Физическая привлекательность

Венера де Мило в Лувре была описана как «классическое видение красоты». ^{[ 1 ]}^{[ 2 ]}^{[ 3 ]}^{[ А ]}

Давид Микеланджело считается символом молодой мужской красоты и силы.

Физическая привлекательность - это степень, в которой физические особенности человека считаются эстетически приятными или красивыми . Термин часто подразумевает сексуальную привлекательность или желательность, но также может отличаться от любого. Есть много факторов, которые влияют на привлечение одного человека к другому, причем физические аспекты являются одним из них. Физическое влечение включает в себя универсальные восприятия, общие для всех человеческих культур, таких как симметрия лица , ^{[ 9 ]} Социокультурные зависимые атрибуты и личные предпочтения уникальны для конкретного человека . ^{[ 10 ]}

Во многих случаях люди подсознательно приписывают положительные характеристики, такие как интеллект и честность, физически привлекательные люди, психологическое явление , называемое эффектом ореола . ^{[ 11 ]} Исследования, проведенные в Соединенных Штатах и Великобритании ^{[ 12 ]} Меры физической привлекательности и интеллекта положительно коррелируют , и что связь между двумя атрибутами является сильнее среди мужчин, чем среди женщин. ^{[ 13 ]} Эволюционные психологи пытались ответить, почему люди, которые являются более физически привлекательными, также должны в среднем более умными и выдвинуть представление о том, что как общий интеллект, так и физическая привлекательность могут быть показателями основной генетической пригодности . ^{[ 13 ]} Физические характеристики человека могут сигнализировать о рождаемости и здоровье, ^{[ 14 ]}^{[ 15 ]}^{[ 16 ]} С помощью статистических исследований моделирования, показывающих, что переменные формы лица, которые отражают аспекты физиологического здоровья, включая жир в организме и артериальное давление, также влияют на восприятие наблюдателями здоровья. ^{[ 17 ]} Установка этих факторов увеличивает репродуктивный успех, способствуя представлению своих генов в популяции. ^{[ 18 ]}

Гетеросексуальные мужчины, как правило, привлекают женщины, которые имеют юношескую внешность и демонстрируют такие черты, как симметричное лицо , ^{[ 19 ]} Полная грудь, полные губы и низкое соотношение талии и шрифтов . ^{[ 20 ]}^{[ 21 ]} Гетеросексуальные женщины, как правило, привлекают мужчин, которые выше, чем они, и которые демонстрируют высокую степень симметрии лица, мужской лица диморфизм , прочность верхней части тела , широкие плечи, относительно узкую талию и V-образный торс. ^{[ 22 ]}^{[ 23 ]}^{[ 24 ]}^{[ 25 ]}

Общие факторы

Как правило, физическая привлекательность можно рассматривать с ряда перспектив; с универсальным восприятием является общим для всех человеческих культур , культурных и социальных аспектов и индивидуальных субъективных предпочтений. Восприятие привлекательности может оказать существенное влияние на то, как люди судят с точки зрения занятости или социальных возможностей, дружбы, сексуального поведения и брака. ^{[ 26 ]}

Некоторые физические особенности привлекательны как у мужчин, так и для женщин, особенно телесных ^{[ 27 ]} и симметрия лица, ^{[ 28 ]}^{[ 29 ]}^{[ 30 ]}^{[ 31 ]} Хотя один противоположный отчет предполагает, что «абсолютная безупречность» с совершенной симметрией может быть «тревожной». ^{[ 32 ]} Симметрия может быть эволюционно полезной как признак здоровья, потому что асимметрия «сигнализирует о болезни или травме». ^{[ 33 ]} Одно исследование показало, что люди смогли «оценить красоту на подсознательном уровне», увидев только представление о картине на одну сотую секунды. ^{[ 33 ]} Другие важные факторы включают молодость, ясность кожи и гладкость кожи; и «яркий цвет» в глазах и волосах. ^{[ 28 ]} Однако существует множество различий, основанных на полу.

Исследование отчетов студентов колледжа в 1921 году, касающиеся этих черт, утверждает, что статические черты, такие как красота или безобразие особенностей, занимают позицию, подчиненную группам физических элементов, таких как выразительное поведение, ласковое расположение, благодать манеры, аристократическое подшипение, социальные достижения и личные привычки. ^{[ 34 ]}

Граммер и коллеги определили восемь «столбов» красоты: молодость, симметрия, усердство , маркеры пола-гормона, запах тела , кожа , движение и текстура волос. ^{[ 35 ]} Традиционно в Самоа жир в организме был приемлемым или привлекательным. ^{[ 36 ]}

Особенности лица

Итальянское исследование, опубликованное в 2008 году, проанализировало позиции 50 с мягкими тканями достопримечательностей 324 белых итальянских мальчиков и девочек- подростков , чтобы сравнить особенности группы из 93 «красивых» людей, отобранных коммерческим актером с таковыми в Спортивная группа с нормальными деликациальными размерами и пропорциями. Исследование показало, что по сравнению с эталонной группой привлекательные подростки имели тенденцию иметь следующие характеристики:

Соотношение между объемом лба и уровнем общего лица было больше;
Объем носа был меньше;
Расстояние между внешним канти было больше;
Общая высота и глубина лица были уменьшены.

Некоторые тенденции отличались по возрасту и полу:

Объем лица был меньше у пожилых привлекательных мальчиков, чем у их сверстников, но больше у привлекательных девочек;
Лицы старых привлекательных подростков были менее округлыми (большее соотношение между областью лица и объемом ), но обратное было верно для девочек любого возраста;
Привлекательные старшие мальчики имели меньшие углы выпуклости лица с более острыми профилями, в то время как у девочек был найден обратный шаблон;
Носоландский угол был уменьшен у девочек, но у старших мальчиков эффект был изменен;
У пожилых привлекательных мальчиков, как правило, были более заметные подбородки .

Исследование пришло к выводу, что у привлекательных подростков было больше неотозных и юношеских особенностей, но пожилые привлекательные мальчики также показали склонность к сексуальному диморфизму . ^{[ 37 ]}

Вопреки общему заблуждению , одно исследование обнаруживает, что не настойчивые рубцы лица повышают привлекательность мужского пола для краткосрочных отношений. ^{[ 38 ]}

Симметрия

Симметричные лица и тела могут быть признаками хорошего наследства для женщин-порочного возраста, стремящихся создать здоровый потомство. Исследования показывают, что женщин меньше привлекают мужчины с асимметричными лицами, ^{[ 39 ]} и симметричные лица коррелируют с долгосрочной умственной деятельностью ^{[ 40 ]} и являются признаком того, что человек испытывал «меньше генетических и окружающих нарушений, таких как заболевания, токсины, недоедание или генетические мутации» во время роста. ^{[ 40 ]} Поскольку достижение симметрии является сложной задачей во время роста человека, требуя миллиардов воспроизведений клеток при сохранении параллельной структуры, достижение симметрии является видимым сигналом генетического здоровья.

Исследования также показали, что женщины с пиковой фертильностью чаще фантазировали о мужчинах с большей симметрией лица, ^{[ 41 ]} И другие исследования показали, что мужская симметрия была единственным фактором, который мог бы значительно предсказать вероятность того, что женщина испытывает оргазм во время секса. Женщины с партнерами, обладающими большей симметрией, сообщили о значительно большем количестве копуляторных женских оргазмов, чем сообщали женщины с партнерами, обладающими низкой симметрией, даже со многими потенциальными смешивающими переменными контролируются. ^{[ 42 ]} Было обнаружено, что этот вывод удерживается в разных культурах. Утверждалось, что мужской диморфизм лица (у мужчин) и симметрия на лицах являются сигналами рекламы генетического качества у потенциальных товарищей. ^{[ 43 ]} с низким содержанием лица и тела Низкая флуктуальная асимметрия может указывать на хорошее здоровье и интеллект, которые являются желательными чертами. ^{[ 44 ]} Исследования показали, что женщины, которые воспринимают себя как более физически привлекательные, с большей вероятностью предпочитают мужчин с более высокой степенью симметрии лица, чем женщины, которые считают себя менее физически привлекательными. ^{[ 45 ]} Было обнаружено, что симметричные женщины и мужчины имеют тенденцию начать иметь половые акты в более раннем возрасте, иметь больше сексуальных партнеров и иметь больше на одну ночь . Они также с большей вероятностью будут участвовать в неверности . ^{[ 46 ]} Исследование защитников в Американской национальной футбольной лиге обнаружило положительную корреляцию между симметрией и заработной платой лица. ^{[ 29 ]}

Аромат тела

Двойные слепые исследования показали, что женщины предпочитают аромат мужчин, которые считаются лицевыми. ^{[ 47 ]} Например, как мужчины, так и женщины были больше привлекаются к естественному аромату людей, которые были оценены по консенсусу как на лицевые. ^{[ 48 ]} Кроме того, было также показано, что женщины предпочитают аромат мужчин с более симметричными лицами, и что предпочтение женщин в отношении аромата более симметричных мужчин является наиболее сильным в течение самого плодородного периода их менструального цикла . ^{[ 49 ]} В рамках набора нормально велосипедных женщин предпочтение отдельных женщин аромату мужчин с высокой лицевой симметрией коррелирует с их вероятностью зачатия. ^{[ 49 ]} На запах в организме среди мужчин также влияют диета, когда женщины экспрессируют предпочтения для мужского запаха тела, связанного с повышенным содержанием пищевых фруктов, овощей и белка, и снижением содержания углеводов . ^{[ 50 ]}

Генетика

Исследования изучали генетическую основу, стоящую за такими проблемами, как симметрия лица и аромат тела и то, как они влияют на физическое притяжение. В одном исследовании, в котором женщины носили мужские футболки, исследователи обнаружили, что женщин больше привлекают ароматы организма в рубашках мужчин, у которых был другой тип генной секции внутри ДНК, называемый основным комплексом гистосовместимости (MHC) . ^{[ 51 ]} MHC - большая область генов в ДНК позвоночных , которые кодируют белки, имеющие дело с иммунной системой ^{[ 52 ]} и что влияет на индивидуальные телесные запахи. ^{[ 53 ]} Одна гипотеза заключается в том, что людей естественно привлекают обоняние и вкус к другим с разнородными секциями MHC, возможно, чтобы избежать последующего инбридинга , увеличивая генетическое разнообразие потомства. ^{[ 52 ]} Кроме того, проводится исследования, показывающие, что естественное притяжение женщин для мужчин с разнородными иммунными профилями может быть искажено с использованием противозачаточных таблеток. ^{[ 53 ]} Другие результаты исследований, включающие генетические основы притяжения, позволяют предположить, что гетерозиготность MHC положительно коррелирует с мужской привлекательностью лица. Женщины оценивают лица мужчин, которые гетерозиготны во всех трех локусах MHC, чтобы быть более привлекательными, чем лица мужчин, гомозиготных в одном или нескольких из этих локусов. Кроме того, второй эксперимент с генотипированными женщинами -оценщиками обнаружил, что эти предпочтения не зависят от степени сходства MHC между мужчинами и женским рейтингом. С гетерозиготностью MHC, независимо рассматриваемой как генетическое преимущество, результаты показывают, что привлекательность лица у мужчин может быть мерой генетического качества. ^{[ 54 ]}^{[ 55 ]} Было продемонстрировано, что общая генетическая гетерозиготность связана с привлекательностью в том, что люди со смешанным генетическим фоном (то есть люди смешанной расы ) считают более привлекательными, чем люди с более похожими генетическими родителями. (т.е. люди с одиночной гонкой). ^{[ 56 ]} Тем не менее, некоторые исследования не обнаружили, что индивидуумы смешанной расы оцениваются как более привлекательные, и один из них обнаружил, что только определенные смеси были оценены как более привлекательные; Это исследование утверждало, что приравнивание расы с генетикой было неверным и выступало за социальные влияния в качестве причины. ^{[ 57 ]}

Молодость

Исследование, проведенное американским сайтом знакомств в 2010 году , на 200 000 его мужчин и женщин-пользователей показало, что гетеросексуальные женщины-за исключением того, что они в начале-середине двадцатых-открыты для отношений как с несколько старше, так и несколько более молодыми мужчинами; У них более крупный потенциальный пул знакомств, чем мужчины до 26 лет. В возрасте 20 лет женщины, в «драматических изменениях», начинают отправлять частные сообщения значительно пожилым мужчинам. В 29 лет они становятся «еще более открытыми для пожилых мужчин». Желательность мужчины для женщин достигает пика в конце 20 -х годов и не падает ниже среднего для всех мужчин до 36. ^{[ 58 ]} Другие исследования показывают, что женщин, независимо от их собственного возраста, привлекают мужчины, которые превышают возраст или старше. ^{[ 59 ]}

Особенно для римлян «без бородат» и «гладкие молодые тела» считались красивыми как для мужчин, так и для женщин. ^{[ 60 ]} Для греческих и римских мужчин наиболее желательными чертами мальчиков были их «молодежь» и «безволостность». Мальчики с опушенными считали социально подходящим объектом мужского желания, в то время как мальчики с постбестежом считались «ἔξωροι» или «мимо главного». ^{[ 60 ]} Это было в значительной степени в контексте педерастии (интерес для взрослых мужчин к мальчикам -подросткам). Сегодня отношение мужчин и женщин к мужской красоте изменилось. Например, волосы на теле на мужчин могут быть даже предпочтительными ( см. Ниже ).

