История человеческой мысли

Не путать с интеллектуальной историей или историей науки .

История человеческой мысли охватывает историю философии , историю науки и историю политической мысли и охватывает всю историю человечества . Академическая дисциплина , изучающая ее, называется интеллектуальной историей .

Мерлин Дональд утверждал, что человеческое мышление прошло три исторических этапа: эпизодический, миметический и мифический, прежде чем достичь нынешнего этапа теоретического мышления или культуры. По его мнению, окончательный переход произошел с изобретением науки в Древней Греции .

Доисторическая человеческая мысль

Lascaux cave paintings from France

Предыстория охватывает интеллектуальную историю человечества до изобретения письменности.Первые выявленные культуры относятся к эпохе верхнего палеолита , о чем свидетельствуют региональные закономерности в таких артефактах, как наскальное искусство , фигурки Венеры и каменные орудия. Атерийская , создавая то, что является одним культура была вовлечена в символически организованную материальную культуру из самых ранних африканских примеров личного украшения.

Origins of religion

The Natufian culture of ancient Middle East produced zoomorphic art. The Khiamian culture which followed moved into depicting human beings, which was called by Jacques Cauvin a "revolution in symbols", becoming increasingly realistic. According to him, this led to the development of religion, with the Woman and the Bull as the first sacred figures. He claims that this led to a revolution in human thinking, with humans for the first time moving from animal or spirit worship to the worship of a supreme being, with humans clearly in hierarchical relation to it. Another early form of religion has been identified by Marija Gimbutas as the worship of the Great Goddess, the Bird or Snake Goddess, the Vegetation Goddess, and the Male God in Old Europe.

An important innovation in religious thought was the belief in the sky god. The Aryans had a common god of the sky called Dyeus, and the Indian Dyaus, the Greek Zeus, and the Roman Jupiter were all further developments, with the Latin word for God being Deus. Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorized as "sky father" deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a "sky father" god with an "earth mother" goddess (pairings of a sky mother with an earth father are less frequent). A main sky goddess is often the queen of the gods. In antiquity, several sky goddesses in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Near East were called Queen of Heaven.

Ancient thought

Further information: Ancient history and Cradle of civilization

Axial age

The Axial Age was a period between 750 and 350 BCE during which major intellectual development happened around the world. This included the development of Chinese philosophy by Confucius, Mozi, and others; the Upanishads and Gautama Buddha in Indian philosophy; Zoroaster in Ancient Persia; the Jewish prophets Elijah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Deutero-Isaiah in Palestine; Ancient Greek philosophy and literature, all independently of each other.

Ancient Chinese thought

The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools of thought that flourished in Ancient China from the 6th century to 221 BCE, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools, they are:

• Confucianism, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.
• Legalism. Often compared with Machiavelli, and foundational for the traditional Chinese bureaucratic empire, the Legalists examined administrative methods, emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocrat and state.
• Taoism, a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction). Harmony with the Universe, or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.
• Mohism, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that "everyone is equal before heaven", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.
• Naturalism, the School of Naturalists or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of yin and yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.
• Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as "working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached."
• The Logicians or the School of Names, which focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.
• The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances], which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.
• The Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.
• The School of "Minor-talks", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.

Other groups included:

• The School of the Military that studied strategy and the philosophy of war; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the "Ten Schools" defined by Hanshu.
• Yangism was a form of ethical egoism founded by Yang Zhu. It was once widespread but fell to obscurity before the Han dynasty. Due to its stress on individualism, it influenced later generations of Taoists.
• School of the Medical Skills, a school which studied Medicine and health. Bian Que and Qibo were well-known scholars. Two of the earliest and existing Chinese medical works are Huangdi Neijing and Shanghan Lun.

Ancient Greek thought

Pre-Socratics

The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology, and mathematics. They were distinguished from "non-philosophers" insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse. They included various schools of thought:

