Город

Чтобы узнать о других значениях, см. Город (значения) .

Сверху слева направо : Вестминстерский дворец в Лондоне ; Перекресток Сибуя в Токио ; картина Бульвар Монмартр в Париже « Камиля Писсарро »; Росинья Жанейро фавела в Рио-де- ; 6-я авеню на Манхэттене ; рынок специй в Старом Дели ; Гонконг ; и метро Сан-Паулу

Город значительных – это населенный пункт размеров. Термин «город» имеет разные значения по всему миру, и в некоторых местах поселение может быть очень маленьким. Даже там, где этот термин ограничивается более крупными поселениями, не существует общепринятого определения нижней границы их размера. В более узком смысле город можно определить как постоянное и густонаселенное место с административно определенными границами, жители которого занимаются в основном несельскохозяйственными задачами. В городах обычно имеются обширные системы жилищного строительства , транспорта , санитарии , коммунальных услуг , землепользования , производства товаров и связи . Их плотность облегчает взаимодействие между людьми, государственными организациями и предприятиями , иногда принося пользу различным сторонам процесса, например, повышая эффективность распределения товаров и услуг.

Исторически горожане составляли небольшую часть человечества в целом, но после двух столетий беспрецедентной и быстрой урбанизации более половины населения мира теперь проживает в городах, что имело глубокие последствия для глобальной устойчивости . Современные города обычно составляют ядро ​​более крупных мегаполисов и городских территорий , создавая множество пассажиров, направляющихся в центры городов в поисках работы, развлечений и образования. Однако в мире усиливающейся глобализации все города в той или иной степени связаны глобально за пределами этих регионов. Это возросшее влияние означает, что города также оказывают значительное влияние на глобальные проблемы , такие как устойчивое развитие , изменение климата и глобальное здравоохранение . Из-за такого серьезного влияния на глобальные проблемы международное сообщество уделило приоритетное внимание инвестициям в устойчивые города в рамках Цели устойчивого развития 11 . Благодаря эффективности транспорта и меньшему потреблению земли , густонаселенные города могут иметь меньший экологический след на одного жителя, чем более малонаселенные районы. Поэтому компактные города часто называют важнейшим элементом борьбы с изменением климата. Однако эта концентрация может также иметь некоторые существенные негативные последствия, такие как образование городских островов тепла , концентрация загрязнения и истощение запасов воды и других ресурсов.

Значение

Палитана представляет собой символическую роль города в преданности джайнским храмам .

Город можно отличить от других населенных пунктов не только своими относительно большими размерами, но также своими функциями и особым символическим статусом , который может быть присвоен центральной властью. Этот термин также может относиться либо к физическим улицам и зданиям города, либо к совокупности людей, которые там живут, и может использоваться в общем смысле для обозначения городской, а не сельской территории .

Национальные переписи населения используют различные определения – с учетом таких факторов, как численность населения , плотность населения , количество жилищ , экономическая функция и инфраструктура – ​​для классификации населения как городского. Типичные рабочие определения численности населения малых городов начинаются примерно со 100 000 человек. Общие определения численности населения городской территории (города или поселка) варьируются от 1500 до 50 000 человек, при этом в большинстве штатов США используется минимум от 1500 до 5000 жителей. В некоторых юрисдикциях такие минимумы не установлены. В Королевстве Соединенном статус города присваивается Короной и затем остается постоянным. (Исторически определяющим фактором было наличие собора , в результате чего некоторые очень маленькие города, такие как Уэллс , с населением 12 000 человек по состоянию на 2018 год , and St Davids, with a population of 1,841 as of 2011.) Согласно «функциональному определению», город отличается не только размером, но и той ролью, которую он играет в более широком политическом контексте. Города служат административными, торговыми, религиозными и культурными центрами для прилегающих к ним территорий.

Наличие грамотной элиты часто ассоциируется с городами из-за культурного разнообразия, присутствующего в городе. Типичный город имеет профессиональных администраторов , правила и некоторую форму налогообложения (еда и другие предметы первой необходимости или средства для их торговли) для поддержки государственных служащих . (Этот механизм контрастирует с более типичными горизонтальными отношениями в племени или деревне, достигающими общих целей посредством неформальных соглашений между соседями или под руководством вождя.) Правительства могут быть основаны на наследственности, религии, военной мощи, рабочих системах, таких как каналы -строительство, распределение продовольствия, землевладение, сельское хозяйство, торговля, производство, финансы или их сочетание. Общества, живущие в городах, часто называют цивилизациями .

Степень урбанизации - это современный показатель, помогающий определить, что включает в себя город: «население не менее 50 000 жителей в смежных плотных ячейках сетки (> 1500 жителей на квадратный километр)». Этот показатель «разрабатывался на протяжении многих лет Европейской комиссией , ОЭСР , Всемирным банком и другими и одобрен в марте [2021 года] Организацией Объединенных Наций … в основном для целей международного статистического сравнения».

Этимология

Слово «город» и связанная с ним цивилизация происходят от латинского корня civitas , первоначально означавшего «гражданство» или «член сообщества», а со временем стало соответствовать слову «urbs », что означает «город» в более физическом смысле. Римское civitas было тесно связано с греческим polis — еще одним общим корнем, встречающимся в таких английских словах, как Metropolis .

В топонимической терминологии названия отдельных городов и поселков называются астионимами (от древнегреческого ἄστυ «город или поселок» и ὄνομα «имя»).

География

Городская география имеет дело как с городами в их более широком контексте, так и с их внутренней структурой. По оценкам, города занимают около 3% поверхности суши Земли.

Сайт

Центр города Питтсбург, и Аллегейни , у слияния рек Мононгахела впадающих в реку Огайо.

Расположение городов на протяжении истории менялось в зависимости от природных, технологических, экономических и военных условий. Доступ к воде уже давно является основным фактором размещения и роста городов, и, несмотря на исключения, ставшие возможными благодаря появлению железнодорожного транспорта в девятнадцатом веке, в настоящее время большая часть городского населения мира проживает вблизи побережья или на реках.

Городские районы, как правило, не могут производить собственные продукты питания и поэтому должны развивать определенные отношения с внутренними районами , которые их поддерживают. Лишь в особых случаях, таких как шахтерские города , которые играют жизненно важную роль в торговле на дальние расстояния, города оторваны от сельской местности, которая их кормит. Таким образом, центральное положение внутри продуктивного региона влияет на размещение, поскольку экономические силы теоретически благоприятствуют созданию рынков в оптимальных взаимодостижимых местах.

Центр

Основная статья: Центр города

Клууви , центр города в Хельсинки , Финляндия.

Подавляющее большинство городов имеют центральную часть, содержащую здания, имеющие особое экономическое, политическое и религиозное значение. Археологи называют эту территорию греческим термином «теменос» , то есть укрепленная цитадель . Эти пространства исторически отражают и усиливают центральное положение города и его важность для более широкой сферы влияния . Сегодня в городах есть центр города или центр города , иногда совпадающий с центральным деловым районом .