В исследовании 1984 года говорилось, что геи, как правило, предпочитают геев того же возраста, что и идеальные партнеры, но был статистически значимый эффект ( P <0,05) мужественности. В исследовании говорилось, что больше женских мужчин, как правило, предпочитали относительно пожилых мужчин, чем они сами, и более мужские мужчины, как правило, предпочитали относительно молодых мужчин, чем они сами. ^{[ 61 ]}

Межкультурные данные показывают, что репродуктивный успех женщин связан с их молодежью и физической привлекательностью, ^{[ 62 ]} такие как доиндустриальный саами , где наиболее репродуктивно успешные женщины были на 15 лет моложе своего мужчины. ^{[ 63 ]} Одно исследование, охватывающее 37 культур, показало, что в среднем женщина была на 2,5 года моложе своего партнера по мужчинам, а разница в возрасте в Нигерии и Замбии была на гораздо до крайности от 6,5 до 7,5 лет. С возрастом мужчины они склонны искать помощника, который моложе. ^{[ 64 ]}

25% онлайн -знакомств веб -сайта Eharmony в возрасте старше 50 лет просят сопоставить только женщины моложе 40. ^{[ 65 ]} Исследование Okcupid 2010 года показало, что женская желательность для своих пользователей мужчин достигает пика в возрасте 21 года и падает ниже среднего для всех женщин в 31 год. После 26 лет у мужчин у мужчин более крупный пул знакомств, чем женщины на месте; И к 48 годам их бассейн почти в два раза больше. Средний 31-летний мужчина ищет женщин в возрасте от 22 до 35 лет, в то время как средний 42-летний мужчина ищет женщин от 27 до 45 лет. Возраст еще больше с сообщениями другим пользователям; Срединные 30-летние сообщения мужчин-подростков так часто, как и женщины, его возраст, в основном игнорируя женщин на несколько лет старше его. За исключением 10% большинства и 10% наименьших красивых женщин, привлекательность женщин не меняется между 18 и 40. Однако если крайности не включены », - нет никаких сомнений в том, что младшие [женщины] более физически привлекательны - действительно во многих отношениях красота и молодежь неразрывно. ^{[ 58 ]}

Феромоны (обнаруженные маркерами гормонов женского пола) отражают женскую фертильность и среднее значение репродуктивной ценности . ^{[ 66 ]} В возрасте возрастают женщины, коэффициент производства эстрогена к андрогене изменяется и приводит к тому, что женские лица выглядят более мужскими (таким образом, кажутся менее «привлекательными»). ^{[ 66 ]} В небольшом (n = 148) исследовании, проведенном в Соединенных Штатах, с использованием студентов колледжа мужского пола в одном университете, средний возраст, выраженный как идеальный для жены, было обнаружено, что ему было 16,87 года, а 17,76 - средний идеальный возраст для короткого сексуальная встреча. Тем не менее, исследование устанавливает структуру, в которой «табу против секса с молодыми девушками» намеренно уменьшаются и смещают их выборку, удалив любого участника старше 30 лет, со средним возрастом участника 19,83. ^{[ 67 ]} В исследовании срока срока полового члена мужчины были обнаружены наиболее возбужденными на фотографиях молодых взрослых женщин. ^{[ 68 ]}

Сигналы фертильности у женщин часто также рассматриваются как сигналы молодежи. Эволюционная перспектива предлагает идею о том, что когда речь идет о сексуальном воспроизведении, минимальные родительские инвестиции, требуемые мужчинами, дают им способность и желание просто воспроизводить «как можно больше». ^{[ 69 ]} Поэтому имеет смысл, что мужчин привлекают особенности у женщин, которые сигнализируют о молодости и, следовательно, плодородии. ^{[ 69 ]} Их шансы на репродуктивный успех намного выше, чем они были бы, если они сочетаются с кем -то старше - и, следовательно, менее плодородны.

Это может объяснить, почему борьба с возрастом в привлекательности происходит из -за более молодого возраста у женщин, чем у мужчин. Например, удаление волос на теле считается очень женственным делом. ^{[ 70 ]} Это может быть объяснено тем фактом, что старение приводит к повышению уровня тестостерона и, следовательно, росту волос на теле. Бритье возвращает свою внешность на более юную сцену ^{[ 70 ]} И хотя это не может быть честным сигналом, люди будут интерпретировать это как отражение повышенной плодородной ценности. Исследования подтверждают это, показывая безволостность, считается сексуально привлекательным для мужчин. ^{[ 71 ]}

Соотношение ног к телу

Эти рисунки двух мужских и двух женских фигур представляют собой римейк рисунка крайностей соотношения ноги и тела (LBR), как это используется в эксперименте Swami et al. (2006), чтобы узнать, что LBR считается наиболее привлекательным для британских мужчин и женщин. У мужской фигуры с самым низким LBR и самыми короткими ногами влево были самые высокие средние оценки привлекательности, тогда как у мужской фигуры с самым высоким LBR и самыми длинными ногами вправо были самые низкие оценки. Женская фигура с самым низким LBR и самыми короткими ногами влево имела самые низкие средние оценки привлекательности, в то время как фигура с самым высоким LBR и самыми длинными ногами справа имела самые высокие средние оценки привлекательности. ^{[ 72 ]}

«Соотношение ног к телу» рассматривается как показатель физической привлекательности, но, по-видимому, нет единого принятого определения длины ног: мера «промежно-пола» ^{[ B ]} наиболее часто используется, но, возможно, расстояние от кости голеностопного сустава до внешней бедренной кости более строго. ^{[ 73 ]} С последней метрикой наиболее привлекательным мужским соотношением ног к телу (оценивается американскими женщинами) 1: 1. ^{[ 73 ]} Японское исследование, использующее первую метрику, обнаружило такой же результат для мужской привлекательности, но женщины с более длинными ногами, чем остальная часть их тела, считались более привлекательными. ^{[ 74 ]} Чрезмерные отклонения от среднего показали как показательные заболевания. ^{[ 74 ]} Исследование с использованием польских участников показало, что ноги на 5% длиннее среднего для обоих полов считались наиболее привлекательными. ^{[ 75 ]} Исследование завершило, что это предпочтение может быть связано с влиянием длинноногих моделей взлетно-посадочной полосы . ^{[ 76 ]} Другое исследование с использованием британских и американских участников обнаружило, что «средние» соотношения ног к теле были наиболее идеальными. ^{[ 77 ]}

Исследование Swami et al. У британских мужских и женских студентов было предпочтение для мужчин с ногами, пока остальная часть их тела и женщины с 40% более длинными ногами, чем остальная часть их тела. ^{[ 72 ]} Исследователь пришел к выводу, что на это предпочтение может повлиять американская культура, в которой длинноногие женщины изображаются как более привлекательные. ^{[ 72 ]}

Marco Bertamini раскритиковал Swami et al. Исследование для использования картины того же человека с цифровой длиной ног, которая, по его мнению, сделает модифицированное изображение нереалистичным. ^{[ 78 ]} Бертамина также раскритиковал исследование Свами только за изменение длины ноги, сохраняя при этом постоянную длину руки. ^{[ 78 ]} После учета этих проблем в своем собственном исследовании Бертамина, используя фигурки, также обнаружил предпочтение женщинам с пропорционально более длинными ногами, чем мужчины. ^{[ 78 ]} Когда Бертамини исследовал проблему возможного сексуального диморфизма длины ног, он обнаружил, что два источника, которые указывали на то, что мужчины обычно имеют немного пропорционально более длинные ноги, чем женщины, или что различия в пропорции длины ног могут не существовать между мужчинами и женщинами. ^{[ 79 ]} После этого обзора существующей литературы по этому вопросу он провел свои собственные расчеты, используя данные 1774 мужчин и 2208 женщин. Используя эти данные, он также обнаружил, что мужчины обычно имеют немного пропорционально более длинные ноги, чем женщины, или что различия в пропорции длины ног могут не существовать между мужчинами и женщинами. Эти результаты заставили его исключить возможность того, что предпочтение женщин с пропорционально более длинными ногами, чем мужчин, является пропорционально более длинным ногами, являющимися вторичными половыми, характерными для женщин. ^{[ 79 ]}

Гениталии

Исследование, проведенное в 2006 году 25 594 гетеросексуальных мужчин, показало, что «люди, которые воспринимали себя как с большим пенисом, были более удовлетворены своей собственной внешностью». ^{[ 80 ]}

Исследование 2014 года раскритиковало предыдущие исследования, основанные на том факте, что они полагались на изображения и использовали такие термины, как «маленький», «средний» и «большой» при просьбе предпочтения женщин. В новом исследовании использовались 3D -модели пенисов из размеров 4 дюйма (10 см) длиной и 2,5 дюйма (6,4 см) в окружности до 8,5 дюймов (22 см) и 7 дюймов (18 см) в окружности и дайте женщинам «взгляд и справиться с ними. Было обнаружено, что женщины переоценили фактический размер пенисов, с которыми они экспериментировали, когда их спросили в последующем опросе. Исследование пришло к выводу, что «женщины в среднем предпочитали 6,5-дюймовый (17 см) пенис длиной как для долгосрочных, так и для одноразовых партнеров. Пенисы с большим обхватом были предпочтительны для одноразовых партнеров». ^{[ 81 ]}

Данные из различных культур предполагают, что гетеросексуальные мужчины, как правило, обнаруживают, что гениталии женщин подвергают сексуальному возбуждению . ^{[ 82 ]}

Цвет кожи

Ручные рабочие, которые провели длительные периоды времени на улице, развили более темный тон кожи из -за воздействия солнца. Как следствие, развивалась связь между темной кожей и низшими классами . Светлая кожа стала эстетическим идеалом, потому что она символизировала богатство. «Со временем общество придавало различные значения к этим цветным различиям. Включая предположения о расе человека, социально -экономическом классе, интеллекте и физической привлекательности». ^{[ 84 ]}

Некоторые исследования показали, что красные и желтые тона кожи, ^{[ 85 ]} отражая более высокие уровни кислородочной крови, ^{[ 86 ]} каротиноид и в меньшей степени меланиновый пигмент и чистое пищевое потребление фруктов и овощей, ^{[ 87 ]} кажутся здоровее и, следовательно, более привлекательны. ^{[ 88 ]} Тем не менее, существует мало прямых доказательств того, что цвет кожи фактически связан со здоровьем или силой иммунной системы. ^{[ 89 ]}

Историческое предпочтение более легким женщинам было задокументировано во многих культурах. ^{[ 90 ]}^{[ 91 ]} Однако точность этого исследования была поставлена под сомнение другими авторами. ^{[ 92 ]} Экспериментальные исследования показывают, что белые западные мужчины больше привлекают загорелых женщин, а не бледные женщины, и что сами женщины считают, что они более привлекательны с коричневой кожей. ^{[ 93 ]}^{[ 94 ]}^{[ 95 ]} Исследование 2010 года обнаружило предпочтение более легким (но не самым легким) женщинам в Новой Зеландии и Калифорнии. ^{[ 96 ]} Тем не менее, другие исследования показали, что афро-американские мужчины и женщины считают средний цвет лица более привлекательным, чем более легкая или более темная кожа, в то время как белые и латиноамериканские женщины стремятся загнать свою кожу, чтобы повысить свою привлекательность к противоположному полу. ^{[ 97 ]} Существует прямая корреляция между загаром и самооценкой привлекательности, особенно среди молодых женщин. ^{[ 98 ]}

