Ханаан

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Ханаан 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍   ( финикийский ) Ханаан  ( иврит ) Ханаан   ( библейский греческий ) Ханаан   ( арабский )
Исторический регион
Карта Ханаана Джона Мелиша (1815 г.)
Coordinates: 32 ° с.ш., 35 ° в.д.
Polities and peoples	Phoenician city states Phoenicians Philistines Israelites Moab Ammon Tjeker Geshur Edom
Canaanite languages	Phoenician Ammonite Moabite Hebrew Edomite

Ханаан ( / ˈ k eɪ n ən / ; финикийский : 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – KNʿN ; Иврит : Канаан в , паузе כְּנָעַן – Канан ; Библейский греческий : Χανααν – Ханство ; арабский : كَنْعَانُ — Канан ) — семитоязычная цивилизация и регион Южного Леванта на Древнем Ближнем Востоке в конце 2-го тысячелетия до нашей эры . Ханаан имел значительное геополитическое значение в позднего бронзового века период Амарны (14 век до н.э.) как область, где интересов Египетской , , Хеттской сферы Митаннийской и Ассирийской империй сходились или пересекались. Большая часть современных знаний о Ханаане происходит от археологических раскопок в этой области в таких местах, как Тель-Хацор , Тель-Мегиддо , Эн-Эсур и Гезер .

The name "Canaan" appears throughout the Bible as a geography associated with the "Promised Land". The demonym "Canaanites" serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled and nomadic-pastoral groups—throughout the regions of the southern Levant or Canaan. It is by far the most frequently used ethnic term in the Bible. Biblical scholar Mark Smith, citing archaeological findings, suggests "that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature."

The name "Canaanites" is attested, many centuries later, as the endonym of the people later known to the Ancient Greeks from c. 500 BC as Phoenicians, and after the emigration of Phoenicians and Canaanite-speakers to Carthage (founded in the 9th century BC), was also used as a self-designation by the Punics (as "Chanani") of North Africa during Late Antiquity.

Etymology

Canaan

The English term "Canaan" (pronounced /ˈkeɪnən/ since c. 1500, due to the Great Vowel Shift) comes from the Hebrew כנען (Kənaʿan), via the Koine Greek Χανααν Khanaan and the Latin Canaan. It appears as Kinâḫna (Akkadian: 𒆳𒆠𒈾𒄴𒈾, ^KURki-na-aḫ-na) in the Amarna letters (14th century BC) and several other ancient Egyptian texts. In Greek, it first occurs in the writings of Hecataeus (c. 550–476 BC) as "Khna" (Χνᾶ). It is attested in Phoenician on coins from Berytus dated to the 2nd century BC.

The etymology is uncertain. An early explanation derives the term from the Semitic root knʿ, "to be low, humble, subjugated". Some scholars have suggested that this implies an original meaning of "lowlands", in contrast with Aram, which would then mean "highlands", whereas others have suggested it meant "the subjugated" as the name of Egypt's province in the Levant, and evolved into the proper name in a similar fashion to Provincia Nostra (the first Roman colony north of the Alps, which became Provence).

An alternative suggestion, put forward by Ephraim Avigdor Speiser in 1936, derives the term from Hurrian Kinaḫḫu, purportedly referring to the colour purple, so that "Canaan" and "Phoenicia" would be synonyms ("Land of Purple"). Tablets found in the Hurrian city of Nuzi in the early 20th century appear to use the term "Kinaḫnu" as a synonym for red or purple dye, laboriously produced by the Kassite rulers of Babylon from murex molluscs as early as 1600 BC, and on the Mediterranean coast by the Phoenicians from a byproduct of glassmaking. Purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity which is mentioned in Exodus. The dyes may have been named after their place of origin. The name 'Phoenicia' is connected with the Greek word for "purple", apparently referring to the same product, but it is difficult to state with certainty whether the Greek word came from the name, or vice versa. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far and wide and was associated by the Romans with nobility and royalty. However, according to Robert Drews, Speiser's proposal has generally been abandoned.

Djahy

Retjenu (Anglicised 'Retenu') was the usual ancient Egyptian name for Canaan and Syria, covering the region from Gaza in the south, to Tartous in the north. Its borders shifted with time, but it generally consisted of three regions. The region between Askalon and the Lebanon, stretching inland to the Sea of Galilee, was named Djahy, which was approximately synonymous with Canaan.

Archaeology and history

Further information: Levantine archaeology

Overview

See also: Prehistory of the Levant and History of Palestine

There are several periodization systems for Canaan. One of them is the following.

• Prior to 4500 BC (prehistory – Stone Age): hunter-gatherer societies slowly giving way to farming and herding societies
• 4500–3500 BC (Chalcolithic): early metal-working and farming
• 3500–2000 BC (Early Bronze): prior to written records in the area
• 2000–1550 BC (Middle Bronze): city-states
• 1550–1200 BC (Late Bronze): Egyptian hegemony
• 1200–various dates by region (Iron Age)

After the Iron Age the periods are named after the various empires that ruled the region: Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Hellenistic (related to Greece) and Roman.

Canaanite culture developed in situ from multiple waves of migration merging with the earlier Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral Natufian and Harifian cultures with Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming cultures, practicing animal domestication, during the 6200 BC climatic crisis which led to the Neolithic Revolution/First Agricultural Revolution in the Levant. The majority of Canaan is covered by the Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests ecoregion.

Chalcolithic (4500–3500 BC)

The Ghassulian star

Ghassulian dolmen, Kueijiyeh hill near Madaba, Jordan

The first wave of migration, called Ghassulian culture, entered Canaan circa 4500 BC. This is the start of the Chalcolithic in Canaan. From their unknown homeland they brought an already complete craft tradition of metal work. They were expert coppersmiths; in fact, their work was the most advanced metal technology in the ancient world. Their work is similar to artifacts from the later Maykop culture, leading some scholars to believe they represent two branches of an original metalworking tradition. Their main copper mine was at Wadi Feynan. The copper was mined from the Cambrian Burj Dolomite Shale Unit in the form of the mineral malachite. All of the copper was smelted at sites in Beersheba culture.

Genetic analysis has shown that the Ghassulians belonged to the West Asian haplogroup T-M184.

The end of the Chalcolithic period saw the rise of the urban settlement of 'En Esur on the southern Mediterranean coast.

Early Bronze Age (3500–2000 BC)

Tell es-Sakan in Gaza was inhabited from approximately 3300 BC to 2400/2350 BC.

By the Early Bronze Age other sites had developed, such as Ebla (where an East Semitic language, Eblaite, was spoken), which by c. 2300 BC was incorporated into the Mesopotamia-based Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great and Naram-Sin of Akkad (biblical Accad). Sumerian references to the Mar.tu ("tent dwellers", later Amurru, i.e. Amorite) country west of the Euphrates River date from even earlier than Sargon, at least to the reign of the Sumerian king, Enshakushanna of Uruk, and one tablet credits the early Sumerian king Lugal-Anne-Mundu with holding sway in the region, although this tablet is considered less credible because it was produced centuries later.

Amorites at Hazor, Kadesh (Qadesh-on-the-Orontes), and elsewhere in Amurru (Syria) bordered Canaan in the north and northeast. (Ugarit may be included among these Amoritic entities.) The collapse of the Akkadian Empire in 2154 BC saw the arrival of peoples using Khirbet Kerak ware (pottery), coming originally from the Zagros Mountains (in modern Iran) east of the Tigris. In addition, DNA analysis revealed that between 2500–1000 BC, populations from the Chalcolithic Zagros and Bronze Age Caucasus migrated to the Southern Levant.