Общественное пространство

Трафальгарская площадь , место общественных собраний в центре Лондона.

В городах обычно есть общественные места , куда может пойти каждый. К ним относятся частные пространства, открытые для публики, а также формы общественной земли, такие как общественное достояние и общее достояние . Западная философия со времен греческой агоры рассматривала физическое публичное пространство как субстрат символической публичной сферы . Паблик-арт украшает (или уродует) общественные пространства. Парки и другие природные объекты в городах избавляют жителей от жесткости и регулярности типичной застроенной среды . Городские зеленые насаждения являются еще одним компонентом общественного пространства, который позволяет смягчить эффект городского острова тепла, особенно в городах, расположенных в более теплом климате. Эти пространства предотвращают углеродный дисбаланс, экстремальные потери среды обитания, потребление электроэнергии и воды, а также риски для здоровья человека.

Внутренняя структура

План L'Enfant для Вашингтона, округ Колумбия, сочетает в себе утилитарную сетку с диагональными проспектами и символический акцент на монументальной архитектуре.

Городская структура обычно следует одной или нескольким основным моделям: геоморфической, радиальной, концентрической, прямолинейной и криволинейной. Физическая среда обычно ограничивает форму, в которой построен город. Если городские постройки расположены на склоне горы, они могут опираться на террасы и извилистые дороги. Его можно адаптировать к своим средствам существования (например, сельскому хозяйству или рыболовству). И его можно настроить для оптимальной защиты с учетом окружающего ландшафта. Помимо этих «геоморфических» особенностей, города могут развивать внутренние закономерности вследствие естественного роста или городского планирования .

В радиальной структуре основные дороги сходятся в центральной точке. Эта форма могла развиться в результате последовательного роста в течение длительного времени, когда концентрические следы городских стен и цитаделей обозначали старые границы города. В более поздней истории такие формы были дополнены кольцевыми дорогами, по которым движение транспорта проходило по окраинам города. Голландские города, такие как Амстердам и Харлем, имеют структуру центральной площади, окруженной концентрическими каналами, обозначающими каждое расширение. В таких городах, как Москва , эта закономерность все еще отчетливо видна.

Система прямолинейных городских улиц и земельных участков, известная как план сетки , тысячелетиями использовалась в Азии, Европе и Америке. Цивилизация долины Инда построила Мохенджо-Даро , Хараппу и другие города по сетке, используя древние принципы, описанные Каутильей , и выровняв их по направлениям компаса . Древнегреческий город Приена является примером плана сетки со специализированными районами, используемого по всему эллинистическому Средиземноморью .

Городские районы

Вид с воздуха на столичный район Гуш-Дан в Израиле , показывающий геометрически спланированную планировку. город Тель-Авив (вверху слева), Гиватаим на востоке и часть Бат-Яма на юге.

Поселок городского типа выходит далеко за традиционные границы собственно города. в форме развития, которую иногда критически называют разрастанием городов . Децентрализация и рассредоточение городских функций (торговых, промышленных, жилых, культурных, политических) изменили само значение этого термина и поставили перед географами задачу классифицировать территории по принципу «город-село».

Мегаполисы включают пригороды и пригороды, организованные с учетом потребностей пассажиров , а иногда и окраинные города, характеризующиеся определенной степенью экономической и политической независимости. (В США они сгруппированы в мегаполисные статистические районы в целях демографии и маркетинга .) Некоторые города в настоящее время являются частью непрерывного городского ландшафта, называемого городскими агломерациями , агломерациями или мегаполисами (примером является коридор БосВаш на северо-востоке Соединенных Штатов ).

История

Основная статья: История города

Дополнительная информация: История города , Исторические размеры городских сообществ и Список крупнейших городов за всю историю.

Арку в древнего шумерского города Ур , процветавшего в третьем тысячелетии до нашей эры , можно увидеть в современном Телль-эль-Мукайяре Ираке .

Мохенджо-Даро , город цивилизации долины Инда в Пакистане , который перестраивался шесть и более раз с использованием кирпичей стандартного размера и придерживаясь одной и той же схемы сетки — также в третьем тысячелетии до нашей эры.

Вид с воздуха на то, что когда-то было центром Теотиуакана: пирамиды Солнца , пирамиды Луны и проспект процессий, служащий основой городской уличной системы.

Возникновение городов из протогородских поселений , таких как Чатал-Хююк , представляет собой нелинейное развитие, демонстрирующее разнообразный опыт ранней урбанизации .

Города Иерихон , Алеппо , Файюм , Ереван , Афины , Матера , Дамаск и Аргос относятся к числу городов, претендующих на самое продолжительное постоянное заселение .

Города, характеризующиеся плотностью населения , символической функцией и городским планированием , существовали на протяжении тысячелетий. С общепринятой точки зрения, за цивилизацией и городом последовало развитие сельского хозяйства , которое сделало возможным производство излишков продовольствия и, таким образом, социальное разделение труда (с сопутствующим социальным расслоением ) и торговлю . В ранних городах часто были зернохранилища , иногда внутри храмов. Точка зрения меньшинства считает, что города могли возникнуть без сельского хозяйства из-за альтернативных средств существования (рыбалка). использовать в качестве общественных сезонных убежищ, их ценности как базы для оборонительной и наступательной военной организации, или их неотъемлемой экономической функции. Города играли решающую роль в установлении политической власти на территории, и древние лидеры, такие как Александр Македонский, с рвением основывали и создавали их.

Древние времена

Дополнительная информация: Города Древнего Ближнего Востока , Полис , города-государства и § Города поздней античности.

Современное изображение Древнего Рима , первого города в мире, население которого достигло миллиона человек.

Иерихон и Чатал-Хююк , датируемые восьмым тысячелетием до нашей эры , являются одними из самых ранних протогородов, известных археологам. Тем не менее, месопотамский город Урук середины четвертого тысячелетия до нашей эры (древний Ирак) считается большинством археологов первым настоящим городом, изменившим многие характеристики последующих городов, а его название отнесено к периоду Урука .

В четвертом и третьем тысячелетии до нашей эры сложные цивилизации процветали в речных долинах Месопотамии , Индии , Китай , и Египет . Раскопки в этих областях обнаружили руины городов, ориентированных по-разному на торговлю, политику или религию. Некоторые из них имели большое и плотное население , но другие осуществляли городскую деятельность в сфере политики или религии, не имея большого связанного населения.

Среди ранних городов Старого Света Мохенджо-Даро цивилизации долины Инда на территории современного Пакистана , существовавший примерно с 2600 г. до н.э., был одним из крупнейших, с населением 50 000 и более человек и сложной системой канализации . Планируемые города Китая были построены в соответствии со священными принципами и действовали как небесные микрокосмы .

