Blue Sky with a White Sun flag. Huang Xing favored a flag bearing the mythical "well-field" system of village agriculture. In the end, the assembly compromised: the national flag would be the banner of Five Races Under One Union. The Five Races Under One Union flag with horizontal stripes represented the five major nationalities of the republic. The red represented Han, the yellow represented Manchus, the blue for Mongols, the white for Muslims, and the black for Tibetans. Despite the general target of the uprisings to be the Manchus, Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren and Huang Xing unanimously advocated racial integration to be carried out from the mainland to the frontiers.

Инцидент в Дунхуамэне

16 января, возвращаясь в свою резиденцию, Юань Шикай попал в засаду в результате взрыва бомбы, организованного Тунмэнхуэй в Дунхуамэнь (東華門) в Пекине. В нем приняли участие восемнадцать революционеров. Около десяти охранников погибли, но сам Юань серьезно не пострадал. На следующий день он отправил революционерам послание, в котором поклялся в своей лояльности и попросил их больше не организовывать против него покушения.

Императорский указ об отречении

Отречение императора

Основная статья: Пуи § Отречение

Чжан Цзянь подготовил предложение об отречении, которое было одобрено Временным Сенатом. 20 января У Тинфан из Временного правительства Нанкина официально вручил Юань Шикаю императорский указ об отречении от престола для отречения Пуи. 22 января Сунь Ятсен объявил, что уйдет с поста президента в пользу Юань Шикая, если последний поддержит отречение императора. Затем Юань оказал давление на вдовствующую императрицу Лунъюй, угрожая, что жизни императорской семьи не будут сохранены, если отречение не произойдет до того, как революционеры достигнут Пекина, но если они согласятся отречься от престола, временное правительство выполнит условия, предложенные императорской семьей.

3 февраля вдовствующая императрица Лунъюй дала Юаню полное разрешение вести переговоры об условиях отречения цинского императора. Затем Юань составил свою собственную версию и 3 февраля отправил ее революционерам. Его версия состояла из трёх разделов вместо двух. 12 февраля 1912 года, под давлением Юаня и других министров, Пуи (шесть лет) и вдовствующая императрица Лунъюй приняли условия отречения Юаня.

Дебаты о столице

Смотрите также: История Пекина

В качестве условия передачи руководства Юань Шикаю Сунь Ятсен настаивал на том, чтобы временное правительство оставалось в Нанкине. 14 февраля Временный сенат первоначально проголосовал 20–5 за то, чтобы сделать Пекин столицей вместо Нанкина, при этом два голоса были отданы за Ухань и один за Тяньцзинь. Большинство в Сенате хотело закрепить мирное соглашение, взяв власть в Пекине. Чжан Цзянь и другие полагали, что наличие столицы в Пекине будет препятствовать восстановлению Маньчжурии и отделению Монголии . Но Сунь и Хуан Син выступали в пользу Нанкина, чтобы сбалансировать его с опорой Юаня на севере. Ли Юаньхун представил Ухань как компромисс. На следующий день Временный сенат снова проголосовал, на этот раз 19–6 в пользу Нанкина и двумя голосами за Ухань. Сунь отправил делегацию во главе с Цаем Юаньпеем и Ван Цзинвэем, чтобы убедить Юаня переехать в Нанкин. Юань приветствовал делегацию и согласился сопровождать делегатов обратно на юг. Затем вечером 29 февраля беспорядки и пожары . по всему городу вспыхнули Их якобы начали непокорные войска Цао Куня , верного офицера Юаня. Беспорядки дали Юаню предлог остаться на севере, чтобы защититься от волнений. 10 марта в Пекине состоялась инаугурация Юаня в качестве временного президента Китайской Республики. 5 апреля Временный сенат в Нанкине проголосовал за то, чтобы сделать Пекин столицей республики, и собрался в Пекине в конце месяца.

Республиканское правительство в Пекине

Основная статья: Правительство Бэйян

Юань Шикай приносит присягу временного президента в Пекине

10 марта 1912 года Юань Шикай был приведен к присяге в качестве второго временного президента Китайской Республики в Пекине. Первые выборы в Национальное собрание состоялись в соответствии с Временной конституцией . В Пекине 25 августа 1912 года был сформирован Гоминьдан. После выборов Гоминьдан получил большинство мест. Сун Цзяорэнь был избран премьер-министром. Однако Сун был убит в Шанхае 20 марта 1913 года по секретному приказу Юань Шикая.