The first cities in the southern Levant arose during this period. The major sites were 'En Esur and Meggido. These "proto-Canaanites" were in regular contact with the other peoples to their south such as Egypt, and to the north Asia Minor (Hurrians, Hattians, Hittites, Luwians) and Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria), a trend that continued through the Iron Age. The end of the period is marked by the abandonment of the cities and a return to lifestyles based on farming villages and semi-nomadic herding, although specialised craft production continued and trade routes remained open. Archaeologically, the Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit (at Ras Shamra in Syria) is considered quintessentially Canaanite, even though its Ugaritic language does not belong to the Canaanite language group proper.

A disputed reference to a "Lord of ga-na-na" in the Semitic Ebla tablets (dated 2350 BC) from the archive of Tell Mardikh has been interpreted by some scholars to mention the deity Dagon by the title "Lord of Canaan" If correct, this would suggest that Eblaites were conscious of Canaan as an entity by 2500 BC. Jonathan Tubb states that the term ga-na-na "may provide a third-millennium reference to Canaanite", while at the same time stating that the first certain reference is in the 18th century BC. See Ebla-Biblical controversy for further details.

Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BC)

Map of the Near East by Robert de Vaugondy (1762), indicating "Canaan" as limited to the Holy Land, to the exclusion of Lebanon and Syria

Urbanism returned and the region was divided among small city-states, the most important of which seems to have been Hazor. Many aspects of Canaanite material culture now reflected a Mesopotamian influence, and the entire region became more tightly integrated into a vast international trading network.

As early as Naram-Sin of Akkad's reign (c. 2240 BC), Amurru was called one of the "four quarters" surrounding Akkad, along with Subartu/Assyria, Sumer, and Elam. Amorite dynasties also came to dominate in much of Mesopotamia, including in Larsa, Isin and founding the state of Babylon in 1894 BC. Later on, Amurru became the Assyrian/Akkadian term for the interior of south as well as for northerly Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area seemed divided between two confederacies, one centred upon Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley, the second on the more northerly city of Kadesh on the Orontes River. An Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum founded Babylon as an independent city-state in 1894 BC. One Amorite king of Babylonia, Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC), founded the First Babylonian Empire, which lasted only as long as his lifetime. Upon his death the Amorites were driven from Assyria but remained masters of Babylonia until 1595 BC, when they were ejected by the Hittites.

The semi-fictional Story of Sinuhe describes an Egyptian officer, Sinuhe, conducting military activities in the area of "Upper Retjenu" and "Fenekhu" during the reign of Senusret I (c. 1950 BC). The earliest bona fide Egyptian report of a campaign to "Mentu", "Retjenu" and "Sekmem" (Shechem) is the Sebek-khu Stele, dated to the reign of Senusret III (c. 1862 BC).

A letter from Mut-bisir to Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1809–1776 BC) of the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BC) has been translated: "It is in Rahisum that the brigands (habbatum) and the Canaanites (Kinahnum) are situated". It was found in 1973 in the ruins of Mari, an Assyrian outpost at that time in Syria. Additional unpublished references to Kinahnum in the Mari letters refer to the same episode. Whether the term Kinahnum refers to people from a specific region or rather people of "foreign origin" has been disputed, such that Robert Drews states that the "first certain cuneiform reference" to Canaan is found on the Alalakh statue of King Idrimi (below).

A reference to Ammiya being "in the land of Canaan" is found on the Statue of Idrimi (16th century BC) from Alalakh in modern Syria. After a popular uprising against his rule, Idrimi was forced into exile with his mother's relatives to seek refuge in "the land of Canaan", where he prepared for an eventual attack to recover his city. The other references in the Alalakh texts are:

West Asian visitors to Egypt (c. 1900 BC)

A group of West Asian foreigners, possibly Canaanites, labelled as Aamu (ꜥꜣmw), with the leader labelled as a Hyksos, visiting the Egyptian official Khnumhotep II c. 1900 BC. Tomb of 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II, at Beni Hasan.

• AT 154 (unpublished)
• AT 181: A list of 'Apiru people with their origins. All are towns, except for Canaan
• AT 188: A list of Muskenu people with their origins. All are towns, except for three lands including Canaan
• AT 48: A contract with a Canaanite hunter.

Around 1650 BC, Canaanites invaded the eastern Nile delta, where, known as the Hyksos, they became the dominant power. In Egyptian inscriptions, Amar and Amurru (Amorites) are applied strictly to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes.

Canaanite Anra scarab showing Egyptian nswt-bjt and ankh symbols bordering a cartouche with an undeciphered sequence of hieroglyphs c. 1648-1540

Archaeological excavations of a number of sites, later identified as Canaanite, show that prosperity of the region reached its apogee during this Middle Bronze Age period, under the leadership of the city of Hazor, at least nominally tributary to Egypt for much of the period. In the north, the cities of Yamkhad and Qatna were hegemons of important confederacies, and it would appear that biblical Hazor was the chief city of another important coalition in the south.

Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC)

In the early Late Bronze Age, Canaanite confederacies centered on Megiddo and Kadesh, before being fully brought into the Egyptian Empire and Hittite Empire. Later still, the Neo-Assyrian Empire assimilated the region.

According to the Bible, the migrant ancient Semitic-speaking peoples who appear to have settled in the region included (among others) the Amorites, who had earlier controlled Babylonia. The Hebrew Bible mentions the Amorites in the Table of Peoples (Book of Genesis 10:16–18a). Evidently, the Amorites played a significant role in the early history of Canaan. In Book of Genesis 14:7 f., Book of Joshua 10:5 f., Book of Deuteronomy 1:19 f., 27, 44, we find them located in the southern mountain country, while verses such as Book of Numbers 21:13, Book of Joshua 9:10, 24:8, 12, etc., tell of two great Amorite kings residing at Heshbon and Ashteroth, east of the Jordan. Other passages, including Book of Genesis 15:16, 48:22, Book of Joshua 24:15, Book of Judges 1:34, regard the name Amorite as synonymous with "Canaanite". The name Amorite is, however, never used for the population on the coast.

Map of the Ancient Near East around 1400 BC

In the centuries preceding the appearance of the biblical Hebrews, parts of Canaan and southwestern Syria became tributary to the Egyptian pharaohs, although domination by the Egyptians remained sporadic, and not strong enough to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Other areas such as northern Canaan and northern Syria came to be ruled by the Assyrians during this period.

Under Thutmose III (1479–1426 BC) and Amenhotep II (1427–1400 BC), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Amorites and Canaanites sufficiently loyal. Nevertheless, Thutmose III reported a new and troubling element in the population. Habiru or (in Egyptian) 'Apiru, are reported for the first time. These seem to have been mercenaries, brigands, or outlaws, who may have at one time led a settled life, but with bad luck or due to the force of circumstances, contributed a rootless element to the population, prepared to hire themselves to whichever local mayor, king, or princeling would pay for their support.

Although Habiru SA-GAZ (a Sumerian ideogram glossed as "brigand" in Akkadian), and sometimes Habiri (an Akkadian word) had been reported in Mesopotamia from the reign of the Sumerian king, Shulgi of Ur III, their appearance in Canaan appears to have been due to the arrival of a new state based in Asia Minor to the north of Assyria and based upon a Maryannu aristocracy of horse-drawn charioteers, associated with the Indo-Aryan rulers of the Hurrians, known as Mitanni.