Древнеегипетские города, физически известные археологам, невелики. К ним относятся (известные под своими арабскими названиями) Эль-Лахун , рабочий город, связанный с пирамидой Сенусрета II , и религиозный город Амарна, построенный Эхнатоном и заброшенный. Эти объекты планируются строго регламентированным и стратифицированным образом, с минималистической сеткой комнат для рабочих и все более изысканным жильем, доступным для более высоких классов.

In Mesopotamia, the civilization of Sumer, followed by Assyria and Babylon, gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostered multiple languages written in cuneiform. Финикийская простирающиеся торговая империя, процветавшая на рубеже первого тысячелетия до нашей эры , охватывала многочисленные города, от Тира , Кидона и Библоса до Карфагена и Кадиса .

In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city. The agora, meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of the athletic, artistic, spiritual, and political life of the polis. Rome was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (Colonia), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.

In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization, Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari, Chimu, and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the Preclassic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec, Andean civilizations, Mayan, Mississippians, and Pueblo peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as Mexico City, in the same location as Tenochtitlan; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in New Mexico, such as Acoma Pueblo near the Albuquerque metropolitan area and Taos Pueblo near Taos; while others like Lima are located nearby ancient Peruvian sites such as Pachacamac.

Jenné-Jeno, located in present-day Mali and dating to the third century BC, lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class—but nevertheless had specialized production and relations with a hinterland. Pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa. Other early urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao.

Middle Ages

Vyborg in Leningrad Oblast has existed since the 13th century.

Old city of Utrecht, Netherlands

The Free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire in 1648

A map of Haarlem in the Netherlands, created around 1550, shows the city completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal, with its square shape inspired by the shape of Jerusalem.

In the remnants of the Roman Empire, cities of late antiquity gained independence but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba. From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million. The Ottoman Empire gradually gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including Constantinople in 1453.

In the Holy Roman Empire, beginning in the 12th century, free imperial cities such as Nuremberg, Strasbourg, Frankfurt, Basel, Zürich, and Nijmegen became a privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lord or having been granted self-governance by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the Imperial Estates governing the empire with the emperor through the Imperial Diet.

By the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy, medieval communes developed into city-states including the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. In Northern Europe, cities including Lübeck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of Ghent, Ypres, and Amsterdam. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai, which enjoyed considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.

In the first millennium AD, the Khmer capital of Angkor in Cambodia grew into the most extensive preindustrial settlement in the world by area, covering over 1,000 km² and possibly supporting up to one million people.

Early modern

In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the Peace of Westphalia in the seventeenth century. Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade. However, most towns remained small.

During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances, and urbanism.

Industrial age

The growth of the modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing. In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas.

Some industrialized cities were confronted with health challenges associated with overcrowding, occupational hazards of industry, contaminated water and air, poor sanitation, and communicable diseases such as typhoid and cholera. Factories and slums emerged as regular features of the urban landscape.

Post-industrial age

In the second half of the 20th century, deindustrialization (or "economic restructuring") in the West led to poverty, homelessness, and urban decay in formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a "Rust Belt" and cities such as Detroit, Michigan, and Gary, Indiana began to shrink, contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion. Such cities have shifted with varying success into the service economy and public-private partnerships, with concomitant gentrification, uneven revitalization efforts, and selective cultural development. Under the Great Leap Forward and subsequent five-year plans continuing today, China has undergone concomitant urbanization and industrialization and become the world's leading manufacturer.

Amidst these economic changes, high technology and instantaneous telecommunication enable select cities to become centers of the knowledge economy. A new smart city paradigm, supported by institutions such as the RAND Corporation and IBM, is bringing computerized surveillance, data analysis, and governance to bear on cities and city dwellers. Some companies are building brand-new master-planned cities from scratch on greenfield sites.

Urbanization

Main article: Urbanization

Graph showing urbanization from 1950 projected to 2050

Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006

Urbanization is the process of migration from rural to urban areas, driven by various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing. With the agricultural and industrial revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration and demographic expansion. In England, the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. In 1900, 15% of the world's population lived in cities. The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.

Urbanization rapidly spread across Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs reported in 2014 that for the first time, more than half of the world population lives in cities.

Latin America is the most urban continent, with four-fifths of its population living in cities, including one-fifth of the population said to live in shantytowns (favelas, poblaciones callampas, etc.). Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China, and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%. In general, the more developed countries of the "Global North" remain more urbanized than the less developed countries of the "Global South"—but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting. The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion city dwellers (and 300 million fewer country dwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.

Megacities, cities with populations in the multi-millions, have proliferated into the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Economic globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign capital arrange for rapid industrialization, as well as the relocation of major businesses from Europe and North America, attracting immigrants from near and far. A deep gulf divides the rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.

Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for residential and commercial use, and with development underground.

Urbanization can create rapid demand for water resources management, as formerly good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and the volume of sewage begins to exceed manageable levels.

Government

Further information: Local government

The city council of Tehran meets in September 2015

The local government of cities takes different forms including prominently the municipality (especially in England, in the United States, India, and other British colonies; legally, the municipal corporation; municipio in Spain and Portugal, and, along with municipalidad, in most former parts of the Spanish and Portuguese empires) and the commune (in France and Chile; or comune in Italy).

The chief official of the city has the title of mayor. Whatever their true degree of political authority, the mayor typically acts as the figurehead or personification of their city.

Legal conflicts and issues arise more frequently in cities than elsewhere due to the bare fact of their greater density. Modern city governments thoroughly regulate everyday life in many dimensions, including public and personal health, transport, burial, resource use and extraction, recreation, and the nature and use of buildings. Technologies, techniques, and laws governing these areas—developed in cities—have become ubiquitous in many areas.Municipal officials may be appointed from a higher level of government or elected locally.

Municipal services

The Dublin Fire Brigade in Dublin, Ireland, extinguishing a severe fire at a hardware store in 1970

Cities typically provide municipal services such as education, through school systems; policing, through police departments; and firefighting, through fire departments; as well as the city's basic infrastructure. These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion. Responsibility for administration usually falls on the city government, but some services may be operated by a higher level of government, while others may be privately run. Armies may assume responsibility for policing cities in states of domestic turmoil such as America's King assassination riots of 1968.

Finance

The traditional basis for municipal finance is local property tax levied on real estate within the city. Local government can also collect revenue for services, or by leasing land that it owns. However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradeable financial public contracts and other related rights). This situation has become acute in deindustrialized cities and in cases where businesses and wealthier citizens have moved outside of city limits and therefore beyond the reach of taxation. Cities in search of ready cash increasingly resort to the municipal bond, essentially a loan with interest and a repayment date. City governments have also begun to use tax increment financing, in which a development project is financed by loans based on future tax revenues which it is expected to yield. Under these circumstances, creditors and consequently city governments place a high importance on city credit ratings.

Governance

The Ripon Building, the headquarters of Greater Chennai Corporation in Chennai, is one of the oldest city governing corporations in Asia.