Предлагаемые ханьские монархи и сохранение дворянских титулов

этнический хань Некоторые выступали за то, чтобы императором Китая был назначен , либо потомок Конфуция, носивший благородный титул герцога Яньшэна, либо потомок Конфуция, носивший благородный титул герцога Яньшэна . или потомок императорской семьи Мин , носивший титул маркиза расширенной благодати . Герцог Яньшэн был предложен Лян Цичао в качестве кандидата на императорский пост .

Ханьская потомственная аристократическая знать, такая как герцог Яньшэн, маркиз расширенной благодати, и титул Уцзин Боши (измененный на «Земля Чжишэн Сяньши Наньцзун Фэнси Гуань»), потомки Мэн-цзы , Цзэнцзы и Янь Хуэя были сохранены . новой Китайской Республикой, и обладатели титула продолжали получать пенсии.

Сообщается, что при поддержке иностранных банкиров существовал план по объявлению герцога Яньшэна императором Китая, если республиканское дело революционера потерпит неудачу.

Наследие

Социальное влияние

После революции в Китае произошел огромный всплеск антиманьчжурских настроений, но особенно в Пекине , где тысячи людей погибли в результате антиманьчжурского насилия. Имперские ограничения на проживание и поведение ханьцев в городе рухнули вместе с падением имперской власти Маньчжурии. Антиманьчжурские настроения зафиксированы в таких книгах, как «Краткая история рабов » и «Биографии скупых чиновников и коррумпированных сотрудников» Лаоли.

Во время отречения последнего императора вдовствующая императрица Лунъюй, Юань Шикай и Сунь Ятсен пытались принять концепцию «Маньчжурия и Хань как одна семья» (滿漢一家). Люди начали исследовать и спорить сами с собой о первопричине своей национальной слабости. Этим новым поиском идентичности стало Движение за новую культуру . Маньчжурская культура и язык , напротив, к 2007 году практически вымерли.

В отличие от революций на Западе, революция 1911 года не произвела реструктуризации общества. Участниками Революции 1911 года были в основном военнослужащие, бюрократы старого образца и местное дворянство. Эти люди все еще владели региональной властью после революции 1911 года. Некоторые стали военачальниками. не произошло Серьезного улучшения уровня жизни . Писатель Лу Синь в 1921 году, во время публикации «Правдивой истории А-Цю» , через десять лет после революции 1911 года, заметил, что по сути ничего не изменилось, кроме того, что «маньчжуры покинули кухню». Экономические проблемы не решались до прихода к власти Цзян Цзинго на Тайване и Мао Цзэдуна на материке.

Революция 1911 года главным образом избавила от феодализма ( фэнцзянь ) позднеимперский Китай . По обычному мнению историков, после революции произошло две реставрации феодальной власти: первой был Юань Шикай; вторым был Чжан Сюнь . Из-за антиманьчжурских настроений после революции маньчжуры Столичных знамен оказались в глубокой нищете, а маньчжурские мужчины были слишком бедны, чтобы жениться, поэтому ханьские мужчины женились на маньчжурских женщинах, маньчжуры перестали одеваться в маньчжурскую одежду и перестали практиковать маньчжурскую культуру. традиции.

Историческое значение

Революция 1911 года свергла правительство Цин и четырехтысячелетнюю монархию. На протяжении всей китайской истории старые династии всегда сменялись новыми. Однако революция 1911 года была первой, которая полностью свергла монархию и попыталась установить республику для распространения демократических идей по всему Китаю. Хотя в 1911 году на церемонии провозглашения временного правительства Сунь Ятсен сказал: «Революция еще не увенчалась успехом, товарищам еще нужно стремиться в будущее». ( 革命尚未成功，同志仍需努力 ).

С 1920-х годов две доминирующие партии – РПЦ и КНР – видят революцию 1911 года совершенно по-разному. Оба Китая признают Сунь Ятсена Отцом Нации , но на Тайване это означает «Отец Китайской Республики». На материке Сунь Ятсена считали человеком, который помог свергнуть Цин, что является предварительным условием для коммунистического государства, основанного в 1949 году. КНР (материк) рассматривает работу Суня как первый шаг на пути к настоящей революции 1949 года, когда коммунисты создали по-настоящему независимое государство, изгнавшее иностранцев и построившее военную и промышленную державу. Отцом Нового Китая считается Мао Цзэдун . В 1954 году Лю Шаоци сказал, что «революция 1911 года ввела в сознание простых людей концепцию республики». Чжоу Эньлай отметил, что «революция 1911 года свергла правление Цин, положила конец 4000-летней монархии, в значительной степени освободила сознание людей и открыла путь для развития будущей революции. Это великая победа».