Basalt lions from the Orthostat Temple of Hazor (c. 1500–1300 BC) Hazor was violently destroyed during the Bronze Age collapse.

The Habiru seem to have been more a social class than an ethnic group. One analysis shows that the majority were Hurrian, although there were a number of Semites and even some Kassite and Luwian adventurers amongst their number. The reign of Amenhotep III, as a result, was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province, as Habiru/'Apiru contributed to greater political instability. It is believed that turbulent chiefs began to seek their opportunities, although as a rule they could not find them without the help of a neighbouring king. The boldest of the disaffected nobles was Aziru, son of Abdi-Ashirta, who endeavoured to extend his power into the plain of Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (Qatna?) (near Hamath), reported this to Amenhotep III, who seems to have sought to frustrate Aziru's attempts. In the reign of the next pharaoh, Akhenaten (reigned c. 1352 to c. 1335 BC) both father and son caused infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Hadda, governor of Gubla (Gebal), by transferring their loyalty from the Egyptian crown to the Hittite Empire under Suppiluliuma I (reigned c. 1344–1322 BC).

Egyptian power in Canaan thus suffered a major setback when the Hittites (or Hat.ti) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III, and when they became even more threatening in that of his successor, displacing the Amorites and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. Abdi-Ashirta and his son Aziru, at first afraid of the Hittites, afterwards made a treaty with their king, and joining with the Hittites, attacked and conquered the districts remaining loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Hadda send touching appeals for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too engaged in his religious innovations to attend to such messages.

The Amarna letters tell of the Habiri in northern Syria. Etakkama wrote thus to the Pharaoh:

Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord to the SA-GAZ in the land of Kadesh and in Ubi. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAZ.

Canaanite sarcophagi (Israel Museum)

Similarly, Zimrida, king of Sidon (named 'Siduna'), declared, "All my cities which the king has given into my hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri." The king of Jerusalem, Abdi-Heba, reported to the Pharaoh:

If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my lord.

Abdi-heba's principal trouble arose from persons called Iilkili and the sons of Labaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death at the siege of Gina. All these princes, however, maligned each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protested their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Etakkama (see above) accused of disloyalty, wrote thus to the Pharaoh,

Behold, I and my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAZ, and my Suti ?9 are at the disposal of the (royal) troops to go whithersoever the king, my lord, commands."

Merneptah Stele (JE 31408) from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Around the beginning of the New Kingdom period, Egypt exerted rule over much of the Levant. Rule remained strong during the Eighteenth Dynasty, but Egypt's rule became precarious during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties. Ramses II was able to maintain control over it in the stalemated battle against the Hittites at Kadesh in 1275 BC, but soon thereafter, the Hittites successfully took over the northern Levant (Syria and Amurru). Ramses II, obsessed with his own building projects while neglecting Asiatic contacts, allowed control over the region to continue dwindling. During the reign of his successor Merneptah, the Merneptah Stele was issued which claimed to have destroyed various sites in the southern Levant, including a people known as "Israel". However, archaeological findings show no destruction at any of the sites mentioned in the Merneptah Stele and so it is considered to be an exercise in propaganda, and the campaign most likely avoided the central highlands in the southern Levant. Egypt's withdrawal from the southern Levant was a protracted process lasting some one hundred years beginning in the late 13th century BC and ending close to the end of the 12th century BC. The reason for the Egypt's withdrawal was most likely a product of the political turmoil in Egypt proper rather than the invasion by the Sea Peoples as there is little evidence that the Sea Peoples caused much destruction ca. 1200 BC. Many Egyptian garrisons or sites with an “Egyptian governor's residence” in the southern Levant were abandoned without destruction including Deir al-Balah, Ascalon, Tel Mor, Tell el-Far'ah (South), Tel Gerisa, Tell Jemmeh, Tel Masos, and Qubur el-Walaydah. Not all Egyptian sites in the southern Levant were abandoned without destruction. The Egyptian garrison at Aphek was destroyed, likely in an act of warfare at the end of the 13th century. The Egyptian gate complex uncovered at Jaffa was destroyed at the end of the 12th century between 1134-1115 based on C14 dates, while Beth-Shean was partially though not completely destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid-12th century.

Amarna letters

Amarna tablet EA 9

References to Canaanites are also found throughout the Amarna letters of Pharaoh Akhenaten c. 1350 BC. In these letters, some of which were sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlord Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) in the 14th century BC, are found, beside Amar and Amurru (Amorites), the two forms Kinahhi and Kinahni, corresponding to Kena and Kena'an respectively, and including Syria in its widest extent, as Eduard Meyer has shown. The letters are written in the official and diplomatic East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are also in evidence. The known references are:

• EA 8: Letter from Burna-Buriash II to Akhenaten, explaining that his merchants "were detained in Canaan for business matters", robbed and killed "in Hinnatuna of the land of Canaan" by the rulers of Acre and Shamhuna, and asks for compensation because "Canaan is your country"
• EA 9: Letter from Burna-Buriash II to Tutankhamun, "all the Canaanites wrote to Kurigalzu saying 'come to the border of the country so we can revolt and be allied with you'"
• EA 30: Letter from Tushratta: "To the kings of Canaan... Provide [my messenger] with safe entry into Egypt"
• EA 109: Letter of Rib-Hadda: "Previously, on seeing a man from Egypt, the kings of Canaan fled before him, but now the sons of Abdi-Ashirta make men from Egypt prowl about like dogs"
• EA 110: Letter of Rib-Hadda: "No ship of the army is to leave Canaan"
• EA 131: Letter of Rib-Hadda: "If he does not send archers, they will take [Byblos] and all the other cities, and the lands of Canaan will not belong to the king. May the king ask Yanhamu about these matters."
• EA 137: Letter of Rib-Hadda: "If the king neglects Byblos, of all the cities of Canaan not one will be his"
• EA 367: "Hani son (of) Mairēya, "chief of the stable" of the king in Canaan"
• EA 162: Letter to Aziru: "You yourself know that the king does not want to go against all of Canaan when he rages"
• EA 148: Letter from Abimilku to the Pharaoh: "[The king] has taken over the land of the king for the 'Apiru. May the king ask his commissioner, who is familiar with Canaan"
• EA 151: Letter from Abimilku to the Pharaoh: "The king, my lord wrote to me: 'write to me what you have heard from Canaan'." Abimilku describes in response what has happened in eastern Cilicia (Danuna), the northern coast of Syria (Ugarit), in Syria (Qadesh, Amurru, and Damascus) as well as in Sidon.

Other Late Bronze Age mentions

Text RS 20.182 from Ugarit is a copy of a letter of the king of Ugarit to Ramesses II concerning money paid by "the sons of the land of Ugarit" to the "foreman of the sons of the land of Canaan (*kn'ny)" According to Jonathan Tubb, this suggests that the people of Ugarit, contrary to much modern opinion, considered themselves to be non-Canaanite. The other Ugarit reference, KTU 4.96, shows a list of traders assigned to royal estates, one of the estates having three Ugaritans, an Ashdadite, an Egyptian and a Canaanite.

Ashur tablets

A Middle Assyrian letter during the reign of Shalmaneser I includes a reference to the "travel to Canaan" of an Assyrian official.