Governance includes government but refers to a wider domain of social control functions implemented by many actors including non-governmental organizations. The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the "urban regime theory" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of neoliberalism. In the neoliberal model of governance, public utilities are privatized, the industry is deregulated, and corporations gain the status of governing actors—as indicated by the power they wield in public-private partnerships and over business improvement districts, and in the expectation of self-regulation through corporate social responsibility. The biggest investors and real estate developers act as the city's de facto urban planners.

The related concept of good governance places more emphasis on the state, with the purpose of assessing urban governments for their suitability for development assistance. The concepts of governance and good governance are especially invoked in emergent megacities, where international organizations consider existing governments inadequate for their large populations.

Urban planning

Main articles: Urban planning and Urban design

La Plata in Argentina is based on a perfect square with 5196-meter sides, and was designed in the 1880s as the new capital of Buenos Aires Province.

Urban planning, the application of forethought to city design, involves optimizing land use, transportation, utilities, and other basic systems, in order to achieve certain objectives. Urban planners and scholars have proposed overlapping theories as ideals for how plans should be formed. Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and land-use controls such as zoning. The continuous process of comprehensive planning involves identifying general objectives as well as collecting data to evaluate progress and inform future decisions.

Government is legally the final authority on planning but in practice, the process involves both public and private elements. The legal principle of eminent domain is used by the government to divest citizens of their property in cases where its use is required for a project. Planning often involves tradeoffs—decisions in which some stand to gain and some to lose—and thus is closely connected to the prevailing political situation.

The history of urban planning dates to some of the earliest known cities, especially in the Indus Valley and Mesoamerican civilizations, which built their cities on grids and apparently zoned different areas for different purposes. The effects of planning, ubiquitous in today's world, can be seen most clearly in the layout of planned communities, fully designed prior to construction, often with consideration for interlocking physical, economic, and cultural systems.

Society

Social structure

Urban society is typically stratified. Spatially, cities are formally or informally segregated along ethnic, economic, and racial lines. People living relatively close together may live, work, and play in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty, ghettoes. While in the US and elsewhere poverty became associated with the inner city, in France it has become associated with the banlieues, areas of urban development that surround the city proper. Meanwhile, across Europe and North America, the racially white majority is empirically the most segregated group. Suburbs in the West, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of "privatopia" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive neighborhoods.

Landless urban workers, contrasted with peasants and known as the proletariat, form a growing stratum of society in the age of urbanization. In Marxist doctrine, the proletariat will inevitably revolt against the bourgeoisie as their ranks swell with disenfranchised and disaffected people lacking all stake in the status quo. The global urban proletariat of today, however, generally lacks the status of factory workers which in the nineteenth century provided access to the means of production.

Economics

Clusters of skyscrapers in Xinyi Planning District, the centre of commerce and finance of Taipei, the capital of Taiwan

Historically, cities rely on rural areas for intensive farming to yield surplus crops, in exchange for which they provide money, political administration, manufactured goods, and culture. Urban economics tends to analyze larger agglomerations, stretching beyond city limits, in order to reach a more complete understanding of the local labor market.

As hubs of trade, cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption through the interface of shopping. In the 20th century, department stores using new techniques of advertising, public relations, decoration, and design, transformed urban shopping areas into fantasy worlds encouraging self-expression and escape through consumerism.

In general, the density of cities expedites commerce and facilitates knowledge spillovers, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas. A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure and production facilities; however, in very dense cities, increased crowding and waiting times may lead to some negative effects.

Although manufacturing fueled the growth of cities, many now rely on a tertiary or service economy. The services in question range from tourism, hospitality, entertainment, and housekeeping to grey-collar work in law, financial consulting, and administration.

According to a scientific model of cities by Professor Geoffrey West, with the doubling of a city's size, salaries per capita will generally increase by 15%.

Culture and communications

Paris is one of the best-known cities in the world.

Nepalese dancers at Edmonton Heritage Festival, in Alberta, Canada, an example of the cultural diversity of a city

Cities are typically hubs for education and the arts, supporting universities, museums, temples, and other cultural institutions. They feature impressive displays of architecture ranging from small to enormous and ornate to brutal; skyscrapers, providing thousands of offices or homes within a small footprint, and visible from miles away, have become iconic urban features. Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves play some role in governance. By virtue of their status as centers of culture and literacy, cities can be described as the locus of civilization, human history, and social change.

Density makes for effective mass communication and transmission of news, through heralds, printed proclamations, newspapers, and digital media. These communication networks, though still using cities as hubs, penetrate extensively into all populated areas. In the age of rapid communication and transportation, commentators have described urban culture as nearly ubiquitous or as no longer meaningful.

Today, a city's promotion of its cultural activities dovetails with place branding and city marketing, public diplomacy techniques used to inform development strategy; attract businesses, investors, residents, and tourists; and to create shared identity and sense of place within the metropolitan area. Physical inscriptions, plaques, and monuments on display physically transmit a historical context for urban places. Some cities, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, and Rome have indelible religious status and for hundreds of years have attracted pilgrims. Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to visit the World Trade Center. Elvis lovers visit Memphis to pay their respects at Graceland. Place brands (which include place satisfaction and place loyalty) have great economic value (comparable to the value of commodity brands) because of their influence on the decision-making process of people thinking about doing business in—"purchasing" (the brand of)—a city.

Bread and circuses among other forms of cultural appeal, attract and entertain the masses. Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity formation. Cities go to considerable lengths in competing to host the Olympic Games, which bring global attention and tourism. Paris, a city known for its cultural history, is the site of the next Olympics in the summer of 2024.

Warfare

The atomic bombing of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 devastated the city and led to Imperial Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.

Cities play a crucial strategic role in warfare due to their economic, demographic, symbolic, and political centrality. For the same reasons, they are targets in asymmetric warfare. Many cities throughout history were founded under military auspices, a great many have incorporated fortifications, and military principles continue to influence urban design. Indeed, war may have served as the social rationale and economic basis for the very earliest cities.

Powers engaged in geopolitical conflict have established fortified settlements as part of military strategies, as in the case of garrison towns, America's Strategic Hamlet Program during the Vietnam War, and Israeli settlements in Palestine. While occupying the Philippines, the US Army ordered local people to concentrate in cities and towns, in order to isolate committed insurgents and battle freely against them in the countryside.

During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open, effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed. Urban warfare proved decisive, however, in the Battle of Stalingrad, where Soviet forces repulsed German occupiers, with extreme casualties and destruction. In an era of low-intensity conflict and rapid urbanization, cities have become sites of long-term conflict waged both by foreign occupiers and by local governments against insurgency. Such warfare, known as counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as well as close combat, and functionally extends modern urban crime prevention, which already uses concepts such as defensible space.

Although capture is the more common objective, warfare has in some cases spelled complete destruction for a city. Mesopotamian tablets and ruins attest to such destruction, as does the Latin motto Carthago delenda est. Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and throughout the Cold War, nuclear strategists continued to contemplate the use of "counter-value" targeting: crippling an enemy by annihilating its valuable cities, rather than aiming primarily at its military forces.