Согласно исследованию из Китая , с 2010 -х годов, коричневая кожа стала новой красотой, идеально подходящей для женщин в Китае, и сами китайские женщины считают, что их коричневая кожа более привлекательна и здоровее, чем бледная кожа. ^{[ 99 ]} Подобные результаты Японии обнаружили, что идеальный цвет женской кожи загара, без пятен или шероховатости. В Японии широко распространено восприятие того, что кожа белых женщин менее красива, чем японские женщины, поскольку белые женщины стереотипны как слишком бледные и грубо текстурированные. ^{[ 100 ]}

Взаимосвязь между привлекательностью и цветом кожи может также пересекаться с этнической принадлежностью и предыдущим опытом. ^{[ 101 ]} Предпочтения цвета кожи могут измениться со временем, как и в западной культуре, где загорелая кожа была связана с отдельным солнцем ручным трудом низшего класса, но с середины 20-го века она, как правило, считалась более привлекательной и здоровой, чем Раньше, когда солнце загар становится модным . ^{[ 102 ]}^{[ 103 ]}^{[ 104 ]}^{[ 105 ]}^{[ 106 ]} В африканском государстве Мали распространено , протяжение кожи так как считается, что он улучшает социальную статус и привлекательность противоположного пола, хотя также было высказывалось против этого понятия от икон поп -культуры. ^{[ 107 ]}

Сияние кожи или светящаяся кожа могут повлиять на восприятие красоты и физической привлекательности. ^{[ 108 ]}^{[ 109 ]}

Руки

Руки были обнаружены физически привлекательными. ^{[ 110 ]} Тип рук, которые физически привлекательны, - это те, у кого более длинные индекс и скромные пальцы. ^{[ 111 ]} Мужчины имеют меньшее соотношение индекса и кольца, чем женщины. Говорят, что гендерные различия в соотношении между индексом и кольцами влияют воздействие тестостерона в утробе матери. ^{[ 112 ]} В исследовании, в котором участникам показали компьютерные изображения рук, участники мужского пола обнаружили женские руки с меньшим указательным пальцем менее привлекательными. В то время как женщины нашли мужские руки с более длинным безымянным пальцем более привлекательными. Исследование предполагает, что длина пальца оказывает влияние на физическое притяжение, потому что оно дает указание на желаемые признаки, зависящие от полов-гормона, которыми можно обладать. ^{[ 111 ]} Другое исследование показало, что превзойти, здоровье кожи, насколько толстыми являются руки руки, и уход за руками, все это влияет на привлекательность рук. ^{[ 113 ]} То, что подразумевается под усердностью, - это степень, в которой руки выглядят как среднее количество рук в населении. Среднестатистические руки дают указание на здоровье человека (потому что нет нарушений).

Чем здоровее кожа на руках, тем привлекательнее они появляются. Причины, приведенные для этого, говорят, что здоровье кожи может отражать общее здоровье человека. Здоровая кожа может показать, что кто -то свободен от болезней, потому что некоторые заболевания оказывают плохое влияние на внешний вид кожи. Эти особенности находятся привлекательными, потому что они показывают, что у человека есть хорошие гены и, следовательно, является подходящим партнером для воспроизведения. Здоровье кожи также может дать указание на социально-экономический статус, поскольку грубые руки могут указывать на низкооплачиваемую, трудоемкую работу. Низкий социально -экономический статус может показать, что у кого -то нет ресурсов для обеспечения потомства, и поэтому он менее привлекателен. Чем больше толстых кажутся руки, тем менее привлекательными они. Это связано с сопутствующей зависимостью, связанной с ожирением. Если кто -то имеет избыточный вес, у него может быть другое заболевание, а это значит, что он не сможет производить здоровый потомство. Привлекательность рук также дает указание на другие особенности человека; Люди с более привлекательными руками были обнаружены более высокими и стройными. ^{[ 110 ]} В большинстве этих исследований в области привлекательности ручной работы использовались только белые, европейские руки, а участникам было 18–26 лет. Таким образом, привлекательность небелых рук и разных возрастных групп не была проверена. Кроме того, люди, которые оценили привлекательность рук, были белыми европейцами, поэтому их рейтинги могут не представлять, как люди других цветов и культур кожи будут оценивать руки.

Высота

Сексуальное влечение женщин к мужчинам может быть определена высотой мужчины . ^{[ 114 ]} Например, сайт знакомств Eharmony только соответствует женщинам с мужчинами выше, чем они сами, из -за жалоб от женщин, соответствующих более коротким мужчинам. ^{[ 65 ]}

Другие исследования показали, что гетеросексуальные женщины часто предпочитают мужчин выше, чем они, а не мужчина с высотой выше среднего. В то время как женщины обычно хотят, чтобы мужчины были, по крайней мере, та же высота, что и они сами или выше, несколько других факторов также определяют мужскую привлекательность, а «более высокая мужская» норма не универсальна. ^{[ 115 ]} Например, более высокие женщины с большей вероятностью расслабляют «более высокую мужскую» норму, чем более короткие женщины. ^{[ 116 ]} Кроме того, профессор Адам Эйр-Уокер из Университета Сассекса заявил, что пока нет никаких доказательств того, что эти предпочтения являются эволюционными предпочтениями, в отличие от лишь культурных предпочтений. ^{[ 117 ]} Тем не менее, культурные предпочтения привлекательности для более высоких мужчин являются мощными и подтверждены несколькими исследованиями. Одно исследование скоростных баллов от Stulp показало, что «женщины, скорее всего, выбирают [мужчин] на 25 см выше, чем они сами, в то время как мужчины, скорее всего, выбирают женщин только на 7 см короче себя». ^{[ 118 ]}

Кроме того, женщины кажутся более восприимчивыми к прямой осанке, чем мужчины, хотя оба предпочитают его как элемент в красоте . ^{[ 119 ]} Согласно одному исследованию (Yee N., 2002), геи, которые идентифицируют себя как «только топы », как правило, предпочитают более короткие мужчины, в то время как геев, которые идентифицируют себя как «только дны », как правило, предпочитают более высоких мужчин. ^{[ 120 ]}

В романсах в среднеанглийской литературе все «идеальные» герои -мужчины высокие, а подавляющее большинство «доблестных» мужских героев тоже высокие. ^{[ 121 ]}

Большинство мужчин, как правило, выше, чем их женщины -партнеры. ^{[ 21 ]} В западных обществах было обнаружено, что большинство мужчин предпочитают женщинам короче, чем они сами. ^{[ 122 ]} Тем не менее, рост является более важным фактором для женщины при выборе мужчины, чем для мужчины, выбирающего женщину. ^{[ 123 ]} Западные мужчины, как правило, считают женщинами выше самих себя менее привлекательными, ^{[ 122 ]} И многие люди смотрят на гетеросексуальные пары, где женщина выше, чтобы быть менее идеальной. ^{[ 122 ]} Женщины, которые имеют от 0,7 до 1,7 стандартных отклонений ниже средней высоты женского ^{[ 117 ]} С тех пор, как меньше высоких женщин вступают в брак по сравнению с более короткими женщинами. ^{[ 122 ]} Однако в других этнических группах, таких как народ Хадза из Танзании , исследование показало, что высота не имеет значения при выборе партнера. ^{[ 115 ]} Другое исследование обнаружило то же предпочтение в сельской Гамбии . ^{[ 122 ]}

В литературе среднеанглийской литературы «Высота» является характерной для идеально красивых женщин. ^{[ 124 ]} Британская ассоциация моделей моделей моделей (BFMA) говорит, что женские модели должны быть не менее 5 футов 8 в (1,73 м) ростом. ^{[ 125 ]}

Язык тела

Стоящие позы

Статуя Венеры, стоящая в позе контраппосто , с ее весом, носитым преимущественно на одной ноге. Как показано здесь, эта поза подчеркивает кривизну ее фигуры.

Стоя в позе контраппосто (с преимущественно поддерживаемой одной ногой, которая либо прямой, либо очень согнутой, а другая нога слегка согнулась), было обнаружено, что выглядит более привлекательным, чем стоя в более простой, вертикальной позе. Это было обнаружено как для мужчин, так и для женщин. Эта поза может снизить наблюдаемое соотношение талию-хипа человека и сделать их бедра шире, а их талию более тонкие. Особенно для женщин это может подчеркнуть кривизну их фигуры на одной стороне их тела и заставить их казаться более привлекательными. Такие позы использовались в исторической скульптуре, чтобы подчеркнуть идеал физической красоты. ^{[ 126 ]}^{[ 127 ]} Также было продемонстрировано, что поза контраппосто у женщин вызывает большую нейронную активность в областях мозга, связанных с оценками восприятия и привлекательности, чем на положении. ^{[ 128 ]}

Шаблоны движения

То, как перемещается человек, может влиять на привлекательность и указывать на здоровье и возраст. ^{[ 129 ]} Исследование, отражающее взгляды на 700 человек и в котором участвовали анимированные представления о гудящих людях, показало, что физическая привлекательность женщин увеличилась примерно на 50 процентов, когда они ходили с бедром. Точно так же воспринимаемая привлекательность мужчин удвоилась, когда они двигались с чванством на своих плечах. ^{[ 130 ]}

Специфичные для мужчин факторы

Женщины в среднем, как правило, больше привлекают мужчин, у которых есть относительно узкая талия, V-образный торс, широкие груди и широкие плечи. Женщины также, как правило, больше привлекают мужчин, которые выше и больше, чем они, и демонстрируют высокую степень симметрии лица , а также относительно мужской диморфизм лица. ^{[ 22 ]}^{[ 23 ]} Женщины, независимо от сексуальной ориентации, имеют тенденцию больше интересоваться физической привлекательностью партнера, чем мужчины. ^{[ 131 ]}^{[ 132 ]}^{[ 133 ]}

Сексуальный диморфизм

Степень различий между мужскими и женскими анатомическими признаками называется сексуальным диморфизмом . Женские респонденты в фолликулярной фазе их менструального цикла значительно чаще выбирали мужское лицо, чем в менструации и лютеино -фазах , ^{[ 134 ]} (или у тех, кто принимает гормональную контрацепцию ). ^{[ 22 ]}^{[ 23 ]}^{[ 135 ]}^{[ 136 ]} Это различие подтверждает гипотезу сексуального сына , которая утверждает, что для женщин эволюционно выгодно отбирать потенциальных отцов, которые более генетически привлекательны, ^{[ 137 ]} а не лучшие попечители. ^{[ 138 ]} Тем не менее, вероятность того, что женщины прилагают усилия для просмотра мужчин, похоже, не зависят от их мужественности, а с общим увеличением с уровнем тестостерона женщин. ^{[ 139 ]}

Предполагается, что мужественность лицевых признаков является надежным показателем хорошего здоровья или, в качестве альтернативы, что мужчины, выглядящие мужчинами, с большей вероятностью достигают высокого статуса. ^{[ 140 ]} Тем не менее, корреляция между привлекательными чертами лица и здоровьем была поставлена под сомнение. ^{[ 141 ]} Сообщалось, что социокультурные факторы, такие как самооценка привлекательности, статус в отношениях и степень гендерного концепции, играют роль в женских предпочтениях для мужчин. ^{[ 142 ]} Исследования показали, что женщины, которые воспринимают себя как физически привлекательных, с большей вероятностью выбирают мужчин с мужским лицевым диморфизмом, чем женщины, которые считают себя физически непривлекательными. ^{[ 45 ]} У мужчин мужественность лица значительно коррелирует с симметрией лица - было высказано предположение, что оба являются сигналами стабильности развития и генетического здоровья. ^{[ 143 ]} Одно исследование ставило под сомнение важность мужской мужской мужской для лиц в физической привлекательности, утверждая, что когда воспринимаемое здоровье, которое учитывается в мужественности лица, дисконтируется, оно мало что имеет в виду физическую привлекательность. ^{[ 144 ]} В межстрановом исследовании, в котором участвовалось 4794 женщин в возрасте до двадцати лет, была обнаружена разница в среднем «предпочтении мужественности» между странами. ^{[ 145 ]}^{[ 146 ]}