Hattusa letters

Four references are known from Hattusa:

• An evocation to the Cedar Gods: Includes reference to Canaan alongside Sidon, Tyre and possibly Amurru
• KBo XXVIII 1: Ramesses II letter to Hattusili III, in which Ramesses suggested he would meet "his brother" in Canaan and bring him to Egypt
• KUB III 57 (also KUB III 37 + KBo I 17): Broken text which may refer to Canaan as an Egyptian sub-district
• KBo I 15+19: Ramesses II letter to Hattusili III, describing Ramesses' visit to the "land of Canaan on his way to Kinza and Harita

Bronze Age collapse

Main article: Late Bronze Age collapse

Map of Canaan during the Late Bronze Age

Ann Killebrew has shown that cities such as Jerusalem were large and important walled settlements in the pre-Israelite Middle Bronze IIB and the Israelite Iron Age IIC period (c. 1800–1550 and c. 720–586 BC), but that during the intervening Late Bronze (LB) and Iron Age I and IIA/B Ages sites like Jerusalem were small and relatively insignificant and unfortified towns.

Just after the Amarna period, a new problem arose which was to trouble the Egyptian control of southern Canaan (the rest of the region now being under Assyrian control). Pharaoh Horemhab campaigned against Shasu (Egyptian = "wanderers") living in nomadic pastoralist tribes, who had moved across the Jordan River to threaten Egyptian trade through Galilee and Jezreel. Seti I (c. 1290 BC) is said to have conquered these Shasu, Semitic-speaking nomads living just south and east of the Dead Sea, from the fortress of Taru (Shtir?) to "Ka-n-'-na". After the near collapse of the Battle of Kadesh, Rameses II had to campaign vigorously in Canaan to maintain Egyptian power. Egyptian forces penetrated into Moab and Ammon, where a permanent fortress garrison (called simply "Rameses") was established.

Some believe the "Habiru" signified generally all the nomadic tribes known as "Hebrews", and particularly the early Israelites of the period of the "judges", who sought to appropriate the fertile region for themselves. However, the term was rarely used to describe the Shasu. Whether the term may also include other related ancient Semitic-speaking peoples such as the Moabites, Ammonites and Edomites is uncertain.

There is little evidence that any major city or settlement in the southern Levant was destroyed around 1200 BC. At Lachish, The Fosse Temple III was ritually terminated while a house in Area S appears to have burned in a house fire as the most severe evidence of burning was next to two ovens while no other part of the city had evidence of burning. After this though the city was rebuilt in a grander fashion than before. For Megiddo, most parts of the city did not have any signs of damage and it is only possible that the palace in Area AA might have been destroyed though this is not certain. While the monumental structures at Hazor were indeed destroyed, this destruction was in the mid-13th century BC long before the end of the Late Bronze Age began. However, many sites were not burned to the ground around 1200 BC including: Asqaluna, Ashdod_(ancient_city), Tell es-Safi, Tel Batash, Tel Burna, Tel Dor, Tel Gerisa, Tell Jemmeh, Khirbet Rabud, Tel Zeror, and Tell Abu Hawam among others.

Despite many theories which claim that trade relations broke down after 1200 BC in the southern Levant, there is ample evidence that trade with other regions continued after the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant. Archaeologist Jesse Millek has shown that while the common assuption is that trade in Cypriot and Mycenaean pottery ended around 1200 BC, trade in Cypriot pottery actually largely came to an end at 1300, while for Mycenaean pottery, this trade ended at 1250 BC, and destruction around 1200 BC could not have affected either pattern of international trade since it ended before the end of the Late Bronze Age. He has also demonstrated that trade with Egypt continued after 1200 BC. Archaeometallurgical studies performed by various teams have also shown that trade in tin, a non-local metal necessary to make bronze, did not stop or decrease after 1200 BC, even though the closest source of the metal were modern Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, or perhaps even Cornwall, England. Lead from Sardinia was still being imported to the southern Levant after 1200 BC during the early Iron Age.

Iron Age

Levant (c. 830 BC)

Main article: History of ancient Israel and Judah

By the Early Iron Age, the southern Levant came to be dominated by the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, besides the Philistine city-states on the Mediterranean coast, and the kingdoms of Moab, Ammon, and Aram-Damascus east of the Jordan River, and Edom to the south. The northern Levant was divided into various petty kingdoms, the so-called Syro-Hittite states and the Phoenician city-states.

The entire region (including all Phoenician/Canaanite and Aramean states, together with Israel, Philistia, and Samaria) was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the 10th and 9th centuries BC, and would remain so for three hundred years until the end of the 7th century BC. Emperor-kings such as Ashurnasirpal, Adad-nirari II, Sargon II, Tiglath-Pileser III, Esarhaddon, Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal came to dominate Canaanite affairs. During the Twenty-fifth Dynasty the Egyptians made a failed attempt to regain a foothold in the region, but were vanquished by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, leading to an Assyrian conquest of Egypt.

Between 616 and 605 BC the Neo-Assyrian Empire collapsed due to a series of bitter civil wars, followed by an attack by an alliance of Babylonians, Medes, and Persians and the Scythians. The Neo-Babylonian Empire inherited the western part of the empire, including all the lands in Canaan and Syria, together with Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. They successfully defeated the Egyptians and remained in the region in an attempt to regain a foothold in the Near East.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire itself collapsed in 539 BC, and the region became a part of the Achaemenid Empire. It remained so until in 332 BC it was conquered by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, later to fall to the Roman Empire in the late 2nd century BC, and then Byzantium, until the Arab conquest in the 7th century AD.

Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic (1500–1000 BC)

Further information: Timeline of the name Palestine

The name "Canaan" occurs in hieroglyphs as k3nˁnˁ on the Merneptah Stele in the 13th century BC

During the 2nd millennium BC, Ancient Egyptian texts use the term "Canaan" to refer to an Egyptian-ruled colony, whose boundaries generally corroborate the definition of Canaan found in the Hebrew Bible, bounded to the west by the Mediterranean Sea, to the north in the vicinity of Hamath in Syria, to the east by the Jordan Valley, and to the south by a line extended from the Dead Sea to around Gaza. Nevertheless, the Egyptian and Hebrew uses of the term are not identical: the Egyptian texts also identify the coastal city of Qadesh in north west Syria near Turkey as part of the "Land of Canaan", so that the Egyptian usage seems to refer to the entire Levantine coast of the Mediterranean Sea, making it a synonym of another Egyptian term for this coastland, Retjenu.

Lebanon, in northern Canaan, bordered by the Litani river to the watershed of the Orontes River, was known by the Egyptians as upper Retjenu. In Egyptian campaign accounts, the term Djahi was used to refer to the watershed of the Jordan river. Many earlier Egyptian sources also mention numerous military campaigns conducted in Ka-na-na, just inside Asia.

Ramesses III prisoner tiles depicting Canaanites and Shasu Leader captives

Archaeological attestation of the name "Canaan" in Ancient Near Eastern sources relates almost exclusively to the period in which the region operated as a colony of the New Kingdom of Egypt (16th–11th centuries BC), with usage of the name almost disappearing following the Late Bronze Age collapse (c. 1206–1150 BC). The references suggest that during this period the term was familiar to the region's neighbors on all sides, although scholars have disputed to what extent such references provide a coherent description of its location and boundaries, and regarding whether the inhabitants used the term to describe themselves.

16 references are known in Egyptian sources, from the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt onwards.