Современная оценка

Изменение веры в то, что революция была в целом позитивным изменением, началось в конце 1980-х и 1990-х годах, но цитируется, что Чжан Шичжао утверждал, что «говоря о революции 1911 года, теоретики в наши дни склонны преувеличивать значение слова «успех». «было слишком злоупотреблено».

Степень успеха демократии, достигнутой революцией, может варьироваться в зависимости от точки зрения. Даже после смерти Сунь Ятсена в 1925 году Гоминьдан в течение шестидесяти лет контролировал все пять ветвей власти; ни один из них не был независимым. Янь Цзяци , основатель Федерации демократического Китая , заявил, что Сунь Ятсену следует отдать должное основателю первой китайской республики в 1912 году, а второй республикой является народ Тайваня и политические партии, которые сейчас демократизируют регион.

Между тем, идеалы демократии далеки от реализации на материковой части Китая. Например, бывший премьер-министр Китая Вэнь Цзябао однажды сказал в своей речи, что без настоящей демократии нет никаких гарантий экономических и политических прав; но в 2011 году он возглавил подавление мирных протестов в Китае . Другие, такие как Цинь Юнминь (秦永敏) из Демократической партии Китая , который был заключен в тюрьму на двенадцать лет, не восхваляют революцию 1911 года. Цинь Юнминь сказал, что революция лишь заменила одного диктатора другим, что Мао Цзэдун не был императором, но он хуже императора.

СМИ

Одна из первых японских кинокомпаний ( M. Pathe , принадлежащая стороннику Сунь Сёкити Умея ) задокументировала успех революции, начавшейся с восстания в Учане и приведшей к инаугурации Сунь, выпустив три документальных фильма, освещавших революцию.

См. также

• 1911 (фильм)
• Битва за Китайскую Республику
• Военные Китайской Республики
• Календарь Китайской Республики
• Национально-революционная армия
• Хронология поздних антицинских восстаний
• Цю Цзинь
• Монархия Китая

Примечания

^   a: Многие цинские солдаты ханьского происхождения обратились в поддержку революции во время восстаний, поэтому реальные потери трудно отследить.
^   b: Вырезка из Мин Бао (Народные газеты). Первоначально издание «Хуа Синь Хуэй» называлось «Китай двадцатого века» , но было переименовано после основания «Тунмэнхуэй».

Дальнейшее чтение

Первичные источники

• Синхань Трехдневный Учанского восстания , ​ ​ журнал У .

Современные счета

• Дингл, Эдвин Дж. (1912). Китайская революция: 1911–1912 гг. Историко-политический отчет о гражданской войне . Шанхай, Китай: Коммерческая пресса. Доступно в Интернет-архиве ЗДЕСЬ.
• Кент, PHB (1912). Уход маньчжуров . Лондон: Э. Арнольд.