Climate change

Main article: Climate change and cities

This section is an excerpt from Climate change and cities.[edit]

Jakarta was listed as the most vulnerable city to climate change in a 2021 Verisk Maplecroft study.

Climate change and cities are deeply connected. Cities are one of the greatest contributors and likely best opportunities for addressing climate change. Cities are also one of the most vulnerable parts of the human society to the effects of climate change, and likely one of the most important solutions for reducing the environmental impact of humans. The UN projects that 68% of the world population will live in urban areas by 2050. In the year 2016, 31 mega-cities reported having at least 10 million in their population, 8 of which surpassed 20 million people. However, secondary cities - small to medium size cities (500,000 to 1 million) are rapidly increasing in number and are some of the fastest growing urbanizing areas in the world further contributing to climate change impacts. Cities have a significant influence on construction and transportation—two of the key contributors to global warming emissions. Moreover, because of processes that create climate conflict and climate refugees, city areas are expected to grow during the next several decades, stressing infrastructure and concentrating more impoverished peoples in cities.

Hamburg, Germany, is a large city that has experienced multiple droughts throughout the years, which has led to decreased economic productivity.

High density and urban heat island effect are examples of weather changes that impact cities due to climate change. It also causes exacerbating existing problems such as air pollution, water scarcity, and heat illness in metropolitan areas. Moreover, because most cities have been built on rivers or coastal areas, cities are frequently vulnerable to the subsequent effects of sea level rise, which cause flooding and erosion; these effects are also connected with other urban environmental problems, such as subsidence and aquifer depletion.A report by the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group described consumption based emissions as having significantly more impact than production-based emissions within cities. The report estimates that 85% of the emissions associated with goods within a city is generated outside of that city. Climate change adaptation and mitigation investments in cities will be important in reducing the impacts of some of the largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions: for example, increased density allows for redistribution of land use for agriculture and reforestation, improving transportation efficiencies, and greening construction (largely due to cement's outsized role in climate change and improvements in sustainable construction practices and weatherization).

Infrastructure

Traffic congestion in Bandung in Indonesia

Urban infrastructure involves various physical networks and spaces necessary for transportation, water use, energy, recreation, and public functions. Infrastructure carries a high initial cost in fixed capital but lower marginal costs and thus positive economies of scale. Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.

Infrastructure in general plays a vital role in a city's capacity for economic activity and expansion, underpinning the very survival of the city's inhabitants, as well as technological, commercial, industrial, and social activities. Structurally, many infrastructure systems take the form of networks with redundant links and multiple pathways, so that the system as a whole continue to operate even if parts of it fail. The particulars of a city's infrastructure systems have historical path dependence because new development must build from what exists already.

Megaprojects such as the construction of airports, power plants, and railways require large upfront investments and thus tend to require funding from the national government or the private sector. Privatization may also extend to all levels of infrastructure construction and maintenance.

Urban infrastructure ideally serves all residents equally but in practice may prove uneven—with, in some cities, clear first-class and second-class alternatives.

Utilities

Aqueduct of Segovia in Segovia, Spain

Public utilities (literally, useful things with general availability) include basic and essential infrastructure networks, chiefly concerned with the supply of water, electricity, and telecommunications capability to the populace.

Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and waste management as well as individual hygiene. Urban water systems include principally a water supply network and a network (sewerage system) for sewage and stormwater. Historically, either local governments or private companies have administered urban water supply, with a tendency toward government water supply in the 20th century and a tendency toward private operation at the turn of the twenty-first. The market for private water services is dominated by two French companies, Veolia Water (formerly Vivendi) and Engie (formerly Suez), said to hold 70% of all water contracts worldwide.

Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and government) and for traffic lights, street lights, and indoor lighting. Cities rely to a lesser extent on hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and natural gas for transportation, heating, and cooking. Telecommunications infrastructure such as telephone lines and coaxial cables also traverse cities, forming dense networks for mass and point-to-point communications.

Transportation

See also: Public transport

Gautrain at O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg

TransJakarta in Indonesia is the longest bus rapid transit system in the world.

Baana, a shared-path rail trail in Helsinki

Because cities rely on specialization and an economic system based on wage labor, their inhabitants must have the ability to regularly travel between home, work, commerce, and entertainment. City dwellers travel by foot or by wheel on roads and walkways, or use special rapid transit systems based on underground, overground, and elevated rail. Cities also rely on long-distance transportation (truck, rail, and airplane) for economic connections with other cities and rural areas.

City streets historically were the domain of horses and their riders and pedestrians, who only sometimes had sidewalks and special walking areas reserved for them. In the West, bicycles or (velocipedes), efficient human-powered machines for short- and medium-distance travel, enjoyed a period of popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century before the rise of automobiles. Soon after, they gained a more lasting foothold in Asian and African cities under European influence. In Western cities, industrializing, expanding, and electrifying public transit systems, and especially streetcars enabled urban expansion as new residential neighborhoods sprung up along transit lines and workers rode to and from work downtown.

Since the mid-20th century, cities have relied heavily on motor vehicle transportation, with major implications for their layout, environment, and aesthetics. (This transformation occurred most dramatically in the US—where corporate and governmental policies favored automobile transport systems—and to a lesser extent in Europe.) The rise of personal cars accompanied the expansion of urban economic areas into much larger metropolises, subsequently creating ubiquitous traffic issues with the accompanying construction of new highways, wider streets, and alternative walkways for pedestrians. However, severe traffic jams still occur regularly in cities around the world, as private car ownership and urbanization continue to increase, overwhelming existing urban street networks.

The urban bus system, the world's most common form of public transport, uses a network of scheduled routes to move people through the city, alongside cars, on the roads. The economic function itself also became more decentralized as concentration became impractical and employers relocated to more car-friendly locations (including edge cities). Some cities have introduced bus rapid transit systems which include exclusive bus lanes and other methods for prioritizing bus traffic over private cars. Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular New York City Subway system. Rapid transit is widely used in Europe and has increased in Latin America and Asia.

Walking and cycling ("non-motorized transport") enjoy increasing favor (more pedestrian zones and bike lanes) in American and Asian urban transportation planning, under the influence of such trends as the Healthy Cities movement, the drive for sustainable development, and the idea of a carfree city. Techniques such as road space rationing and road use charges have been introduced to limit urban car traffic.

Housing

Horbury Terrace, a terrace housing in Sydney, c. 1836

The housing of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical shelters but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.

Homeownership represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to renting which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. Homelessness, or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor. Because cities generally have higher population densities than rural areas, city dwellers are more likely to reside in apartments and less likely to live in a single-family home.