• Amenhotep II inscriptions: Canaanites are included in a list of prisoners of war
• Three topographical lists
• Papyrus Anastasi I 27,1" refers to the route from Sile to Gaza "the [foreign countries] of the end of the land of Canaan"
• Merneptah Stele
• Papyrus Anastasi IIIA 5–6 and Papyrus Anastasi IV 16,4 refer to "Canaanite slaves from Hurru"
• Papyrus Harris After the collapse of the Levant under the so-called "Peoples of the Sea" Ramesses III (c. 1194 BC) is said to have built a temple to the god Amen to receive tribute from the southern Levant. This was described as being built in Pa-Canaan, a geographical reference whose meaning is disputed, with suggestions that it may refer to the city of Gaza or to the entire Egyptian-occupied territory in the south west corner of the Near East.

Greco-Roman historiography

Further information: Syria Phoenicia and Palestine

The Greek term Phoenicia is first attested in the first two works of Western literature, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. It does not occur in the Hebrew Bible, but occurs three times in the New Testament in the Book of Acts. In the 6th century BC, Hecataeus of Miletus affirms that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα, a name that Philo of Byblos subsequently adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards called Phoinix". Quoting fragments attributed to Sanchuniathon, he relates that Byblos, Berytus and Tyre were among the first cities ever built, under the rule of the mythical Cronus, and credits the inhabitants with developing fishing, hunting, agriculture, shipbuilding and writing.

Coins of the city of Beirut / Laodicea bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan"; these coins are dated to the reign of Antiochus IV (175–164 BC) and his successors until 123 BC.

Coin of Alexander II Zabinas with the inscription "Laodikeia, metropole of Canaan"

Saint Augustine also mentions that one of the terms the seafaring Phoenicians called their homeland was "Canaan". Augustine also records that the rustic people of Hippo in North Africa retained the Punic self-designation Chanani. Since 'punic' in Latin also meant 'non-Roman', some scholars however argue that the language referred to as Punic in Augustine may have been Libyan.

The Greeks also popularized the term Palestine, named after the Philistines or the Aegean Pelasgians, for roughly the region of Canaan, excluding Phoenicia, with Herodotus' first recorded use of Palaistinê, c. 480 BC. From 110 BC, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of the region, creating a Judean-Samaritan-Idumaean-Ituraean-Galilean alliance. The Judean (Jewish, see Ioudaioi) control over the wider area resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea, a term that had previously only referred to the smaller region of the Judean Mountains, the allotment of the Tribe of Judah and heartland of the former Kingdom of Judah. Between 73–63 BC, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BC, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. Around 130–135 AD, as a result of the suppression of the Bar Kochba revolt, the province of Iudaea was joined with Galilee to form new province of Syria Palaestina. There is circumstantial evidence linking Hadrian with the name change, although the precise date is not certain, and the interpretation of some scholars that the name change may have been intended "to complete the dissociation with Judaea" is disputed.

Later sources

Padiiset's Statue is the last known Egyptian reference to Canaan, a small statuette labelled "Envoy of the Canaan and of Peleset, Pa-di-Eset, the son of Apy". The inscription is dated to 900–850 BC, more than 300 years after the preceding known inscription.

During the period from c. 900–330 BC, the dominant Neo-Assyrian and Achaemenid Empire make no mention of Canaan.

Canaanites

The Canaanites were the inhabitants of ancient Canaan, a region that roughly corresponds to present-day Israel and Palestine, western Jordan, southern and coastal Syria, Lebanon, and continued up to the southern border of Turkey. They are believed to have been one of the oldest civilizations in human history.

History

The Levant was inhabited by people who referred to the land as ka-na-na-um as early as the mid-third millennium BC. The Akkadian word "kinahhu" referred to the purple-coloured wool, dyed from the Murex molluscs of the coast—which was a key export of the region. When the ancient Greeks later traded with the Canaanites, this meaning of the word seems to have predominated, as they referred to the Canaanites as Phoenikes (Φοίνικες; Phoenicians), which may derive from the Greek-language word "phoenix" (φοίνιξ; transl. "crimson" or "purple"), and also described the cloth for which the Greeks traded. The word "phoenix" was transcribed by the Romans to "poenus"; the descendants of the Canaanite settlers in Carthage were likewise referred to as Punic.

Thus, while "Phoenician" and "Canaanite" refer to the same culture, archaeologists and historians commonly refer to the Bronze Age pre-1200 BC Levantine peoples as Canaanites, while their Iron Age descendants, particularly those living on the coast, are referred to as Phoenicians. More recently, the term "Canaanite" has been used for the secondary Iron Age states of the Levantine interior that were not ruled by Aramean peoples, that is, that were ruled by a separate and closely related ethnic group which included the Philistines and the Israelite kingdoms of Israel and Judah.

Culture

Further information: Canaanite languages and Canaanite religion

Enthroned deity; 14–13th century BC; bronze and gold foil; height: 12.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

According to archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb, "Ammonites, Moabites, Israelites, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC."

There is uncertainty about whether the name "Canaan" refers to a specific Semitic-speaking ethnic group wherever they live, the homeland of this ethnic group, a region under the control of this ethnic group, or perhaps any combination of the three.

Canaanite civilization was a response to long periods of stable climate interrupted by short periods of climate change. During these periods, Canaanites profited from their intermediary position between the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia), the Hittites, and Minoan Crete—to become city states of merchant princes along the coast, with small kingdoms specializing in agricultural products in the interior. This polarity, between coastal towns and agrarian hinterland, was illustrated in Canaanite mythology by the struggle between the storm god, variously called Teshub (Hurrian) or Ba'al Hadad (Semitic Amorite/Aramean) and Ya'a, Yaw, or Yam, god of the sea and rivers. Early Canaanite civilization was characterized by small walled market towns, surrounded by peasant farmers growing a range of local horticultural products, along with commercial growing of olives, grapes for wine, and pistachios, surrounded by extensive grain cropping, predominantly wheat and barley. Harvest in early summer was a season when transhumance nomadism was practiced—shepherds staying with their flocks during the wet season and returning to graze them on the harvested stubble, closer to water supplies in the summer. Evidence of this cycle of agriculture is found in the Gezer calendar and in the biblical cycle of the year.

Periods of rapid climate change generally saw a collapse of this mixed Mediterranean farming system; commercial production was replaced with subsistence agricultural foodstuffs; and transhumance pastoralism became a year-round nomadic pastoral activity, whilst tribal groups wandered in a circular pattern north to the Euphrates, or south to the Egyptian delta with their flocks. Occasionally, tribal chieftains would emerge, raiding enemy settlements and rewarding loyal followers from the spoils or by tariffs levied on merchants. Should the cities band together and retaliate, a neighbouring state intervene or should the chieftain suffer a reversal of fortune, allies would fall away or intertribal feuding would return. It has been suggested that the Patriarchal tales of the Bible reflect such social forms.

Since 3100 BC, most Canaanites, particularly those that lived in Palestine, lived in walled settlements in the plains and coastal regions. These settlements were surrounded by mud-brick fortifications and agricultural hamlets, which the inhabitants relied on for food. In 2nd millennium BC, urban Canaanite elites ruled over rural and pastoral areas. The material culture of the city-states was relatively uniform. New burial customs were implicitly influenced by a belief in the afterlife.