Исследование показало, что одни и те же генетические факторы вызывают мужественность лица как у мужчин, так и у женщин, так что у мужчины с более мужским лицом, вероятно, будет сестра с более мужским лицом из -за того, что братья и сестры имеют общие гены. Исследование также показало, что, хотя женщины, которые были более женственными, считались более привлекательными, не было никакой связи между мужской мужской мужской мужской и мужской привлекательностью лица для женщин. С этими выводами, исследование показало, что если женщина будет воспроизводить с мужчиной с более мужским лицом, то ее дочери также будут наследовать более мужское лицо, делая дочерей менее привлекательными. Исследование пришло к выводу, что должны быть и другие факторы, которые придерживаются генетики для мужских мужчин, чтобы компенсировать их репродуктивный недостаток с точки зрения «здоровья», «фертильности» и «привлекательности лица», когда такая же генетика присутствует у женщин. В исследовании было показано, что «избирательное преимущество» для мужских лиц должно быть »должно« или было связано с некоторым фактором, который не связан с женским восприятием мужской привлекательности лица. ^{[ 147 ]}

В исследовании 447 геев в Китае исследователи заявили, что вершины предпочитают феминизированные мужские лица, низы предпочитали мужские лица, и универсальные лица не предпочитали ни феминизированным, ни маскулинированным мужским лицам. ^{[ 148 ]}

Говорят , что в до -современной китайской литературе был идеальный человек в романах Caizi Jiren , который имел «розовые губы, блестящие белые зубы» и « джасперское лицо» ( китайский : 唇紅齒唇紅齒白、面若冠冠玉 ). ^{[ 149 ]}^{[ 150 ]}

В средней английской литературе у красивого человека должен быть длинное, широкое и сильное лицо. ^{[ 151 ]}

Соотношение талии к интересам

Час телосложение тонкой талии, широких плеч и мускулистой груди часто оказывается привлекательным как для женщин, так и для мужчин. ^{[ 152 ]} Дальнейшие исследования показали, что при выборе партнера, черты, женщины ищут, указывают на более высокий социальный статус, такой как доминирование, ресурсы и защита. ^{[ 153 ]} Индикатором здоровья у мужчин (фактором, способствующим физической привлекательности) является паттерн распределения жира в андроиде, который классифицируется как больше жира, распределенного по верхней части тела и живота, обычно называемой «формой V». ^{[ 153 ]} Когда его попросили оценить других мужчин, как гетеросексуальные, так и гомосексуальные мужчины обнаружили, что соотношения с низким содержанием талии к интересам (WCR) более привлекательны для других мужчин, причем геев показали предпочтение более низкому WCR (более V-образной форме), чем прямые мужчина ^{[ 154 ]}

Другие исследователи обнаружили соотношение талии и интереса наибольшее определение характеристики мужской привлекательности с индексом массы тела и соотношением талии к хищению, что не является таким значительным. ^{[ 155 ]}

Женщины сосредоточены в первую очередь на соотношении талии к груди или, более конкретно талии, к плечу. Это аналогично соотношению талии и бедра (WHR), которое предпочитают мужчины. Некоторые исследования показали, что привлекательные телесные черты в глазах гетеросексуальной женщины будут включать высокое спортивное телосложение, с широкими плечами и тонкую зону талии. ^{[ 156 ]} Исследования дополнительно показали, что мужчины колледжа лучше удовлетворены своим телом, чем женщины колледжа. ^{[ 157 ]} Исследование также показало, что, когда соотношение талии к талии и талии в колледже увеличилось, удовлетворенность их телом снизилась. ^{[ 157 ]}

Некоторые исследования показали, что вес тела может иметь более сильный эффект, чем WHR, когда речь идет о восприятии привлекательности противоположного пола. Было обнаружено, что соотношение талии и бедра играет меньшую роль в предпочтениях тела, чем масса тела в отношении обоих полов. ^{[ 158 ]}

Психологи Вирен Свами и Мартин Дж. Тови сравнили женские предпочтения мужской привлекательности кросс -культурной культурной, между Великобританией и Малайзией. Они обнаружили, что женщины придают большее значение WCR (и, следовательно, в форме тела ) в городских районах Британии и Малайзии, в то время как женщины в сельских районах придают больше внимания ИМТ (поэтому вес и размер тела). Как WCR, так и BMI указывают на мужской статус и способность обеспечивать потомство, как отмечено эволюционной теорией. ^{[ 159 ]}

Было обнаружено, что женщины желают мужчин с нормальным весом и имеют средний WHR для мужчины. Женщины считают этих мужчин привлекательными и здоровыми. Мужчины, у которых был средний WHR, но имел избыточный вес или недостаточный вес, не воспринимаются как привлекательные для женщин. Это говорит о том, что WHR не является основным фактором в мужской привлекательности, а сочетание массы тела и типичного мужского WHR, кажется, является наиболее привлекательным. Исследования показали, что мужчины с более высоким соотношением талии и бедра и более высокой зарплаты воспринимаются как более привлекательные для женщин. ^{[ 160 ]}

Плоская живот

Исследование 1982 года показало, что живот, который выступает, был «наименее привлекательной» чертой для мужчин. ^{[ 161 ]}

В средней английской литературе у красивого человека должен быть плоский живот. ^{[ 162 ]}

Мускулатура

Мужские тела, изображенные в журналах, продаваемых для мужчин, более мускулистые, чем мужские тела, изображенные в журналах, продаваемых для женщин. Исходя из этого, некоторые пришли к выводу, что мужчины воспринимают более мускулистое мужское тело идеальным, в отличие от идеального мужчины женщины, что менее мускулистое, чем то, что мужчины считают идеальным. ^{[ 163 ]} Это связано с внутренним гендерным престижем, предоставленным повышенной мускулистостью и в пределах гендерной конкуренции за увеличение мышечной мышцы. ^{[ 163 ]} Мужчины воспринимают привлекательность своей собственной мускулатуры тем, насколько близко их тело напоминает «мышечного человека». ^{[ 164 ]} Этот идеал «мышечного человека» характеризуется большими мышечными руками, особенно бицепсом, большой мускулистой грудью, которая сужается к их талии и широким плечам. ^{[ 164 ]} Среди студентов австралийского университета мужской состав тела, который оказался наиболее привлекательной (12,16 кг жира, 63,27 кг мышцы) соответствовал композиции, которая воспринималась как самая здоровая, и находилась в пределах здорового диапазона. ^{[ 165 ]}

В исследовании заявленных предпочтений профиля на Match.com больший процент геев, чем лесбиянки выбрали тип телосложения идеального партнера как «спортивные и тонированные», в отличие от двух других вариантов «среднего» или «избыточного веса». ^{[ 166 ]}

В домодернистской китайской литературе, такой как романтика западной камеры , изображен тип мужественности, называемой «мужественностью ученого», в котором «идеальный мужской любовник» является «слабым, уязвимым, женственным и педантичным ». ^{[ 149 ]}

В среднеанглийской литературе у красивого человека обычно есть густые, широкие плечи, квадратную и мускулистую грудь, мускулистую спину, сильные стороны, которые сужаются к маленькой талии, больших руках и рукам и ногам с огромными мышцами. ^{[ 167 ]}

Волосы на теле

Исследования, базирующиеся в Соединенных Штатах, Новой Зеландии и Китае, показали, что женщины оценивают мужчин без багажника ( груди и живота ), как наиболее привлекательные, а оценки привлекательности снижаются с увеличением волосата. ^{[ 168 ]}^{[ 169 ]} Другое исследование, однако, показало, что умеренное количество багажных волос на мужчин было наиболее привлекательным для выборки британских и шри -ланкийских женщин. ^{[ 170 ]} Кроме того, степень гирсут (волосатость) и соотношение талии к плечу 0,6 часто предпочтительнее в сочетании с мышечным телосложением. ^{[ 170 ]}

В исследовании с использованием финских женщин женщины с волосатыми отцами с большей вероятностью предпочитают волосатых мужчин, предполагая, что предпочтение волосатым мужчинам является результатом генетики или импринтирования. ^{[ 171 ]} Среди геев другое исследование сообщило, что мужчины -геи, которые идентифицируют себя как «только топы », предпочитают менее волосатых мужчин, в то время как мужчины -геи, которые идентифицируют себя как «только дни », предпочитают больше волосатых мужчин. ^{[ 120 ]}

Волосы на лице

Одно исследование показывает, что мужчины с волосами на лице, покрывающих щеки, верхнюю губу и нижнюю челюсть, воспринимались как более физически привлекательные, чем мужчины с неоднородными волосами на лице. ^{[ 172 ]} В этом исследовании мужские волосы на лице были разделены на четыре категории, каждая из которых различалась по толщине и покрытию: очень легкий, легкий, средний и тяжелый. Легкие волосы на лице были оценены как самые привлекательные, следовали средние, тяжелые и наименее привлекательные были «очень легкие». Это исследование предполагает, что некоторые волосы на лице лучше, чем нет, потому что оно показывает мужское развитие, поскольку рост бороды требует преобразования тестостерона. Более раннее исследование показало, что женщины из западных и океанических культур больше привлекаются к чистым выбритым лицам, чем бороды. Тем не менее, они также оценили полнопроизводных мужчин как имеющие более высокий статус, чем чисто выбритые мужчины. ^{[ 173 ]}

Челюсть

Более угловые мужские джавлины, как правило, выбираются как идеальные в западных странах, в то время как идеальная женская линия челюсти более круглая и мягче. ^{[ 174 ]}^{[ 175 ]}^{[ 176 ]}

Большинство исследований показывают, что привлекательная бигнальная ширина и измерения Рамуса имеют сходство, но выступающий квадратный подбородок-это заметная черта европейского гиритации, что означает, что он не должен содержаться как универсальный индикатор привлекательности. ^{[ 177 ]}^{[ 178 ]} мужчины с низким субментом жира имеют «лучшие Jawlines» и более «молодой внешний вид». Считалось, что ^{[ 179 ]}

Женские факторы

Исследования показывают, что гетеросексуальные мужчины, как правило, привлекают молодых ^{[ 64 ]} и красивые женщины ^{[ 180 ]} с телесной симметрией. ^{[ 181 ]} Вместо того, чтобы уменьшить его, современность только увеличила акцент на внешность женщин. ^{[ 182 ]} Эволюционные психологи приписывают такое притяжение оценке потенциала фертильности в потенциальном партнере. ^{[ 64 ]}

Особенности лица

Общий

Исследования попытались определить, какие особенности лица сообщают об привлекательности. Было показано, что симметрия лица считается привлекательной у женщин, ^{[ 186 ]}^{[ 187 ]} и мужчины предпочитают полные губы, ^{[ 188 ]} Высокий лоб, широкое лицо, маленький подбородок, маленький нос, короткая и узкая челюсть, высокая скула, ^{[ 39 ]}^{[ 189 ]} Чистая и гладкая кожа, и широкие глаза. ^{[ 64 ]} Форма лица с точки зрения «как все видит вместе», является важным фактором, определяющим красоту. ^{[ 190 ]} Женщины с густыми темными лимбальными кольцами на глазах также были более привлекательными. Приведенное объяснение заключается в том, что, поскольку кольцо имеет тенденцию исчезать с возрастом и медицинскими проблемами, выдающееся лимбальное кольцо дает честный индикатор молодежи. ^{[ 191 ]}

В персидской литературе, как говорят, красивые женщины имеют носы, такие как фундук . ^{[ 192 ]} В арабском обществе в средние века компонентом женского идеала красоты было для женщин, чтобы иметь прямые и тонкие носы. ^{[ 193 ]}В еврейской раввинской литературе раввины считали нежным носом идеальным типом носа для женщин. ^{[ 194 ]} В Японии, в период Эдо , компонентом женского идеала красоты было для женщин, чтобы иметь высокие носы, которые были прямыми и не «слишком высокими». ^{[ 195 ]}

В межкультурном исследовании было обнаружено, что более неотенизированные (то есть молодое) женские лица наиболее привлекательны для мужчин, в то время как было обнаружено, что менее неотенированные женские лица менее привлекательны для мужчин, независимо от фактического возраста женщин. ^{[ 196 ]} В исследовании итальянских женщин, которые выиграли конкурсы красоты, было обнаружено, что у их лица были более «детские» ( педоморфные ) черты, чем у «нормальных» женщин, используемых в качестве ссылки. ^{[ 197 ]}