Научные вторичные источники

Английский

• Эдвардс, Луиза и Лили Чжоу. «Гендер и« достоинство насилия »: создание нового видения политического взаимодействия через революцию 1911 года». Границы истории в Китае 6.4 (2011): 485–504 онлайн .
• Эшерик, Джозеф В. «Переосмысление 1911 года: уроки внезапной революции». Журнал современной китайской истории 6.1 (2012): 1–14, историография.
• Эшерик, Джозеф В. (1976). Реформа и революция в Китае: революция 1911 года в Хунани и Хубэе . Беркли: Издательство Калифорнийского университета. ISBN  978-0-520-03084-8 .
• Фенби, Джонатан. «Рождение китайской трагедии». История сегодня (2011) 61 № 10, стр. 29–35.
• Фунг, Эдмунд СК (1980). Военное измерение китайской революции: Новая армия и ее роль в революции 1911 года . Ванкувер: Издательство Университета Британской Колумбии . ISBN  978-0-7748-0129-4 .
• Гольдштейн, Мелвин К. (1991). История современного Тибета, 1913–1951: упадок ламаистского государства . Издательство Калифорнийского университета . ISBN  978-0-520-07590-0 .
• Се, Уинстон (1975). Китайская историография революции 1911 года: критический обзор и избранная библиография . Пресса Института Гувера . ISBN  978-0-8179-3341-8 .
• Каплан, Лоуренс М. (2010). Гомер Ли: Американский солдат удачи . Лексингтон: Университетское издательство Кентукки . ISBN  978-0-8131-2616-6 .
• Кит-цзин, Чан Лау (1978). Англо-китайская дипломатия 1906-1920 годов: в карьере сэра Джона Джордана и Юань Ши-кая . Гонконг : Издательство Гонконгского университета . ISBN  962-209-010-9 .
• Ма, Л. Ева Арментраут (1990). Революционеры, монархисты и китайские кварталы: китайская политика в Америке и революция 1911 года . Гонолулу: Издательство Гавайского университета . ISBN  978-0-8248-1239-3 .
• Миттер, Рана. «1911: Незакрепленная китайская революция». China Quarterly 208 (2011): 1009–1020.
• Паулес, Ксавье. Китайская Республика, 1912-1949 гг. , глава 1 (Polity Press, 2023)
• Рэнкин, Мэри Бэкус (1986). Элитный активизм и политическая трансформация в Китае: провинция Чжэцзян, 1865–1911 гг . Стэнфорд, Калифорния: Издательство Стэнфордского университета . ISBN  978-0-8047-1321-4 .
• Роудс, Эдвард Дж. М. (2000). Маньчжуры и хань: этнические отношения и политическая власть в позднем Цин и раннем республиканском Китае, 1861–1928 гг . Сиэтл: Вашингтонский университет Press . ISBN  0-295-98040-0 . Доступно для просмотра онлайн в Вашингтонском университете Press Manchus and Han .
• Шан, Патрик Фулианг (2018). Юань Шикай: переоценка (Университет Британской Колумбии Press). ISBN   9780774837781 .
• Shinkichi, Eto; Schiffrin, Harold Z. (1994). China's republican revolution . [Tokyo]: University of Tokyo Press . ISBN  978-4-13-027030-4 .
• Райт, Мэри Клэбо (1978). Китай в революции: первая фаза 1900–1913 гг . Нью-Хейвен: Издательство Йельского университета . ISBN  978-0-300-01460-0 .
• Янг, Эрнест П. (1977). Президентство Юань Ши-кая: либерализм и диктатура в раннереспубликанском Китае . Анн-Арбор: Издательство Мичиганского университета , Мичиганские исследования Китая.
• Ю, Джордж Т. «Революция 1911 года: прошлое, настоящее и будущее», Asian Survey , 31 № 10 (1991), стр. 895–904, онлайн -историография.
• Чжэн, Сяовэй. «Политика прав и революция 1911 года в Китае» (Stanford UP, 2018) Онлайн-обзор .

китайский

• Тан (唐), Деган (德剛) (1998). Конец 50-летия Цин: Юань Шикай, Сунь Ятсен и Синьхайская революция . Тайбэй: Юаньлю (遠流). ISBN  978-957-32-3513-2 .
• Тан, Деганг (2002). Семья Юань у власти [ Правление Юань Шикая . ]  978-957-32-4680-0 .
• Чжан, Юфа (1998). История Китайской Республики [ История Китайской Республики Тайбэй: Ляньцзинь (английский). ISBN  978-957-08-1826-0 .
• Линь, Юшэн (1983). <Яростная антитрадиционная мысль эпохи 4 мая и будущее китайского либерализма> Включено в «Идеи и цифры». [ Антитрадиционные тенденции эпохи четвертого мая и будущее либертарианства в Китае включены в книгу «Лица и их мысли» ]. Тайбэй: Ляньцзинь (聯經). ISBN  978-957-08-0384-6 .
• Чжоу, Вэйминь; Тан, Линьлинь (2002). История культурных обменов между Китаем и Малайзией [ История культурных взаимодействий Китая и Малайзии ]. Хайкоу : Хайнань (Япония). ISBN  978-7-5443-0682-9 .
• Ли, Цзэхоу, Лю, Чжайфу (1999). Прощание с революцией - Диалоги о Китае в ХХ веке [ Прощание с революциями: записи дискуссий в Китае XX века ]. Тайбэй: Майтян (麥田). ISBN  978-957-708-735-5 .

Внешние ссылки

• СМИ, связанные с Синьхайской революцией , на Викискладе?