В периоды распада Аккадской империи в Месопотамии и первого промежуточного периода Египта , вторжений гиксосов и конца среднего бронзового века в Ассирии и Вавилонии, а также краха позднего бронзового века торговля через ханаанскую территорию сокращалась. поскольку Египет, Вавилония и, в меньшей степени , Ассирия оказались в изоляции. Когда климат стабилизируется, торговля возобновится сначала вдоль побережья, в районе филистимских и финикийских городов. По мере переустройства рынков открывались новые торговые пути, которые позволили бы избежать тяжелых прибрежных пошлин, от Кадеш-Варни через Хеврон , Лахис , Иерусалим , Вефиль , Самарию , Сихем , Силом через Галилею в Изреель , Ацор и Мегиддо . В этом регионе будут развиваться второстепенные ханаанские города. Дальнейшее экономическое развитие приведет к созданию третьего торгового пути из Эйлата , Тимны , Эдома ( Сеира ), Моава , Аммона и оттуда в арамейские государства Дамаск и Пальмира . Более ранние государства (например, филистимляне и Тирианцы в случае Иуды и Самарии (второй путь) и Иудеи и Израиля (третий путь) пытались в целом безуспешно контролировать внутреннюю торговлю.

В конце концов, процветание этой торговли привлекло бы более могущественных соседей по региону, таких как Древний Египет , Ассирия , вавилоняне, персы , древние греки и римляне , которые будут контролировать хананеев политически, взимая дань, налоги и пошлины. Часто в такие периоды тщательный перевыпас приводил к климатическому коллапсу и повторению цикла (например, уже упомянутые циклы ППНБ , Гассулиана , Урука и бронзового века ). Падение более поздней ханаанской цивилизации произошло с включением этой территории в греко-римский мир (как провинция Иудея ), а после византийских времен - в халифат Омейядов . На западноарамейском языке , одном из двух лингва франков ханаанской цивилизации, до сих пор говорят в ряде небольших сирийских деревень, тогда как финикийский ханаанский язык исчез как разговорный примерно в 100 году нашей эры. На отдельном Ирана , восточно-арамейском языке, , северо - пропитанном аккадским языком, до сих пор говорят существующие ассирийцы Ирака восточной Сирии и юго-восточной Турции .

В Тель-Кабри находятся руины ханаанского города среднего бронзового века (2000–1550 гг. До н.э.). В центре города, самого важного из городов Западной Галилеи того периода, находился дворец. Тель-Кабри — единственный ханаанский город, который можно раскопать целиком, поскольку после того, как город был заброшен, на его руинах не было построено ни одного другого города. Это примечательно тем, что преобладающим внеханаанским культурным влиянием является Минойская культура ; Дворец украшают фрески в минойском стиле.

Значительные цифры

Дополнительная информация: Короли Угарита и король Тира.

Фигуры, упомянутые в историографии или известные благодаря археологии.

Правители Угарита

• Аммиттамру I из Угарита (письма Амарны)
• Никмадду II из Угарита (письма Амарны) (1349–1315 до н.э.)
• Архалба из Угарита (1315–1313 до н.э.)
• Никмепа из Угарита (1313–1260 до н.э.)
• Аммиттамру II из Угарита (1260–1235 до н.э.)
• Ибаран из Угарита (1235–1220 до н.э.)
• Аммурапи из Угарита (1215–1185 до н.э.)

Правители Тира

• Авиваал 990–978 до н. э.
• Хирам I 978–944 гг. До н.э.
• Баал-Эзер I (Бальбацер I) 944–927 гг. до н.э.
• Абдастарт 927–918 до н. э.
• Астарим 906–897 до н.э.
• Феллес 897–896 до н.э.
• Итобаал I 896–863 до н.э.
• Баал-Эзер II (Бальбацер II) 863–829 гг. до н.э.
• Ковер I 829–820 гг. до н.э.
• Пигмалион 820–774 гг. до н.э.
• Итобаал II 750–739 до н. э.
• Хирам II 739–730 до н.э.
• Июль 729 694 г. до н.э.
• Ваал I 680–660 до н. э.
• Абар 563–562 до н.э.
• Абдемон ок. 420–411 гг. до н.э.

Другие

• Азиру , правитель Амурру (письма Амарны)
• Лабая , господин Сихема (письма Амарны)
• Абди-Хеба , местный вождь доизраильского Иерусалима ( Иевуса ) (письма Амарны)
• Шувардата , царь ханаанского города Гат или «мэр» Килту (письма Амарны)
• Кронос (Илус), основатель Библоса согласно Санчуниатону

Генетические исследования

Смотрите также: Генетическая история Ближнего Востока , Финикии § Генетические исследования и израильтян § Генетика.

Исследование пяти ханаанских скелетов, проведенное в 2017 году, показало, что примерно половина генов скелетов произошла от сельскохозяйственных поселенцев в Леванте около 10 000 лет назад. Другая половина была из населения, связанного с Ираном, которое, по оценкам исследователей, прибыло в Левант примерно 5000 лет назад.

Хаджей (2018) показал, что при использовании генов HLA левантийские арабы, такие как палестинцы , сирийцы , ливанцы и иорданцы , представляли собой близкородственные популяции с общим ханаанским происхождением. У них была общая географическая территория, которая позже была разрушена британской и французской колонизацией XIX века. Их ханаанские предки пришли из Северной Африки или Аравийского полуострова через Египет в 3300 г. до н. э. и поселились на низменностях Леванта после распада Гасула в 3800–3350 гг. до н. э. Левантийские арабы также были связаны с населением Восточного Средиземноморья , таким как турки , греки и критяне , египтяне и иранцы , что можно объяснить высоким миграционным потоком между левантийскими субрегионами. Однако левантийские арабы были генетически далеки от населения Аравийского полуострова, такого как саудовцы , кувейтцы и йемини, 7-го века до исламских завоеваний .

Агранат-Тамир и др. (2020) заявили, что хананеи от промежуточного бронзового века (ок. 2500–2000 до н. э.) до позднего железного века I (ок. 1000 до н. э.) были генетически похожи друг на друга. Они жили в современном Израиле, Иордании и Ливане и могли быть смоделированы как «смесь местного населения раннего неолита и населения северо-восточной части Ближнего Востока (т.е. гор Загроса , кавказцев / армян и, возможно, хурритов )». Исключением являются жители Сидона , Авель-Бет-Маахи и Ашкелона , жившие во 2-м тысячелетии до нашей эры, которые были относительно разнородными из-за притока из восточного средиземноморского бассейна . Жители Баака в Иордании также, вероятно, имеют примесь из «групп восточной пустыни». После бронзового века произошло добавление компонентов, связанных с Европой и Восточной Африкой , которые были представлены европейцами позднего неолита и бронзового века и сомалийцами , с градиентом север-юг и юг-север соответственно. Большинство современных еврейских и левантийских арабоязычных групп имеют 50% или более предков от народов, которые были связаны с левантийцами бронзового века и группами Загроса эпохи энеолита. Но у них есть другие предки, которые невозможно смоделировать с помощью доступных данных древней ДНК.

Альмарри и др. (2021) заявили, что левантийцы и арабы разошлись друг с другом еще до периода неолита, при этом левантийцы переняли оседлый сельскохозяйственный образ жизни. В бронзовом веке иммигранты древнего иранского происхождения заменили около 50% местного левантийского происхождения. Считалось, что они привнесли гаплогруппу J1 , которой не было у более ранних левантийцев. После бронзового века была введена родословная восточных охотников-собирателей (EHG) , что совпало с приходом народов юго-восточного европейского и анатолийского происхождения. Современные левантийцы имеют значительно более высокое происхождение от EHG, чем арабы.