Ecology

Main article: Urban ecology

An urban scene in Paramaribo featuring a few plants growing amidst solid waste and rubble behind some houses

An urban heat island

St Stephen's Green, an urban park in Dublin, Ireland

Urban ecosystems, influenced as they are by the density of human buildings and activities, differ considerably from those of their rural surroundings. Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in the wilderness, in some cases enabling exceptional biodiversity. They provide homes not only for immigrant humans but also for immigrant plants, bringing about interactions between species that never previously encountered each other. They introduce frequent disturbances (construction, walking) to plant and animal habitats, creating opportunities for recolonization and thus favoring young ecosystems with r-selected species dominant. On the whole, urban ecosystems are less complex and productive than others, due to the diminished absolute amount of biological interactions.

Typical urban fauna includes insects (especially ants), rodents (mice, rats), and birds, as well as cats and dogs (domesticated and feral). Large predators are scarce. However, in North America, large predators such as coyotes and other large animals like white-tailed deer persist.

Cities generate considerable ecological footprints, locally and at longer distances, due to concentrated populations and technological activities. From one perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs. From another, proper management may be able to ameliorate a city's ill effects. Air pollution arises from various forms of combustion, including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems, and internal combustion engines. Industrialized cities, and today third-world megacities, are notorious for veils of smog (industrial haze) that envelop them, posing a chronic threat to the health of their millions of inhabitants. Urban soil contains higher concentrations of heavy metals (especially lead, copper, and nickel) and has lower pH than soil in the comparable wilderness.

Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete, asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts. The temperature in New York City exceeds nearby rural temperatures by an average of 2–3 °C and at times 5–10 °C differences have been recorded. This effect varies nonlinearly with population changes (independently of the city's physical size). Aerial particulates increase rainfall by 5–10%. Thus, urban areas experience unique climates, with earlier flowering and later leaf dropping than in nearby countries.

Poor and working-class people face disproportionate exposure to environmental risks (known as environmental racism when intersecting also with racial segregation). For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).

One of the main methods of improving the urban ecology is including in the cities more urban green spaces: parks, gardens, lawns, and trees. These areas improve the health and well-being of the human, animal, and plant populations of the cities. Well-maintained urban trees can provide many social, ecological, and physical benefits to the residents of the city.

A study published in Scientific Reports in 2019 found that people who spent at least two hours per week in nature were 23 percent more likely to be satisfied with their life and were 59 percent more likely to be in good health than those who had zero exposure. The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK. Benefits increased for up to 300 minutes of exposure. The benefits are applied to men and women of all ages, as well as across different ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and even those with long-term illnesses and disabilities. People who did not get at least two hours – even if they surpassed an hour per week – did not get the benefits. The study is the latest addition to a compelling body of evidence for the health benefits of nature. Many doctors already give nature prescriptions to their patients. The study did not count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles of home. "Even visiting local urban green spaces seems to be a good thing," Dr. White said in a press release. "Two hours a week is hopefully a realistic target for many people, especially given that it can be spread over an entire week to get the benefit."

World city system

As the world becomes more closely linked through economics, politics, technology, and culture (a process called globalization), cities have come to play a leading role in transnational affairs, exceeding the limitations of international relations conducted by national governments. This phenomenon, resurgent today, can be traced back to the Silk Road, Phoenicia, and the Greek city-states, through the Hanseatic League and other alliances of cities. Today the information economy based on high-speed internet infrastructure enables instantaneous telecommunication around the world, effectively eliminating the distance between cities for the purposes of the international markets and other high-level elements of the world economy, as well as personal communications and mass media.

Global city

Stock exchanges, characteristic features of the top global cities, are interconnected hubs for capital. Here, a delegation from Australia visits the London Stock Exchange.

A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation, and markets. Saskia Sassen used the term "global city" in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size. Following this view of cities, it is possible to rank the world's cities hierarchically. Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and political influence. Global cities may have reached their status due to early transition to post-industrialism or through inertia which has enabled them to maintain their dominance from the industrial era. This type of ranking exemplifies an emerging discourse in which cities, considered variations on the same ideal type, must compete with each other globally to achieve prosperity.

Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange. The term "global city" is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for places that are otherwise significant. Paul James, for example argues that the term is "reductive and skewed" in its focus on financial systems.

Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context. American firms dominate the international markets for law and engineering and maintain branches in the biggest foreign global cities.

Large cities have a great divide between populations of both ends of the financial spectrum. Regulations on immigration promote the exploitation of low- and high-skilled immigrant workers from poor areas. During employment, migrant workers may be subject to unfair working conditions, including working overtime, low wages, and lack of safety in workplaces.

Modern global cities, like New York City, often include large central business districts (CBDs) that serve as hubs for economic activity. A panorama of Manhattan, the world's largest central business district, is shown with prominent buildings highlighted by number, February 2018.

1. Riverside Church
2. Deutsche Bank Center
3. 220 Central Park South
4. Central Park Tower
5. One57
6. 432 Park Avenue
7. 53W53
8. Chrysler Building
9. Bank of America Tower
10. 4 Times Square
11. The New York Times Building
12. Empire State Building
13. Manhattan West
14. a: 55 Hudson Yards, b: 35 Hudson Yards, c: 10 Hudson Yards, d: 15 Hudson Yards
15. 56 Leonard Street
16. 8 Spruce Street
17. Woolworth Building
18. 70 Pine Street
19. Four Seasons Hotel New York Downtown
20. 40 Wall Street
21. 3 World Trade Center
22. 4 World Trade Center
23. One World Trade Center

Transnational activity

Cities increasingly participate in world political activities independently of their enclosing nation-states. Early examples of this phenomenon are the sister city relationship and the promotion of multi-level governance within the European Union as a technique for European integration. Cities including Hamburg, Prague, Amsterdam, The Hague, and City of London maintain their own embassies to the European Union at Brussels.

New urban dwellers are increasingly transmigrants, keeping one foot each (through telecommunications if not travel) in their old and their new homes.

Global governance

Cities participate in global governance by various means including membership in global networks which transmit norms and regulations. At the general, global level, United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) is a significant umbrella organization for cities; regionally and nationally, Eurocities, Asian Network of Major Cities 21, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities the National League of Cities, and the United States Conference of Mayors play similar roles. UCLG took responsibility for creating Agenda 21 for culture, a program for cultural policies promoting sustainable development, and has organized various conferences and reports for its furtherance.

Networks have become especially prevalent in the arena of environmentalism and specifically climate change following the adoption of Agenda 21. Environmental city networks include the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, the United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme, the Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance (CNCA), the Covenant of Mayors and the Compact of Mayors, ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability, and the Transition Towns network.

Cities with world political status as meeting places for advocacy groups, non-governmental organizations, lobbyists, educational institutions, intelligence agencies, military contractors, information technology firms, and other groups with a stake in world policymaking. They are consequently also sites for symbolic protest.

South Africa has one of the highest rate of protests in the world. Pretoria, a city in South Africa, had a rally where five thousand people took part in order to advocate for increasing wages to afford living costs.

United Nations System

The World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C.