В межкультурном исследовании Marcinkowska et al. сказал, что от 18 до 45 лет гетеросексуальные мужчины во всех 28 опрошенных странах предпочтительные фотографии белых женщин от 18 до 24 лет, чьи лица были феминизированы с использованием программного обеспечения для редактирования изображений лица на лицах от 18 до 24- Годовые белые женщины, которые были мужественны с использованием этого программного обеспечения, но были различия в предпочтениях для женственности в разных странах. Чем выше национальный индекс здравоохранения (на основе восьми национальной статистики здравоохранения, взятой из Статистической информационной службы Всемирной организации здравоохранения с использованием данных с 2002 по 2006 год) страны, тем больше были феминизированные лица, предпочитаемые мужским лицам. Среди опрошенных стран Япония имела самые высокие предпочтения женственности, и в Непале было самое низкое предпочтение женственности. ^{[ 198 ]}

Майкл Р. Каннингем из факультета психологии в Университете Луисвилля обнаружил, используя группу восточноазиатских , латиноамериканских и белых судей, с которыми сталкиваются женщины, которые, как правило, считались более привлекательными, если у них была смесь молодых и сексуально зрелых черт Полем Латиноамериканские и восточноазиатские женщины считались более привлекательными, чем белые и чернокожие женщины , и они оказались большим количеством атрибутов, определенных как привлекательные, однако авторы отметили, что было бы неточно сделать вывод, что любая этническая группа была более привлекательной, чем другая , основываясь на их выборке. ^{[ 199 ]} Используя группу афроамериканцев и белых в качестве судей, Каннингем обнаружил, что больше неотозных лиц были восприняты как имеющие как более высокую «женственность», так и «общительность». ^{[ 90 ]} Авторы не обнаружили никаких доказательств этноцентрического смещения в азиатских или белых образцах, поскольку азиаты и белые существенно не различались в предпочтении подсказков новорожденных, а положительные оценки белых женщин не увеличивались с воздействием западных средств массовой информации . ^{[ 200 ]}

Вместо того, чтобы найти доказательства для чисто «новорожденных» лиц, которые являются наиболее привлекательными, Каннингем обнаружил лица с «сексуально зеренными» чертами на «периферии» лица в сочетании с чертами «новорожденного» в «центре лица», наиболее привлекательных у женщин Полем ^{[ 90 ]} При анализе результатов своего исследования Каннингем пришел к выводу, что предпочтение «новорожденных функций может показать наименьшую межкультурную изменчивость» с точки зрения «рейтингов привлекательности» ^{[ 90 ]} И в другом исследовании Каннингем пришел к выводу, что существует большое соглашение о характеристиках привлекательного лица. ^{[ 201 ]}

В тестах на усреднение на компьютере было показано, что женщины с усредненными лицами считаются более привлекательными. ^{[ 31 ]}^{[ 202 ]} Возможно, это связано с тем, что средние функции были более знакомыми и, следовательно, более удобными. ^{[ 186 ]}

По словам китайского ученого Лю Цзею (2008), на женщин больше давления, чем мужчин, чтобы быть физически привлекательными. Принимая во внимание, что существуют различные критерии, с которыми можно ожидать, что женщины будут соответствовать, мужчина может быть только высоким, чтобы считаться привлекательным. ^{[ 203 ]}

В среднем, симметричные особенности являются одним идеальным, в то время как необычные, выдающиеся особенности являются другими. ^{[ 204 ]} Исследование, проведенное Университетом Торонто, показало, что наиболее привлекательными аспектами лица были представлены на среднем женском лице. Однако это конкретное исследование Университета Торонто смотрело только на белых женщин. ^{[ 205 ]}

Исследование 2011 года, проведенное Уилкинсом, Чан и Кайзером, обнаружило корреляции между воспринимаемой женственностью и привлекательностью; То есть женские лица, которые считались более женскими, были оценены как мужчинами, так и женщинами более привлекательными. ^{[ 206 ]} Исследование также показало, что лица Восточной Азии женщин были более «прототипно» женскими, чем белые женщины, что было воспроизведено несколькими последующими исследованиями, которые обнаружили, что это объясняет более высокие оценки привлекательности восточноазиатских женщин по сравнению с белыми женщинами. ^{[ 207 ]}^{[ 208 ]}

Компонент женской красоты в персидской литературе - для женщин, чтобы иметь лица, как полнолуние. ^{[ 192 ]}^{[ 209 ]}^{[ 210 ]}

Точно так же в арабском обществе в средние века компонентом идеала женской красоты было для женщин, чтобы иметь круглые лица, которые были как «полнолуние». ^{[ 193 ]}

В Японии, в период Эдо , компонентом женского идеала красоты было для женщин, чтобы иметь овальные лица. ^{[ 195 ]}

В еврейской раввинской литературе раввины считали полными губами идеальным типом губ для женщин. ^{[ 194 ]}

Исторически, что в китайской и японской литературе, женский идеал, как говорили, включает маленькие губы. ^{[ 211 ]} Женщины будут рисовать свои губы тоньше и уже, чтобы соответствовать этому идеалу. ^{[ 212 ]}^{[ 213 ]}

Исследование, в котором использовались китайские, малайские и индийские судьи, заявили, что китайские женщины и китайские мужчины с ретрозивными челюстями (где рот плоский и встроенный с остальной частью лица) были оценены как самые привлекательные и китайские мужчины и китайские женщины С выступающей нижней челюстью (где проецируется челюсть), считались наименее привлекательными. ^{[ 214 ]}

Classical Persian literature, paintings and miniatures portrayed traits such as long black curly hair, a small mouth, long arched eyebrows, large almond-shaped eyes, a small nose, and beauty spots as being beautiful for women.^[215]

Eyes

A study that investigated whether or not an eyelid crease makes Chinese-descent women more attractive using photo-manipulated photographs of young Chinese-descent women's eyes found that the "medium upper eyelid crease" was considered most attractive by all three groups of both sexes: white people, Chinese and Taiwanese nationals together as a group, and Taiwanese and Chinese Americans together as a group. Similarly, all three groups of both genders found the absence of an eye crease to be least attractive on Chinese women.^[216]

In the late sixteenth century, Japanese people considered epicanthic folds to be beautiful.^[217]

A study that used Russian, American, Brazilian, Aché, and Hiwi raters, found that the only strong distinguisher between men and women's faces was wider eyes relative to facial height for women, and this trait consistently predicted attractiveness ratings for women.^[218]

In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have dark black eyes which are large and long and in the shape of almonds. Furthermore, the eyes should be lustrous, and they should have long eyelashes.^[193]

A source written in 1823, said that a component of the Persian female beauty ideal was for women to have large eyes which are black in colour.^[209] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have eyes that are shaped like almonds.^[192]

In Chinese, the phrase "lucent irises, lustrous teeth" (Chinese: 明眸皓齒) is used to describe a beautiful woman with "clear eyes" and "well-aligned, white teeth",^[219] and the phrase "moth-feeler eyebrows" (Chinese: 蛾眉) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her eyebrows as being thin and arched like moth antennae.^[219] In the Chinese text The Grotto of the Immortals (Chinese: 遊仙窟) written during the Tang dynasty period, narrow eyes were the preferred type of eyes for women, and, in the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having small eyes.^[220]

The 1813 Japanese text Customs, Manners, and Fashions of the Capital (Japanese: 都風俗化粧伝) indicates that large eyes were not considered attractive in women.^[221]

Breasts

Research has shown that most heterosexual men enjoy the sight of female breasts, with a preference for firm breasts^[222]^[223] A study of British undergraduates found men preferred small breasts on women.^[224] Smaller breasts were widely associated with youthfulness.^[129] Cross-culturally, another study found "high variability" regarding the ideal breast size.^[224]

The pigmentation of nipples and breasts appears to be the most important quality of breast attractiveness. Men rated women with dark nipples and dark areola as significantly more attractive than those with light-coloured nipples or areola.^[225] Breasts of medium cup size were found to be the most attractive, however it was noted that men focused primarily on the colouration of nipples and areola rather than breast size.^[225]

A study by Groyecka et al., in which they examined Poles and Yali of New Guinea, demonstrated that men's judgements of breast appearance are affected by the occurrence of breast ptosis (i.e., sagginess, droopiness).^[226] Greater breast ptosis (more sagging breasts) is perceived as less attractive and attributed to a woman of older age. These findings are consistent with previous research that link breast attractiveness with female youthfulness. Unlike breast size, breast ptosis seems to be a universal marker of female breast attractiveness.

A study showed that men prefer symmetrical breasts.^[181]^[227] Breast symmetry may be particularly sensitive to developmental disturbances and the symmetry differences for breasts are large compared to other body parts. Women who have more symmetrical breasts tend to have more children.^[228]

Historical literature often includes specific features of individuals or a gender that are considered desirable. These have often become a matter of convention, and should be interpreted with caution. In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have small breasts.^[193] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have breasts like pomegranates or lemons.^[192] In the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having firm breasts.^[220] In Sanskrit literature, beautiful women are often said to have breasts so large that they cause the women to bend a little bit from their weight.^[229] In Middle English literature, beautiful women should have small breasts that are round like an apple or a pear.^[230]

Buttocks

A remake of a drawing used to research perceptions of the most attractive size of posterior and breasts for white and black women

Biological anthropologist Helen E. Fisher of the centre for Human Evolution Studies in the Department of Anthropology of Rutgers University said that, "perhaps, the fleshy, rounded buttocks... attracted males during rear-entry intercourse."^[231] In a recent study, using 3D models and eye-tracking technology Fisher's claim was tested and was shown that the slight thrusting out of a woman's back influence how attractive others perceive her to be and captures the gaze of both men and women.^[232]^[233] Bobbi S. Low et al. of the School of Natural Resources and Environment at the University of Michigan, said the female "buttocks evolved in the context of females competing for the attention and parental commitment of powerful resource-controlling males" as an "honest display of fat reserves" that could not be confused with another type of tissue,^[234] although T. M. Caro, professor in the centre for Population Biology and the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, at University of California, Davis, rejected that as being a necessary conclusion, stating that female fatty deposits on the hips improve "individual fitness of the female", regardless of sexual selection.^[234]

In a 1995 study, black men were more likely than white men to use the words "big" or "large" to describe their conception of an attractive woman's posterior.^[235] In a 2009 experiment to research what South African, British white and British African men considered to be the most attractive size of posterior and breasts for white and black women. This image shown here only shows the two extreme variations of size on black female figures used in the experiment. The left-hand figure received the highest average attractiveness rating from South African men while a figure with an intermediate size received the highest ratings from both white and black British men. The right-hand figure did not receive the highest average attractiveness rating from any group.^[236]

Body mass

Body Mass Index (BMI) is an important determinant to the perception of beauty.^[237] Even though the Western ideal is for a thin woman, some cultures prefer plumper women,^[90]^[238] which has been argued to support that attraction for a particular BMI merely is a cultural artifact.^[238] The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.^[239] One cross-cultural survey comparing body-mass preferences among 300 of the most thoroughly studied cultures in the world showed that 81% of cultures preferred a female body size that in English would be described as "plump".^[240]

Availability of food influences which female body size is attractive which may have evolutionary reasons. Societies with food scarcities prefer larger female body size than societies that have plenty of food. In Western society, males who are hungry prefer a larger female body size than they do when not hungry.^[241]

BMI has been criticised for conflating fat and muscle, and more recent studies have concentrated on body composition. Among Australian university students, the most attractive body composition for women (10.31 kg fat, 42.45 kg muscle) was found to be lower in fat than both the most healthy appearing composition, and below the healthy range.^[165]

In the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices. When American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, the men chose figures of average build. This indicates that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.^[238] Some researchers believe women themselves may play a role in enforcing the thinness ideal, however they assert that this does not mean that the ideal does not ultimately trace its origins to patriarchical norms (the "male gaze").^[242] Popenoe writes that societies with abundant food sources often value thin women, while those with food scarcity value women with fat bodies. In the West, women with thin bodies became the ideal in the 19th century, as the fat body became associated with criminality and backwardness.^[243] Some implicated the fashion industry for the promulgation of the notion of thinness as attractive.^[244]^[245]

East Asians have historically preferred women whose bodies had small features. For example, during the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, women in Chinese harems wanted to have a thin body in order to be attractive for the Chinese emperor. Later, during the Tang dynasty, a less thin body type was seen as most attractive for Chinese women.^[246] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to be slender like a "cane" or a "twig".^[193] In the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as not being "large-boned".^[220]

In the Victorian era, women who adhered to Victorian ideals were expected to limit their food consumption to attain the ideal slim figure.^[247] In Middle English literature, "slender" women are considered beautiful.^[248]

According to research on females, women consider a full body with good distribution to be highly important to be considered attractive by men.^[249]

Waist–hip ratio

A WHR of 0.7 for women has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and ovarian cancers.^[250] Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs.^[251]^[252] Female waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) has been proposed by evolutionary psychologists to be an important component of human male mate choice, because this trait is thought to provide a reliable cue to a woman's reproductive value.^[253]

Both men and women judge women with smaller waist-to-hip ratios more attractive.^[254] Ethnic groups vary with regard to their ideal waist-to-hip ratio for women,^[255] ranging from 0.6 in China,^[256] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,^[257]^[258]^[259] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.^[260]^[261] A study found the Machiguenga people, an isolated indigenous South American ethnic group, prefer women with high WHR (0.9).^[262] The preference for heavier women, has been interpreted to belong to societies where there is no risk of obesity.^[263]

In Chinese, the phrase "willow waist" (Chinese: 柳腰) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her waist as being slender like a willow branch.^[219]

In the Victorian era, a small waist was considered the main trait of a beautiful woman.^[247] The term "wasp waist" describes an extreme fashion silhouette, produced by a style of corset and girdle.