Лазаридис и др. (2022) пояснили, что у древних левантийцев и их потомков наблюдается уменьшение на ~8% местного неолитического происхождения, которое в основном является натуфийским , каждое тысячелетие, начиная с докерамического неолита и заканчивая средневековым периодом. Его в значительной степени заменили предки, связанные с Кавказом и Анатолией , с севера и запада соответственно. Однако, несмотря на снижение натуфийского компонента, этот ключевой источник происхождения внес важный вклад в народы более поздних периодов, продолжающийся до настоящего времени.

Карта Ханаана 1692 года работы Филипа Ли.

В еврейских и христианских писаниях

Еврейская Библия

Ханаан и хананеи упоминаются около 160 раз в еврейской Библии , в основном в Торе и книгах Иисуса Навина и Судей .

Они произошли от Ханаана , который был сыном Хама и внуком Ноя . Ханаан был проклят на вечное рабство, потому что его отец Хам «взглянул» на пьяного и обнаженного Ноя. Выражение «взглянуть» иногда имеет в Библии сексуальный подтекст, как, например, в книге Левит 20:11: «Человек, который ляжет с женой отца своего, открыл наготу отца своего...» В результате толкователи предложили множество вариантов возможности относительно того, какой вид правонарушения был совершен Хэмом, включая возможность кастрации, гомосексуального изнасилования или материнского инцеста. Однако некоторые полагают, что Ханаан был виновником преступления, основываясь на окружающих стихах.

Согласно Таблице народов , Ханаан также был предком других народов, которые в совокупности считались ханаанскими:

Ханаан — отец Сидона , его первенца; а из хеттеев, иевусеев , амореев , гиргашитов , евеев , аркитян , синеев , арвадеев , земариев и хаматеев . Позже ханаанские кланы рассеялись, и границы Ханаана простирались [через побережье Средиземного моря] от Сидона до Герара до Газы , а затем [внутри страны вокруг долины реки Иордан ] до Содома, Гоморры , Адмы и Севоима до Лаши .

- Бытие 10: 15–19.

Другие отрывки Библии предлагают разные списки точных названий ханаанских племен. Например, в Бытие 15:19–21 перечислены кенеи , кенизеи , кадмонитяне , хеттеи , феризеи , рефаимы , амореи , хананеи , гиргашиты и иевусеи . Хотя в Исходе 3:8 перечислены только хананеи, хеттеи, аморреи, перизееи, евеи и Иевусеянин. То, как эти другие библейские списки ханаанских племен согласуются с генеалогическим списком сыновей Ханаана , является предметом многочисленных дискуссий. Далее утверждалось, что библейский термин «ханаанский» на самом деле является синекдохой , которая относится как к более широкой ханаанской нации, так и к конкретному ханаанскому племени внутри этой нации.

Современные ученые считают библейский этногенез Ханаана проблематичным, поскольку существуют археологические и лингвистические свидетельства, свидетельствующие о том, что древние израильтяне сами были хананеями. В частности, они были частью ханаанской культуры. Альтернативно, другие ученые предполагают, что израильтяне произошли от шасу и других полукочевых народов из пустынных регионов к югу от Леванта , лишь позже поселившись в горной местности Ханаана. Было также высказано предположение, что миф о хамитском происхождении может быть отсылкой к колонизации Ханаана египтянами в позднем бронзовом веке, которые, согласно еврейской Библии, были хамитами.

Брайан Р. Доук утверждает, что «хананеи» не обязательно относятся к прямым кровным потомкам Ханаана. Вместо этого оно относится ко всем древним народам, поселившимся в географическом регионе Ханаана, включая израильтян. Фактически, в Бытие 10:15–19 и Бытие 15:18–21 пересекаются только пять народов . В повествованиях о завоевании и Ездре-Неемии «хананеи» не обязательно являются этнонимом, а дескриптором неизраильских хананеев, которые воплощают «символ(ы) религиозных практик, которых Израиль должен избегать», или всех идолопоклонников в Ханаане, включая израильтян. Подобный подход используется и в более поздней иудео-христианской литературе.

Кроме того, библеист Дэвид Франкель утверждает, что повествование в Книге Паралипоменон слабо указывает на историческую реальность этногенеза Израиля. В этом тексте делается ссылка на установленное присутствие израильтян в Ханаане до завоевания Иисусом Навином, которое в основном состояло из ефремлян .

Согласно еврейской Библии, Ханаан находился к западу от реки Иордан . Хананеи были описаны как живущие «у моря и по берегу Иордана» ( Книга Чисел 13:29). и «вокруг Иордана» ( Книга Иисуса Навина 22:9). Точнее, они населяли побережье Средиземного моря ( Иисус Навин 5:1 ), включая Ливан, соответствующий Финикии ( Исайя 23:11 ), сектор Газа , соответствующий Филистии ( Софония 2:5 ), и долину реки Иордан ( Иисус Навин 11:3 , Числа) . 13:29 , Бытие 13:12 ). В Числах 34:3–12 указаны еще более конкретные границы , которые охватывали территорию, которая по древним меркам считалась «маленькой».

Джон Н. Освальт отмечает, что «Ханаан состоит из земли к западу от Иордана и отличается от территории к востоку от Иордана». Затем Освальт говорит, что в Священном Писании Ханаан «принимает теологический характер» как «земля, которая является даром Божьим» и «место изобилия».

Хотя жителей Ханаана называют хананеями, их также называют амореями , подобно гражданам многоэтнического Советского Союза, которых называют русскими, и хефеями/хеттами . Согласно некоторым ранним теориям, Авраам , предок израильтян, скорее всего, был амореем-арамейцем.

Завоевание Ханаана

Дополнительная информация: Девтерономист § Девтерономическая история и Семь народов (Библия).

Яхве обещает землю Ханаанскую Аврааму в Книге Бытия и в конечном итоге передает ее потомкам Авраама , израильтянам . Еврейская Библия описывает завоевание Ханаана израильтянами в « Бывших пророках » ( Невиим Ришоним , נביאים ראשונים ‎), а именно. книги Иисуса Навина , Судей , Самуила и Царств . В этих книгах рассказывается о жизни израильтян после смерти Моисея и их входа в Ханаан под предводительством Иисуса Навина . Переименование Земли Ханаанской в ​​Землю Израиля знаменует Израилем завоевание Земли Обетованной .

Говорят, что хананеи ( иврит : כנענים , современный :   кнааним , тиверийцы :   кэнаним ) были одним из семи «народов», изгнанных израильтянами после Исхода . Другими народами были хеттеи, гиргашиты, амореи, феризеи , хивеи и иевусеи ( Второзаконие 7:1 ). Одна из 613 заповедей ни одного жителя городов шести ханаанских народов, упомянутых в 7:1, за исключением гиргашитов . предписывает, чтобы в живых не оставалось ( Второзаконие 20:16 ).

Царство Израиля и Иуды

После завоевания Ханаана израильтянами Ханаан существовал как критархия , а затем как монархия. При израильской монархии израильские племена были объединены в одно царство . Однако оно раскололось на Израильское царство и Иудейское царство .

В 738 году до нашей эры Неоассирийская империя завоевала Израильское царство. В 586 году до нашей эры Иудейское царство было присоединено к Нововавилонской империи . Город Иерусалим пал после осады , которая длилась восемнадцать или тридцать месяцев. К 586 году до нашей эры большая часть Иудеи была опустошена, а в бывшем царстве произошел резкий упадок экономики и населения.