The World Assembly of Mayors at the Habitat III conference in Quito

The United Nations System has been involved in a series of events and declarations dealing with the development of cities during this period of rapid urbanization.

• The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the "Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats.
• Citing the Vancouver Declaration, the UN General Assembly in December 1977 authorized the United Nations Commission Human Settlements and the HABITAT Centre for Human Settlements, intended to coordinate UN activities related to housing and settlements.
• The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in a set of international agreements including Agenda 21 which establishes principles and plans for sustainable development.
• The Habitat II conference in 1996 called for cities to play a leading role in this program, which subsequently advanced the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals.
• In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of the United Nations Development Group.
• The Habitat III conference of 2016 focused on implementing these goals under the banner of a "New Urban Agenda". The four mechanisms envisioned for effecting the New Urban Agenda are (1) national policies promoting integrated sustainable development, (2) stronger urban governance, (3) long-term integrated urban and territorial planning, and (4) effective financing frameworks. Just before this conference, the European Union concurrently approved an "Urban Agenda for the European Union" known as the Pact of Amsterdam.

UN-Habitat coordinates the U.N. urban agenda, working with the UN Environmental Programme, the UN Development Programme, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank.

The World Bank, a U.N. specialized agency, has been a primary force in promoting the Habitat conferences, and since the first Habitat conference has used their declarations as a framework for issuing loans for urban infrastructure. The bank's structural adjustment programs contributed to urbanization in the Third World by creating incentives to move to cities. The World Bank and UN-Habitat in 1999 jointly established the Cities Alliance (based at the World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C.) to guide policymaking, knowledge sharing, and grant distribution around the issue of urban poverty. (UN-Habitat plays an advisory role in evaluating the quality of a locality's governance.) The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through credit and technical assistance.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO has increasingly focused on cities as key sites for influencing cultural governance. It has developed various city networks including the International Coalition of Cities against Racism and the Creative Cities Network. UNESCO's capacity to select World Heritage Sites gives the organization significant influence over cultural capital, tourism, and historic preservation funding.

Representation in culture

Further information: Urban fiction

The Fall of Babylon, an 1831 portrait by John Martin, depicts chaos with the Persian army occupying Babylon, symbolizing the ruin of a decadent civilization. The lightning striking the Babylonian ziggurat represents the Tower of Babel and God's judgment against Babylon.

Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the Bible in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem. Cain and Nimrod are the first city builders in the Book of Genesis. In Sumerian mythology Gilgamesh built the walls of Uruk.

Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic. The name anti-urbanism refers to various types of ideological opposition to cities, whether because of their culture or their political relationship with the country. Such opposition may result from identification of cities with oppression and the ruling elite. This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in discourse about cities. In turn, cities symbolize their home societies.

Writers, painters, and filmmakers have produced innumerable works of art concerning the urban experience. Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of descriptiones which treat of city features and history. Modern authors such as Charles Dickens and James Joyce are famous for evocative descriptions of their home cities. Fritz Lang conceived the idea for his influential 1927 film Metropolis while visiting Times Square and marveling at the nighttime neon lighting. Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport. By the 1960s, however, traffic congestion began to appear in such films as The Fast Lady (1962) and Playtime (1967).

Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of future cities both utopian and dystopian. The prospect of expanding, communicating, and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as Nylonkong (New York, London, Hong Kong) and visions of a single world-encompassing ecumenopolis.

Gallery

• 
  Hillside housing and a cemetery in Kabul, Afghanistan
• 
  Map of Piraeus, designed according to the Hippodameian grid plan
• 
  The city hall in George Town, Malaysia, serves as the seat of Penang Island City Council.
• 
  Warsaw Old Town after the Warsaw uprising with 85% of the city destroyed
• 
  Central Park in New York City

See also

• Lists of cities
• List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities
• Lost city
• Metropolis
• Compact city
• Megacity
• Settlement hierarchy
• Urbanization
• Cities portal