Feet size

According to some studies, most men prefer women with small feet,^[264]^[265] such as in ancient China where foot binding was practiced.^[266]

In Jewish Rabbinic literature, the rabbis considered small feet to be the ideal type of feet for women.^[194]

Hair

Men have been found to prefer long-haired women.^[64]^[267] ^[268] An evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that malnutrition and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins causes loss of hair or hair changes. Hair therefore indicates health and nutrition during the last 2–3 years. Lustrous hair is also often a cross-cultural preference.^[129]

A component of the female beauty ideal in Persian literature is for women to have black hair,^[269] which was also preferred in Arabian society in the Middle Ages.^[193] In Middle English literature, curly hair is a necessary component of a beautiful woman.^[270]

Fertility-driven attractiveness

There are some subtle changes in women's perceived attractiveness across the menstrual cycle. During their most fertile phase, we can observe some changes in women's behaviour and physiology. A study conducted by G. Miller (2007) examined the amount of tip earnings by lap dancers across the menstrual cycle. He found that dancers received nearly US$15 more when they were near ovulation than during the rest of the month. This suggests that women either are more attractive during ovulation phase, or they experience a significant change in their behaviour.^[271] Some other studies have found that there are subtle differences in women's faces when in their fertile phase. Bobst and Lobmaier (2012) created 20 prototyped photographs, some of a female during ovulation and some during the luteal phase. Men were asked to choose the more attractive, the more caring and the more flirtatious faces. They found a significant preference for the follicular phase (ovulation). This suggests that subtle shape differences in faces occurring during the female's ovulation phase are sufficient to attract men more.^[272] This idea is supported by another study, where a similar experiment was done. Men and women had to judge photographs of women's faces taken during their fertile phase. They were all rated more attractive than during non-fertile phase. There are some subtle visible cues to ovulation in women's faces, and they are perceived as more attractive, leading to the idea that it could be an adaptive mechanism to raise a female's mate value at that specific time (when probability of conception is at its highest).^[271]

Women's attractiveness, as perceived by men and women, slightly differs across her menstrual cycle, being at peak when she is in her ovulation phase. Jones et al. (2008), focused on women's preferences for masculinity, apparent health and self-resemblance and found that it varies across the cycle. They explained that the function of the effects of menstrual cycle phase on preferences for apparent health and self-resemblance in faces is to increase the likelihood of pregnancy.^[273]

Similarly, females prefer the scent of symmetrically faced men and men with masculine faces during fertile phases as well as stereotypical male displays such as social presence, and direct intrasexual competitiveness.^[274]

During the follicular phase (fertile), females prefer more masculine traits (testosterone dependent traits such as face shape) than when in non-fertile phase. Those findings have been found in the voice, showing that females' preferences for more masculine voices over feminine voices increase the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle.^[275]

But not only females' preferences vary across cycle, their behaviours as well. Effectively, men respond differently to females when they are on ovulatory cycle,^[271] because females act differently. Women in the ovulatory phase are flirtier with males showing genetic fitness markers than in low fertile phase.^[276] It has been shown in some studies that women high in estrogen are generally perceived to be more attractive than women with low levels of estrogen, based on women not wearing make-up. High estrogen level women may also be viewed as healthier or to have a more feminine face.^[277]

Similarly, a study investigated the capacity of women to select high quality males based on their facial attractiveness. They found that facial attractiveness correlated with semen quality (good, normal, or bad depending on sperm morphology and motility). The more attractive a man's face is, linked to his sperm being of better quality.^[278]

Sexual ornamentation

Sexual ornaments are seen in many organisms; in humans, females have sexual ornamentation in the form of breasts and buttocks. The physical attraction to sexual ornaments is associated with gynoid fat, as opposed to android fat, which is considered unattractive.^[279] In human females, proximate causes of the development of sexual ornaments are associated with the predominance of estrogen in puberty. The activation of estrogen receptors around the female skeletal tissue causes gynoid fat to be deposited in the breasts, buttocks, hips and thighs, producing an overall typical female body shape.^[280] Specifically, female breasts are considered more attractive when symmetrical, rather than asymmetrical,^[281] as this is thought to reflect good developmental stability.^[282]

Sexual ornaments are considered attractive features as they are thought to indicate high mate value, fertility,^[283] and the ability to provide good care to offspring. They are sexually selected traits present for the purpose of honest signalling and capturing the visual attention of the opposite sex, most commonly associated with females capturing the visual attention of males. It has been proposed that these ornaments have evolved in order to advertise personal quality and reproductive value.^[284] Honest signalling with sexual ornaments is associated with ultimate causation of these evolved traits. The evolution of these ornaments is also associated with female-female competition in order to gain material benefits provided by resourceful and high status males.^[285] In humans, once these sexual ornaments develop, they are permanent. It is thought that this is associated with the long-term pair bonding humans engage in; human females engage in extended sexual activity outside of their fertile period.^[286] This relates to another ultimate cause of sexual ornaments with function in obtaining non-genetic material benefits from males. In other animal species, even other primate species, these advertisements of reproductive value are not permanent. Usually, it is the point at which the female is at her most fertile, she displays sexual swellings.^[287]

Adolescence is the period of time whereby humans experience puberty, and experience anatomical changes to their bodies through the increase of sex hormones released in the body. Adolescent exaggeration is the period of time at which sexual ornaments are maximised, and peak gynoid fat content is reached.^[285] In human females, the mean age for this is approximately 16 years. Female breasts develop at this stage not only to prepare for reproduction, but also due to competition with other females in displaying their reproductive value and quality to males.^[285]

Interpersonal attraction

In the social psychology perspective, interpersonal attraction is when someone experiences a positive attitude or evaluation regarding a particular person having potential of being a significant other. This includes "three components conventionally ascribed to attitudes: behavioural (tendency to approach the person), cognitive (positive beliefs about the person), and affective (positive feelings for the person)."^[288] With these three components, psychology has created five elements of interpersonal attraction. These include proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness, reciprocity, and responsiveness.^[289]

Neural correlates of perceiving attractiveness

Most studies of the brain activations associated with the perception of attractiveness show photographs of faces to their participants and let them or a comparable group of people rate the attractiveness of these faces. Such studies consistently find that activity in certain parts of the orbitofrontal cortex increases with increasing attractiveness of faces.^[290]^[291]^[285]^[292]^[293] This neural response has been interpreted as a reaction on the rewarding nature of attractiveness, as similar increases in activation in the medial orbitofrontal cortex can be seen in response to smiling faces^[294] and to statements of morally good actions.^[285]^[293] While most of these studies have not assessed participants of both genders or homosexual individuals, evidence from one study including male and female hetero- and homosexual individuals indicate that some of the aforementioned increases in brain activity are restricted to images of faces of the gender which participants feel sexually attracted to.^[295]

With regard to brain activation related to the perception of attractive bodies, one study with heterosexual participants suggests that activity in the nucleus accumbens and the anterior cingulate cortex increases with increasing attractiveness. The same study finds that for faces and bodies alike, the medial part of the orbitofrontal cortex responds with greater activity to both very attractive and very unattractive pictures.^[296] Recent research has found that the perception of women with lower Waist-to-Hip Ratios and larger breasts triggers distinct patterns of temporal and spatial brain activation, differing from those associated with larger WHRs and smaller breasts.^[297] Specifically, attractive WHRs and breast sizes influenced brain activity related to visual processing differently than less attractive WHRs and breast sizes, impacting both early and late stages of temporal processing in men and women.^[297] Moreover, research on upper body size shows that posterior brain regions are involved in perceiving body forms of differing attractiveness due to variations male upper body size, while frontal brain regions are engaged when these perceptions are explicitly rated.^[298] Such brain activities are unique to processing male, but not female, body sizes.

For both men and women, there appear to be universal criteria of attractiveness both within and across cultures and ethnic groups.^[19]^[299] When considering long-term relationships, some studies have found that men place a higher emphasis on physical attractiveness in a partner than women do.^[300]^[301]^[302]^[303]^[304] On the other hand, some studies have found few differences between men and women in terms of the weight they place on physical characteristics when they are choosing partners for short-term relationships,^[305]^[306]^[307]^[308] in particular with regard to their implicit, as opposed to explicitly articulated, preferences.^[309] Other recent studies continue to find sex differences for long-term relationships.^[310]^[311]^[312]^[307] While still valuing physical attractiveness, women tend to prioritize a man's status over his physical attractiveness, while men prioritize physical attractiveness over status.^[313] There is also one study suggesting that only men, not women, place greater priority on bodily compared to facial attractiveness when looking for a short-term as compared to a long-term partner.^[314]

Some evolutionary psychologists, including David Buss, have argued that this long-term relationship difference may be a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness which allowed for greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners,^[315] although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was likely signaled less by physical features.^[302] It is argued that the most prominent indicator of fertility in women is youth,^[316]^[317]^[318] while the traits in a man which enhance reproductive success are proxies for his ability to accrue resources and protect.^[318]

Studies have shown that women pay greater attention to physical traits than they do directly to earning capability or potential to commit,^[319] including muscularity, fitness and masculinity of features; the latter preference was observed to vary during a woman's period, with women preferring more masculine features during the late-follicular (fertile) phase of the menstrual cycle.^[275]^[320] Additionally, women process physical attractiveness differently, paying attention to both individual features and the aesthetic effect of the whole face.^[321]

According to Bonnie Adrian, Taiwanese brides place great importance on physical attractiveness for their wedding photographs. These brides go through hours of makeup to transform themselves into socially constructed beauty. Adrian notes that female beauty standards and practices in Taiwan are quite different from those found in the West. Women in Taiwan tend to avoid tanning, while Taiwanese women with tanned skin tones would be considered the ideal in the Western world.^[322]

According to strategic pluralism theory, men may have correspondingly evolved to pursue reproductive strategies that are contingent on their own physical attractiveness. More physically attractive men accrue reproductive benefits from spending more time seeking multiple mating partners and relatively less time investing in offspring. In contrast, the reproductive effort of physically less attractive men, who therefore will not have the same mating opportunities, is better allocated either to investing heavily in accruing resources, or investing in their mates and offspring and spending relatively less time seeking additional mates.^[323]

Facial similarity and racial preferences

Research has suggested that people give high attractiveness ratings to same-sex people who look like them, but only in a nonsexual context. On the other hand, people generally do not find similar-looking people of the opposite sex to be sexually attractive. It is theorized that people may prefer sexual partners who look different from them, which is consistent with a pattern of inbreeding avoidance.^[324]^[325]^[326] Although one study found that individuals show a preference for similar-looking mates, after a physiological stress test they preferred dis-similar looking mates.^[327]^[328]

One study found no strong evidence for a same-race preference in heterosexual people, and they note that evidence from two similar studies is conflicting. Some racial groups show a strong preference for partners of a different race or ethnicity, and this preference may be gendered.^[329]^[330] One study suggested that attraction to people with different ethnic features may be related to the effects of heterozygosity, which are thought to be a fitness advantage.^[331]

A 2014 study found that racial preferences in Asian-Americans varied by gender: while heterosexual Asian women preferred to date White men, heterosexual Asian men preferred to date Asian women.^[332]

A 2012 study using British raters found that Asian women's faces were rated as more feminine, and therefore more attractive, than White women's, which could explain the high rate of interracial marriage with Asian women.^[207] This study received support from a 2018 study which tested its hypothesis using images of Asian and white individuals.^[208] A 2020 experiment performed at the University of South Carolina likewise found that images of Asian women were rated as more feminine and more attractive than images of White women, which may explain the high sexual capital of Asian women.^[333]

A 2012 study using Black and Caucasian subjects found that inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic differences in perceived male facial masculinity have no impact on attractiveness, and that skin colour plays a more important role in attractiveness assessments of male faces within groups, but not between groups as a health signal.^[334]

Group attractiveness effect

The group attractiveness effect is where a group's overall attractiveness rating is higher than the mean of each individuals' attractiveness rating. This occurs because people selectively attend to the most attractive group members^[335] and thus they get the most attention. Men selectively attend to attractive people more than women, it has been suggested that this could be because men are less invested in their offspring, so they are less choosy when it comes to sexual partners, and therefore they are more easily attracted. As a result of selective attention, people end up giving a group rating which is biased as the rating focuses mainly on the attractive members and ignores the less attractive members. So the overall attractiveness rating is skewed towards more attractive. The group attractiveness effect was investigated in a study which got participants to rate the physical attractiveness of a group of females as a whole, individually in a group, and individually on their own.^[336] Participants were asked to give a rating of 1–7, with 1 being very unattractive and 7 being very attractive. The group attractiveness effect has been replicated with males as the main group and also with a group of both males and females. This effect may not be demonstrated across all cultures because the sample only contained Dutch university students.