Значительные цифры

Персонажи еврейской Библии

• Ханаан, сын Хама (Быт. 10:6)
• Сидон , первенец Ханаана (Быт. 10:15)
• Хет , сын Ханаана (Быт. 10:15)
• Сигон , царь амореев (Второзаконие 1:4)
• И , царь Васанский (Второзаконие 1:4)
• Адониседек , царь Иерусалима (Нав. 10:1)
• Давир , царь Еглона (Нав. 10:3)
• Иавин , имя двух царей Асора (Нав. 11:1; Судей 5:6).

Новый Завет

«Ханаан» ( древнегреческий : Χανάαν , латинизированный : Ханаан ) используется в Новом Завете только дважды: оба раза в Деяниях Апостолов при перефразировании историй Ветхого Завета . Кроме того, производное «Хананая» ( Χαναναία , «хананеянка») используется в версии Матфея об экзорцизме дочери сирофиникиянки , тогда как в Евангелии от Марка используется термин «сирофиникиянка» ( Συροφοινίκισσα ). Подразумевается, что авторы Нового Завета считали всех нееврейских жителей северного побережья Ханаана ханаанцами.

Использование имени

К периоду Второго Храма (530 г. до н. э. – 70 г. н. э.) слово «хананеи» в еврейском языке стало не этническим обозначением, а скорее общим синонимом слова « торговец », как оно интерпретируется, например, в Книге Иова 40:30 или Книги Притчей 31:24.

Имя «хананеи» засвидетельствовано как эндоним народа, позже известного древним грекам с ок. 500 г. до н. э., финикийцы, и после эмиграции носителей ханаанского языка в Карфаген (основанный в 9 веке до нашей эры) также использовался в качестве самоназвания пуниками ( чанани ) Северной Африки во время поздней античности .

Септуагинта (3-й и 2-й века до н.э.) в основном передает Ханаан как Χαναάν ( Ханаан ), но в двух случаях как «Финикию» ( Исх. 16:35 и Нав. 5:12).

Наследие

«Ханаан» используется как синоним Земли Обетованной ; например, он используется в этом смысле в гимне «Счастливый берег Ханаана» со строками : «О, братья, вы встретите меня, (3 раза) / На счастливом берегу Ханаана», гимн, настроенный на мелодию, использованную позже в «Боевом гимне Республики» .

В 1930-х и 1940-х годах некоторые ревизионистские сионистские интеллектуалы в Подмандатной Палестине основали идеологию ханаанства , которая стремилась создать уникальную еврейскую идентичность, укорененную в древней ханаанской культуре, а не в еврейской.

Премьер-министр Израиля Давид Бен-Гурион заметил противоречия между светскими и библейскими записями о еврейском происхождении Ханаана, что, тем не менее, было подтверждено в Декларации независимости . Хотя он использовал светские аргументы для оправдания еврейского происхождения, он утверждал, что библейский рассказ о переселении Авраама в Ханаан был «воссоединением с коренными евреями, которые разделяли его богословские убеждения». Он также утверждал, что не все евреи присоединились к семье Иакова , когда они переселились в Египет и позже породили поколение евреев, пережившее Исход . Некоторые профессора находят эту точку зрения обоснованной, основываясь на 1 Паралипоменон 7:20–24 , в которой сохранились неортодоксальные традиции еврейского коренного населения.

См. также

• Письма Амарны – местности и их правители
• Археология Израиля
• Ханаанские и арамейские надписи
• Ханаанские ворота древнего Телля
• Ханаанский сдвиг
• Проклятие Ханаана
• Имена Леванта
• Протоханаанский алфавит
• Кнаная
• Угарит
• Южный Левант
• Яхвизм

Источники

• В эту статью включен текст из публикации, которая сейчас находится в свободном доступе : Чейн, Томас Келли (1911). « Ханаан, Хананеи ». В Чисхолме, Хью (ред.). Британская энциклопедия . Том. 5 (11-е изд.). Издательство Кембриджского университета. стр. 140–142.
• Дрюс, Роберт (1998). «Хананеи и филистимляне». Журнал для изучения Ветхого Завета . 23 (81): 39–61. дои : 10.1177/030908929802308104 . S2CID   144074940 .
• Эмбер, Мелвин ; Перегрин, Питер Нил , ред. (2002). «Энциклопедия предыстории: Том 8: Южная и Юго-Западная Азия». Энциклопедия предыстории . Том. 8: Южная и Юго-Западная Азия. Нью-Йорк; Лондон: Kluwer Academic/Пленум. п. 103. ИСБН  0-306-46262-1 .
• Голден, Джонатан М. (2009). Древний Ханаан и Израиль: Введение . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  978-0-19-537985-3 .
• Гольденберг, Дэвид М. (2005). «Что Хам сделал с Ноем?» . В Штембергере, Гюнтер; Перани, Мауро (ред.). Слова уст мудрого человека милостивы . Вальтер де Грюйтер. ISBN  9783110188493 .
• Киллебрю, Энн Э. (2005). Библейские народы и этническая принадлежность . СБЛ. ISBN  978-1-58983-097-4 .
• Лемче, Нильс-Петер (1991). Хананеи и их земля: традиция хананеев Континуум. ISBN  978-0-567-45111-8 .
• Нааман, Надав (2005). Ханаан во 2-м тысячелетии до нашей эры . Железо-коричневый. ISBN  978-1-57506-113-9 .
• Нолл, КЛ (2001). Ханаан и Израиль в древности: Введение . Континуум. ISBN  978-1-84127-318-1 .
• Шахин, Мариам (2005). Палестина: Путеводитель . Книги Интерлинк. ISBN  1-56656-557-Х – через Интернет-архив .

Дальнейшее чтение

• Епископ Мур, Меган; Келле, Брэд Э. (2011). Библейская история и прошлое Израиля: меняющееся изучение Библии и истории . Эрдманс. ISBN  978-0-8028-6260-0 .
• Бак, Мэри Эллен (2019). Хананеи: их история и культура из текстов и артефактов . Каскадные книги. п. 114. ИСБН  9781532618048 .
• Куган, Майкл Д. (1978). Истории Древнего Ханаана . Вестминстер Пресс. ISBN  978-0-8061-3108-5 .

• Дэй, Джон (2002). Яхве и боги и богини Ханаана . Континуум. ISBN  978-0-8264-6830-7 .

• Финкельштейн, Израиль (1996). «К новой периодизации и номенклатуре археологии Южного Леванта» . В Купере, Джерролд С.; Шварц, Гленн М. (ред.). Исследование Древнего Ближнего Востока в XXI веке . Айзенбрауны. ISBN  978-0-931464-96-6 .

• Смит, Марк С. (2002). Ранняя история Бога . Эрдманс. ISBN  978-9004119437 .
• Табб, Джонатан Н. (1998). Хананеи . Университет Оклахомы Пресс. п. 40 . ISBN  978-0-8061-3108-5 . Хананеи и их земля.

Внешние ссылки

• Ханаан и Древний Израиль , Музей археологии и антропологии Пенсильванского университета. Исследует их идентичность (земля, повседневная жизнь, экономика и религия) в доисторические времена через материальные останки, которые они оставили после себя.
• Католическая энциклопедия .
• «Иудейские древности» Иосифа Флавия.
• Когда хананеи и филистимляне правили Ашкелоном - Общество библейской археологии (архивировано 19 мая 2011 г.)