References

Библиография

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• Эшворт, Дж. Дж. Война и город . Лондон и Нью-Йорк: Рутледж, 1991. ISBN   0-203-40963-9 .
• Байрох, Пол (1988). Города и экономическое развитие: от зари истории до наших дней . Чикаго: Издательство Чикагского университета . ISBN  978-0-226-03465-2 .
• Бридж, Гэри и Софи Уотсон, ред. (2000). Спутник города . Молден, Массачусетс: Блэквелл, 2000/2003. ISBN   0-631-21052-0
• Бригенти, Андреа Муби, изд. (2013). Городские междоусобицы: эстетика и политика промежуточного состояния. Фарнхэм: Издательство Ashgate . ISBN   978-1-4724-1002-3 .
• Картер, Гарольд (1995). Изучение городской географии . 4-е изд. Лондон: Арнольд. ISBN   0-7131-6589-8
• Кларк, Питер (редактор) (2013). Оксфордский справочник городов в мировой истории . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN   978-0-19-175036-6
• Кертис, Саймон (2016). Глобальные города и глобальный порядок . Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN   978-0-19-874401-6
• Эллюль, Жак (1970). Смысл города . Перевод Денниса Парди. Гранд-Рапидс, Мичиган: Эрдманс, 1970. ISBN   978-0-8028-1555-2 ; Французский оригинал (написан ранее, опубликован позже): Без огня и места: Библейское значение Великого города ; Париж: Gallimard, 1975. Переиздано в 2003 г. с ISBN   978-2-7103-2582-6
• Гупта, Джойетта, Карин Пфеффер, Хебе Веррест и Мирьям Рос-Тонен, ред. (2015). География городского управления: передовые теории, методы и практики . Спрингер, 2015. ISBN   978-3-319-21272-2 .
• Хан, Харлан и Чарльз Левин (1980). Городская политика: прошлое, настоящее и будущее . Нью-Йорк и Лондон: Лонгман.
• Хэнсон, Ройс (ред.). Перспективы городской инфраструктуры . Комитет по национальной городской политике, Комиссия по поведенческим и социальным наукам и образованию, Национальный исследовательский совет. Вашингтон: Издательство Национальной академии, 1984.
• Херршель, Тассило и Питер Ньюман (2017). Города как международные игроки: городское и региональное управление за пределами национального государства . Пэлгрейв Макмиллан ( Springer Nature ). ISBN   978-1-137-39617-4
• Джейкобс, Джейн (1969). Экономика городов . Нью-Йорк: Random House Inc.
• Грава, Сигурд (2003). Городские транспортные системы: выбор для сообществ . МакГроу Хилл, электронная книга. ISBN   978-0-07-147679-9
• Джеймс, Пол ; с Маги, Лиамом; Шерри, Энди; Стегер, Манфред Б. (2015). Городская устойчивость в теории и практике: круги устойчивости . Лондон: Рутледж. ISBN  978-1315765747 .
• Каплан, Дэвид Х.; Джеймс О. Уиллер; Стивен Р. Холлоуэй; и Томас В. Ходлер, картограф (2004 г.). Городская география . Джон Уайли и сыновья, Inc. ISBN   0-471-35998-X
• Каварацис, Михалис, Гэри Уорнаби и Грегори Дж. Эшворт, ред. (2015). Переосмысление территориального брендинга: комплексная разработка бренда для городов и регионов . Спрингер. ISBN   978-3-319-12424-7 .
• Краас, Фрауке, Суриндер Аггарвал, Мартин Кой и Гюнтер Мертинс, ред. (2014). Мегаполисы: наше глобальное городское будущее . Серия книг ООН «Международный год планеты Земля». Спрингер. ISBN   978-90-481-3417-5 .
• Лэтэм, Алан; МакКормак, Дерек; Макнамара, Ким; Макнил, Дональд (14 января 2009 г.). Ключевые понятия городской географии . Таузенд-Оукс, Калифорния: SAGE Publications Limited. ISBN  978-1-4129-3041-3 .
• Лич, Уильям (1993). Земля желаний: торговцы, власть и рост новой американской культуры . Нью-Йорк: Винтажные книги (Random House), 1994. ISBN   0-679-75411-3 .
• Леви, Джон М. (2017). Современное городское планирование . 11-е изд. Нью-Йорк: Рутледж (Тейлор и Фрэнсис).
• Магнуссон, Уоррен. Политика урбанизма: видеть как город . Лондон и Нью-Йорк: Рутледж, 2011. ISBN   978-0-203-80889-4 .
• Маршалл, Джон У. (1989). Структура городских систем . Университет Торонто Пресс. ISBN   978-0-8020-6735-7 .
• Марзлафф, Джон М., Эрик Шуленбергер, Уилфрид Эндлихер, Марина Альберти, Гордон Брэдли, Клр Райан, Крейг ЗумБрунн и Юте Саймон (2008). Городская экология: международный взгляд на взаимодействие человека и природы . Нью-Йорк: Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN   978-0-387-73412-5 .
• Маккуиллан, Юджин. Закон о муниципальных корпорациях , 3-е изд. Переработанный том 1987 года Чарльза Р.П. Китинга, эсквайра. Уилметт, Иллинойс: Каллаган и компания.
• Мохой-Надь, Сивилла (1968). Матрица человека: иллюстрированная история городской среды. Нью-Йорк: Фредерик Прегер. ISBN   978-1-315-61940-8
• Мамфорд, Льюис (1961). Город в истории: его истоки, трансформации и перспективы . Нью-Йорк: Харкорт, Брейс и мир.
• О'Флаэрти, Брендан (2005). Экономика города . Кембридж, Массачусетс: Издательство Гарвардского университета . ISBN  978-0-674-01918-8 .
• Пачоне, Майкл (2001). Город: критические концепции в социальных науках . Нью-Йорк: Рутледж . ISBN  978-0-415-25270-6 .
• Пэддисон, Ронан, изд. (2001). Справочник по городским исследованиям . Лондон; Таузенд-Оукс, Калифорния; и Нью-Дели: Sage Publications. ISBN   0-8039-7695-X .
• Паркер, Джеффри (2004). Суверенный город: город-государство в истории . Лондон: Книги реакции. ISBN  9781861892195 .
• Комната, Адриан (1996). Алфавитный справочник по языку изучения имен . Лэнхэм и Лондон: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN  978-0810831698 .
• Рыбчинский, В. , Городская жизнь: городские ожидания в новом мире , (1995)
• Смит, Майкл Э. (2002) Самые ранние города. В «Городской жизни: чтения по городской антропологии» под редакцией Джорджа Гмельха и Уолтера Ценнера , стр. 3–19. 4-е изд. Waveland Press, Проспект-Хайтс, Иллинойс.
• Саутхолл, Эйдан (1998). Город во времени и пространстве . Издательство Кембриджского университета. ISBN   0-521-46211-8
• Веллман, Кэт и Маркус Спиллер, ред. (2012). Городская инфраструктура: финансы и управление . Чичестер, Великобритания: Уайли-Блэквелл. ISBN   978-0-470-67218-1 .

Дальнейшее чтение

• Бергер, А.С. (1978). Город: городские сообщества и их проблемы . Коричневый. ISBN  978-0-697-07555-0 .
• Чендлер, Т. Четыре тысячи лет роста городов: историческая перепись . Льюистон, Нью-Йорк: Эдвин Меллен Пресс , 1987.
• Геддес, Патрик , Развитие города (1904)
• Глезер, Эдвард (2011). Триумф города: как наше лучшее изобретение делает нас богаче, умнее, экологичнее, здоровее и счастливее . Нью-Йорк: Penguin Press . ISBN  978-1-59420-277-3 .
• Кемп, Роджер Л. (2007). Управление городами Америки: Справочник по продуктивности местного самоуправления . МакФарланд. ISBN  978-0-7864-3151-9 .
• Кемп, Роджер Л. (16 марта 2007 г.). Как работают американские правительства: Справочник по городским, окружным, региональным, государственным и федеральным операциям . МакФарланд. ISBN  978-0-7864-3152-6 .
• Кемп, Роджер Л. (7 марта 2013 г.). Отношения между городом и администрацией: Справочник передового опыта . Джефферсон, Северная Каролина, Лондон: МакФарланд. ISBN  978-0-7864-6399-2 .
• Монти, Дэниел (29 октября 1999 г.). Американский город: социальная и культурная история . Молден, Массачусетс: Уайли-Блэквелл. ISBN  978-1-55786-918-0 .
• Читатель, Джон (2005). Города . Нью-Йорк: Винтаж.
• Робсон, Вашингтон, и Риган, Делавэр, изд., Великие города мира (3-е изд., 2 тома, 1972 г.)
• Сметерст, П. (22 мая 2015 г.). Велосипед — на пути к глобальной истории . Спрингер. ISBN  978-1-137-49951-6 .
• Смит, Моника Л. (14 апреля 2020 г.). Города: первые 6000 лет . Лондон: Пингвин. ISBN  978-0-7352-2368-4 .
• Тернстром С. и Сеннетт Р., изд., Города девятнадцатого века (1969).
• Тойнби, Арнольд Дж. (редактор), «Города судьбы» , Нью-Йорк: McGraw-Hill , 1967. Панисторические/географические очерки, много изображений. Начинается с «Афин», заканчивается «Грядущим городом мира-Экуменополисом».
• Вебер, Макс , Город , 1921. (тр. 1958)

Внешние ссылки

• Перспективы мировой урбанизации , веб-сайт Отдела народонаселения Организации Объединенных Наций (архивировано 10 июля 2017 г.)
• Городское население (% от общего числа) – веб-сайт Всемирного банка на основе данных ООН.
• Степень урбанизации (доля городского населения в общей численности населения) по континентам в 2016 году — Statista , на основе Справочного бюро народонаселения . данных
• Человеческая география в Керли
• Городское и региональное планирование в Керли