Social effects

Perceptions of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those attractions. Individuals assume that when someone is beautiful, then they have many other positive attributes that make the attractive person more likeable.^[18] This is referred to as the halo effect, also known as the 'beautiful-is-good' effect.^[18] Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good; attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as, from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.^[337]^[338] In one study, beautiful people were found to be generally happier than less beautiful or plain people, perhaps because these outgoing personality traits are linked to happiness, or perhaps because beauty led to increased economic benefits which partially explained the increased happiness.^[190] In another study testing first impressions in 56 female and 17 male participants at University of British Columbia, personality traits of physically attractive people were identified more positively and more accurately than those who were less physically attractive. It was explained that people pay closer attention to those they find physically beautiful or attractive, and thus perceiving attractive individuals with greater distinctive accuracy. The study believes this accuracy to be subjective to the eye of the beholder.^[339] Recent results from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study confirmed the positive link between psychological well-being and attractiveness (higher facial attractiveness, lower BMI) and also found the complementary negative association with distress/depression. Even though connections and confounds with other variables could not be excluded, the effects of attractiveness in this study were the same size as the ones for other demographic variables.^[340]

In developed western societies, women tend to be judged for their physical appearance over their other qualities and the pressure to engage in beauty work is much higher for women than men. Beauty work is defined as various beauty "practices individuals perform on themselves or others to elicit certain benefits from a specific social hierarchy."^[341] Being "beautiful" has individual, social and institutional rewards.^[341] Although marketers have started to target the "metro-sexual" male and produce hygiene and beauty products geared towards men, the expectations placed on them is less than women.^[342] The time and money required for a man to achieve the same well-groomed appearance is much lower. Even in areas that men also face pressure to perform beauty work, such as haircuts/styling, the prices discrepancy for products and services are skewed. This phenomenon is called the "pink tax."^[343]^[344]

However, attractiveness varies by society; in ancient China foot binding was practiced by confining young girls' feet in tightly bound shoes to prevent the feet from growing to normal size causing the women to have an attractive "lotus gait". In England, women used to wear corsets that severely constricted their breathing in order to achieve a visual effect of an exaggeratedly low waist-to-hip ratio.

People make judgments of physical attractiveness based on what they see, but also on what they know about the person. Specifically, perceptions of beauty are malleable such that information about the person's personality traits can influence one's assessment of another person's physical beauty. A 2007 study had participants first rate pictures for attractiveness. After doing distracting math problems, participants saw the pictures again, but with information about the person's personality. When participants learned that a person had positive personality characteristics (e.g., smart, funny, kind), that person was seen as more physically attractive.^[345] Conversely, a person with negative personality characteristics (e.g., materialistic, rude, untrustworthy) was seen as less physically attractive. This was true for both females and males.

Physical attractiveness can have various social effects. For instance, humans tend to self-organize into couples where both parties have loosely similar attractiveness levels as judged by third parties.^[346]^[347]^[348] A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.^[26] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. According to further research done on the correlation between looks and earnings in men, the punishment for unattractiveness is greater than the benefits of being attractive. However, in women the punishment is found to be equal to the benefits.^[349] Another study suggests that more physically attractive people are significantly more likely on average to earn considerably higher wages. Differences in income due to attractiveness was much more pronounced for men rather than women, and held true for all ranges of income.^[350] In the US the earnings disparities along the attractiveness continuum (net of controls) are similar or greater than the black-white disparity.^[351] A study from 2020 found that social scientists who are judged as being more attractive receive higher public speaking fees than less attractive social scientists, whereas for natural scientists, relative unattractiveness is a comparative advantage in terms of public speaking fees.^[352]

It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. One writer speculated that "the distress created in women by the spread of unattainable ideals of female beauty" might possibly be linked to increasing incidence of depression.^[353]

Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions; receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having more choices in romantic or platonic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships; and marrying into families with more money.^[30]^[190]^[337]^[338]^[354] Those who are attractive are treated and judged more positively than those who are considered unattractive, even by those who know them. Also, attractive individuals behave more positively than those who are unattractive.^[355] One study found that teachers tend to expect that children who are attractive are more intelligent, and are more likely to progress further in school. They also consider these students to be more popular.^[356] Voters choose political candidates who are more attractive over those who are less attractive.^[357] Men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how "good" another person is.^[358] In 1946, Soloman Asch coined the Implicit Personality Theory, meaning that the presence of one trait tends to imply the existence of other traits. This is also known as the halo effect. Research suggests that those who are physically attractive are thought to have more socially desirable personalities and lead better lives in general.^[11] This is also known as the "what-is-beautiful-is-good effect" or physical attractiveness stereotype. Discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is sometimes referred to as lookism (prejudice or discrimination based on physical appearance and especially physical appearance believed to fall short of societal notions of beauty).^[359]

Some researchers conclude that little difference exists between men and women in terms of sexual behaviour.^[301]^[360] Other researchers disagree.^[361] Symmetrically faced men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stands. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships.^[46] Additionally, they have the most reproductive success. Therefore, their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.^[362]^[363]^[364]^[365]

Concern for improving physical attractiveness has led many persons to consider alternatives such as cosmetic surgery. It has led scientists working with related disciplines such as computer imaging and mathematics to conduct research to suggest ways to surgically alter the distances between facial features in order to make a face conform more closely to the "agreed-upon standards of attractiveness" of an ideal face by using algorithms to suggest an alternative which still resembles the current face.^[28] One research study found that cosmetic surgery as a way to "boost earnings" was "not profitable in a monetary sense."^[190] Some research shows that physical attractiveness has a marginal effect on happiness.^[366]

Misconceptions

The golden ratio

The golden ratio, also known as the golden proportion, was considered the perfect measurement of harmony, beauty and proportion in Ancient Greece. Researchers Mohammad Khursheed Alam, Nor Farid Mohd Noor, Rehana Basri, Tan Fo Yew and Tay Hui Wen conducted a study to test if the golden ratio was a contributor to perceptions of facial attractiveness in various ethnic groups. A total of 286 people aged 18 to 25 participated in the survey, including 100 Malay (50 male, 50 female), 100 Malaysian Chinese (50 male, 50 female), and 86 Malaysian Indian (36 male, 50 female). This study excluded subjects of mixed race, those with craniofacial deformities, and those who had previously received orthodontic treatment or had face surgery. The results showed that the golden ratio had no significant association with physical attractiveness.^[367]^[368]

Ideal body shape for women

Some argue that body type preference is a mark of culture and regional beauty standards, and that there is no definitive "ideal body" for women, because it constantly shifts.^[369]^[370]^[371] Some authors argue that body types have never been universal and that most evolutionary psychology studies on the "ideal female body" shape have been questioned or disproven due to external factors such as unreliable data and idealized western gender roles.^[372]^[373]^[374]^[375] On the internet, communities can create their own niche beauty standards that differ from the cultural norm.^[376]^[377]^[378] It has been argued that the "perfect body" is a matter of personal preference and exposure to regional media.^[379]^[380]

Notes

^ However, one expert suggested that her "almost matronly representation" was meant to convey an "impressive appearance" rather than "ideal female beauty".^[4]
^ The "sitting body ratio" (SBR) is also quoted, where the trunk is measured with subject sitting on a flat table, and the leg-length determined by subtraction from standing height. This is almost the same as the perineum-to-floor distance but without the need to touch an intimate area.

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^ Tybur & Gangestad 2011: "Indeed, at the current time, little direct evidence addresses whether skin tone or colour reflects current infection levels or infectability. More research is clearly needed."
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cunningham et al. (1995).
^ Van den Berghe PL, Frost P (September 13, 2010). "Skin color preference, sexual dimorphism and sexual selection: A case of gene culture co-evolution?". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 9: 87–113. doi:10.1080/01419870.1986.9993516. an overwhelming cross-cultural preference for lighter skin
^ Polovick, Madeline (2017). "Orange Is the New Black": The Skin-Tanning Phenomenon and Its Influence on Perceptions of Race, Class, and Gender (Thesis). Senior Independent Study Theses. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ Polovick (2017), p. 14: "The researchers discovered that their findings did not support Van den Berghe and Frost’s hypothesis that men were more attracted to lighter-skinned women, especially as linked to a sign of fertility, because their data showed a preference for women with darker skin (measured by color parameters that indicated a skin value based on blue and green in comparison to red components)."
^ Polovick (2017), p. 12-13: "They chose to use tanned women as their research model because women have higher rates of tanning than men (Robinson et al. 1997b), and therefore are more likely to utilize tanned skin as an attractive trait. Their hypothesis was that both women and men would find a tanned female to be more physically and interpersonally attractive, healthier, taller, and thinner than a less tanned female. Only the men’s responses were statistically significant, demonstrating an overall preference for the dark-tanned female over then medium-tanned. Banerjee, Campo, and Greene found that their results contradict previous research that has shown a preference for medium tanned skin over dark-tanned skin (Broadstock et al. 1992). They also found that the men viewed the darker-tanned women as thinner" ... "They reason that women might tan more often than men because they believe men that find them more attractive that way; which, these perceptions of women by men were proven most likely accurate with their study."
^ Hurkman, Alexis Van (November 15, 2010). The Color Correction Handbook: Professional Techniques for Video and Cinema. Pearson Education. p. 30-IA5. ISBN 978-0-321-71974-4. "Smith, Cornelissen and Tovee found that, contrary to previous cross-cultural studies on the topic, the observers showed a marked preference for the darker-complexioned, tanned volunteers."
^ Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Bishop PJ, Parish A (June 2010). "Human physique and sexual attractiveness in men and women: a New Zealand-U.S. comparative study". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 39 (3): 804. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y. PMID 19139985. S2CID 33112678. In the current study, men rated images with lighter skin tones as most attractive, especially so in the Californian sample. In New Zealand, men rated the female images of average skin color as most attractive, followed by the image which was lightened by 10 units of brightness and 15 units of contrast.
^ Bulmer, Martin; Solomos, John (October 2, 2017). Race, Migration and Identity. Routledge. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-317-51969-0. "For example, in a recent study examining Latina female college students who identified as white, pale skin was viewed as unattractive compared to tanned skin (Stephens and Fernandez, 2012). Furthermore, having the ideal, tan skin colour was associated with being more desirable in peer and dating contexts; more sexually appealing to men ... For example, in a study of African American male and female college students, Coard, Breland and Raskin found that participants preferred a medium skin tone over a lighter or darker skin tone."
^ Verma, N. M. P.; Srivastava, Alpana (August 20, 2020). The Routledge Handbook of Exclusion, Inequality and Stigma in India. Taylor & Francis. p. 293. ISBN 978-1-000-09669-9. "A few studies have found that tanned skin is regarded as both more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin, and there is a direct correlation between the degree of tanning and perceived attractiveness, especially among young women."
^ Lim, Tai Wei (February 22, 2021). Women Hold Up Half The Sky: The Political-economic And Socioeconomic Narratives Of Women In China. World Scientific. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-981-12-2620-5.
^ Mire, Amina (September 4, 2019). Wellness in Whiteness: Biomedicalization and the Promotion of Whiteness and Youth among Women. Routledge. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-351-23412-2. My informants, mainly women insisted that Japanese skin was superior to Caucasian skin. Although many of my informants had little personal contact with Westerners, they all made more or less identical negative comments about Caucasian women's skin, saying, for example, that it was rough, aged quickly and had too many spots [...] with color resembling 'shabu-shabu'...
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: See table 1, Study 1. "All groups of judges made more positive ratings of the Asian and Hispanic targets compared with the Black and White targets. Further analyses indicated that the Asian and Hispanic targets happened to possess significantly larger eye height, eye width, nose width, eyebrow height, smile width, and upper lip width than the White and Black women. Because the targets were chosen for their availability rather than randomly selected from their populations, and the absolute number of targets in each group was small, it would be incorrect to conclude that any ethnic group was more attractive than any other."
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External links

Media related to Physical attractiveness at Wikimedia Commons

[5] However, one expert suggested that her "almost matronly representation" was meant to convey an "impressive appearance" rather than "ideal female beauty".^[4]

[74] The "sitting body ratio" (SBR) is also quoted, where the trunk is measured with subject sitting on a flat table, and the leg-length determined by subtraction from standing height. This is almost the same as the perineum-to-floor distance but without the need to touch an intimate area.

[1] "People: Just Deserts". Time. May 28, 1945. Archived from the original on August 11, 2009. Retrieved August 5, 2011. ... "the most perfect all-over beauty of all time." Runner-up: the Venus de Milo.

[2] "Says Venus de Milo was not a Flapper; Osteopath Says She Was Neurasthenic, as Her Stomach Was Not in Proper Place" (PDF). The New York Times. April 29, 1922. Retrieved August 5, 2011. Venus de Milo ... That lady of renowned beauty...

[3] CBS News Staff (August 5, 2011). "Venus". CBS News. Archived from the original on January 29, 2010. Retrieved August 5, 2011. The classical vision of beauty exemplified in Greek art, such as the 2nd century B.C. Venus de Milo (a.k.a. Aphrodite of Milos), was an ideal carried through millennia, laying the basis for much of Western art's depictions of the human form.

[4] Kousser R (2005). "Creating the Past: The Vénus de Milo and the Hellenistic Reception of Classical Greece". American Journal of Archaeology. 109 (2): 227–50. doi:10.3764/aja.109.2.227. ISSN 0002-9114. S2CID 36871977.

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[9] Perkins D (2013). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Routledge. p. 581. ISBN 978-1135935627.

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[11] Zeigler-Hill V, L M Welling L, Shackelford TK (2015). Evolutionary Perspectives on Social Psychology. United States: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 329. ISBN 978-3-319-12697-5. ...why, despite broad agreement, we see a wide variety of personal preferences.

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[13] Simpson, Jeffry A (1990). "Perception of physical attractiveness: Mechanisms involved in the maintenance of romantic relationships". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 6 (59): 1192–1201. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1192. Retrieved November 19, 2022.

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[15] Stephen ID, Tan KW (2015). "Healthy body, healthy face? Evolutionary approaches to health perception.". In Sheppard E, Haque S (eds.). Culture and Cognition: A Collection of Critical Essays. Peter Lang International Publishers.

[16] Brown WM, Price ME, Kang J, Pound N, Zhao Y, Yu H (September 2008). "Fluctuating asymmetry and preferences for sex-typical bodily characteristics". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (35): 12938–43. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10512938B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0710420105. PMC 2529114. PMID 18711125.

[17] Bulczak, Grzegorz; Gugushvili, Alexi (March 17, 2023). "Physical attractiveness and cardiometabolic risk". American Journal of Human Biology. 35 (8): e23895. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23895. hdl:10852/109227. ISSN 1042-0533. PMID 36932650. S2CID 257604055.

[18] Stephen ID, Hiew V, Coetzee V, Tiddeman BP, Perrett DI (2017). "Facial Shape Analysis Identifies Valid Cues to Aspects of Physiological Health in Caucasian, Asian, and African Populations". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 1883. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01883. PMC 5670498. PMID 29163270.

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[Briscoe-2004-20] Jump up to: ^a ^b Briscoe J (January 17, 2004). "Haven't I seen you somewhere before?". The Guardian. London. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Evolutionary psychologists claim there is an underlying standard script for beauty – a foundation for what we find appealing that transcends culture and ethnicity. There are various absolutes. For instance, to judge someone beautiful, the eye requires symmetry

[21] Fisher, Maryanne L. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Women and Competition. Oxford University Press. p. 603. ISBN 978-0-19-937639-1.

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[25] Sell A, Lukazsweski AW, Townsley M (December 2017). "Cues of upper body strength account for most of the variance in men's bodily attractiveness". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 284 (1869): 20171819. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1819. PMC 5745404. PMID 29237852.

[26] Mautz BS, Wong BB, Peters RA, Jennions MD (April 2013). "Penis size interacts with body shape and height to influence male attractiveness". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (17): 6925–30. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.6925M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1219361110. PMC 3637716. PMID 23569234.

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[28] Dammann G (August 20, 2008). "Rules of attraction". The Guardian. London. Retrieved July 15, 2011. scientists from Brunel University have revealed that physical attraction is all down to bodily symmetry

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[Berri-2008-30] Jump up to: ^a ^b Berri DJ (September 16, 2008). "Do Pretty-Boy Quarterbacks Make More Money?". The New York Times. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Research, though, has indicated that what we think of as facial attractiveness is really just facial symmetry

[Willett-2008-31] Jump up to: ^a ^b Willett E (October 29, 2008). "A person's face can say a lot: Helen's face is said to have launched a thousand ships, while Medusa's could turn men to stone. And even today we talk about individuals with 'a face that can stop a clock.'". The Leader-Post (Regina). Archived from the original on November 10, 2012. Retrieved July 15, 2011. "people preferentially mate with, date, associate with, employ, and even vote for physically attractive individuals." ... Symmetry is one trait we find attractive (but only if the face is right-side up: your symmetric face will, alas, do nothing to help you attract a mate if you constantly stand on your head.

[Murphy-2003-32] Jump up to: ^a ^b Murphy C (December 4, 2003). "In the eye of the beholder?". BBC News. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Art historians, anthropologists and human psychologists in general agree that it is the symmetry of a face, its perfect proportion, or indeed its averageness – where no feature stands out – that has consistently down the ages been deemed attractive. ...

[33] Burkeman O (April 24, 2010). "This column will change your life: The beauty in imperfection". The Guardian. London. Retrieved December 27, 2012. Absolute flawlessness, it's long been observed, is disturbing. It offers no point of connection, and may help explain the "uncanny valley" effect, where almost-lifelike robots trigger revulsion in humans. ...

[McKeen-2006-34] Jump up to: ^a ^b McKeen S (February 10, 2006). "A beauty fix plumps up psyche and overall health". The Edmonton Journal. Archived from the original on November 10, 2012. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Evolution taught us to lust after symmetry – a nicely balanced body and face – because asymmetry signals past illness or injury. We therefore define beauty quite elegantly, right down to the most ideal ratio of hips to breasts and upper lip to lower lip. Singh says one study showed that people were able to gauge beauty at a subliminal level, when shown pictures for a mere one-hundredth of a second. Another study showed babies prefer pretty faces.

[35] Perrin FA (June 1921). "Physical Attractiveness and Repulsiveness". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 4 (3): 203–17. doi:10.1037/h0071949.^{[dead link]}

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[38] Sforza, Chiarella; Laino, Alberto; D'Alessio, Raoul; Grandi, Gaia; Tartaglia, Gianluca Martino; Ferrario, Virgilio Ferruccio (2008). "Soft-Tissue Facial Characteristics of Attractive and Normal Adolescent Boys and Girls" (PDF). Angle Orthodontist. 78 (5): 799–807. doi:10.2319/091207-431.1. PMID 18298221.

[39] Burriss, Robert P.; Rowland, Hannah M.; Little, Anthony C. (January 1, 2009). "Facial scarring enhances men's attractiveness for short-term relationships". Personality and Individual Differences. 46 (2): 213–17. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.029 – via www.sciencedirect.com.

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[FOOTNOTEPolovick201712-13-96] Polovick (2017), p. 12-13: "They chose to use tanned women as their research model because women have higher rates of tanning than men (Robinson et al. 1997b), and therefore are more likely to utilize tanned skin as an attractive trait. Their hypothesis was that both women and men would find a tanned female to be more physically and interpersonally attractive, healthier, taller, and thinner than a less tanned female. Only the men’s responses were statistically significant, demonstrating an overall preference for the dark-tanned female over then medium-tanned. Banerjee, Campo, and Greene found that their results contradict previous research that has shown a preference for medium tanned skin over dark-tanned skin (Broadstock et al. 1992). They also found that the men viewed the darker-tanned women as thinner" ... "They reason that women might tan more often than men because they believe men that find them more attractive that way; which, these perceptions of women by men were proven most likely accurate with their study."

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v t e Aesthetics
Areas	Ancient Africa India Internet Japanese Mathematics Medieval Music Nature Science Theology
Schools	Aestheticism Classicism Fascism Feminism Formalism Historicism Marxism Modernism Postmodernism Psychoanalysis Realism Romanticism Symbolism Theosophy more...
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Works	Hippias Major (c. 390 BC) Poetics (c. 335 BC) The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (c. 100) On the Sublime (c. 500) A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) Lectures on Aesthetics (1835) "The Critic as Artist" (1891) In Praise of Shadows (1933) Art as Experience (1934) "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935) "Avant-Garde and Kitsch" (1939) Critical Essays (1946) The Aesthetic Dimension (1977) Why Beauty Matters (2009)
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v t e Outline of human sexuality
Physiology and biology	Clitoral erection Erogenous zones Insemination Intersex Libido Nocturnal emission Orgasm Female and male ejaculation Pelvic thrust Penile erection Pre-ejaculate Pregnancy Sexual arousal Sexual response cycle Sexual stimulation Vaginal lubrication
Health and education	Birth control Condom Male contraceptive Masters and Johnson Obesity and sexuality Reproductive medicine Andrology Gynaecology Urology Safe sex Sex education Sex therapy (PLISSIT model) Sexology Sexual dysfunction Erectile dysfunction Hypersexuality Hyposexuality Sexual medicine Sexual surrogate Sexually transmitted infection
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Law	Age of consent Criminal transmission of HIV Child sexual abuse Incest Indecent exposure Obscenity Sexual abuse Cybersex trafficking Rape Sex trafficking Sexual assault Sexual harassment Sexual misconduct Sexual slavery Sexual violence Revenge pornography
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Секс -индустрия	Взрослые видеоигры Эротика Порнография Кино -актер Проституция Священный Секс выживания Красный район Секс -музей Секс -магазин Секс -туризм Ребенок Женский Секс -работник Секс -игрушка Кукла Стриптиз -клуб Веб -камера модель
Религия и сексуальность	Буддизм и индуизм Тантрический секс Христианская демонология Канцелярское безбрачие Буддийский моназм Католическая церковь Индуистская монашца Джайнская монашца Даосизм ислам Иудаизм ЛГБТ -люди ЛГБТ-подтверждающие религиозные группы Мормонизм Священная проституция Древняя Греция Телема Сексуальная магия
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By location	Africa Asia Europe North America San Francisco Seattle Oceania South America
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Шаблоны движения

Специфичные для мужчин факторы

Сексуальный диморфизм

Соотношение талии к интересам

Плоская живот

Мускулатура

Волосы на теле

Волосы на лице

Челюсть

Женские факторы

Особенности лица

Общий

Eyes

Breasts

Buttocks

Body mass

Waist–hip ratio

Feet size

Hair

Fertility-driven attractiveness

Sexual ornamentation

Interpersonal attraction

Neural correlates of perceiving attractiveness

Facial similarity and racial preferences

Group attractiveness effect

Social effects

Misconceptions

The golden ratio

Ideal body shape for women

See also

Notes

References

Principal sources

External links