• The Milesian school of philosophy was founded by Thales of Miletus, regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher, who held that all things arise from a single material substance, water. He was called the "first man of science," because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the cosmos and supported it with reasons. He was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something "unlimited" or "indefinite" (in Greek, the apeiron). Anaximenes in turn held that the arche was air, although John Burnet argues that by this he meant that it was a transparent mist, the aether. Despite their varied answers, the Milesian school was united in looking for the Physis of the world.
• Pythagoreanism was founded by Pythagoras and sought to reconcile religious belief and reason. He is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is the arche of everything. Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals, emphasizing purgation, metempsychosis, and consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony. Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.
• The Ephesian school was based on the thought of Heraclitus. Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei ("everything flows"), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire. All things come to pass in accordance with Logos, which must be considered as "plan" or "formula", and "the Logos is common". He also posited a unity of opposites, expressed through dialectic, which structured this flux, such as that seeming opposites in fact are manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself. Heraclitus called the oppositional processes ἔρις (eris), "strife", and hypothesized that the apparently stable state of δίκη (dikê), or "justice", is the harmonic unity of these opposites.
• The Eleatics' founder Parmenides of Elea cast his philosophy against those who held "it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions,"—presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed him. Whereas the doctrines of the Milesian school, in suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises, implied that everything that exists is corpuscular, Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One, indivisible, and unchanging. Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the One or Being cannot move, since this would require that "space" both exist and not exist. While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought. In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being. His arguments are known as Zeno's paradoxes.
• The Pluralist school came as the power of Parmenides' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, where one thing was the arche, and adopted pluralism, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras. There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras). Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging.
• This pluralist thought was taken further by Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms. These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of Plato, however, and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student, Democritus, who founded Atomic theory.
• The Sophists tended to teach rhetoric as their primary vocation. Prodicus, Gorgias, Hippias, and Thrasymachus appear in various dialogues, sometimes explicitly teaching that while nature provides no ethical guidance, the guidance that the laws provide is worthless, or that nature favors those who act against the laws.

Classic period

The classic period included:

• The Cynics were an ascetic sect of philosophers beginning with Antisthenes in the 4th century BC and continuing until the 5th century AD. They believed that one should live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature. This meant rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, health, or celebrity, and living a life free from possessions.
• The Cyrenaics were a hedonist school of philosophy founded in the fourth century BC by Aristippus, who was a student of Socrates. They held that pleasure was the supreme good, especially immediate gratifications; and that people could only know their own experiences, beyond that truth was unknowable.
• Platonism is the name given to the philosophy of Plato, which was maintained and developed by his followers. The central concept was the theory of forms: the transcendent, perfect archetypes, of which objects in the everyday world are imperfect copies. The highest form was the Form of the Good, the source of being, which could be known by reason.
• The Peripatetic school was the name given to the philosophers who maintained and developed the philosophy of Aristotle. They advocated examination of the world to understand the ultimate foundation of things. The goal of life was the happiness which originated from virtuous actions, which consisted in keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little.
• The Megarian school, founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates. Its ethical teachings were derived from Socrates, recognizing a single good, which was apparently combined with the Eleatic doctrine of Unity. Some of Euclides' successors developed logic to such an extent that they became a separate school, known as the Dialectical school. Their work on modal logic, logical conditionals, and propositional logic played an important role in the development of logic in antiquity.
• The Eretrian school, founded by Phaedo of Elis. Like the Megarians they seem to have believed in the individuality of "the Good," the denial of the plurality of virtue, and of any real difference existing between the Good and the True. Cicero tells us that they placed all good in the mind, and in that acuteness of mind by which the truth is discerned. They denied that truth could be inferred by negative categorical propositions, and would only allow positive ones, and of these only simple ones.

Hellenistic schools of thought

The Hellenistic schools of thought included:

• Academic skepticism, which maintained that knowledge of things is impossible. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of truth-likeness, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics and on the Stoic dogma that convincing impressions led to true knowledge.
• Eclecticism,a system of philosophy which adopted no single set of doctrines but selected from existing philosophical beliefs those doctrines that seemed most reasonable. Its most notable advocate was Cicero.
• Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus in the 3rd century BC. It viewed the universe as being ruled by chance, with no interference from gods. It regarded absence of pain as the greatest pleasure, and advocated a simple life. It was the main rival to Stoicism until both philosophies died out in the 3rd century AD.
• Hellenistic Christianity was the attempt to reconcile Christianity with Greek philosophy, beginning in the late 2nd century. Drawing particularly on Platonism and the newly emerging Neoplatonism, figures such as Clement of Alexandria sought to provide Christianity with a philosophical framework.
• Hellenistic Judaism was an attempt to establish the Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. Its principal representative was Philo of Alexandria.
• Neoplatonism, or Plotinism, a school of religious and mystical philosophy founded by Plotinus in the 3rd century AD and based on the teachings of Plato and the other Platonists. The summit of existence was the One or the Good, the source of all things. In virtue and meditation the soul had the power to elevate itself to attain union with the One, the true function of human beings.
• Neopythagoreanism, a school of philosophy reviving Pythagorean doctrines, which was prominent in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. It was an attempt to introduce a religious element into Greek philosophy, worshipping God by living an ascetic life, ignoring bodily pleasures and all sensuous impulses, to purify the soul.
• Pyrrhonism, a school of philosophical skepticism that originated with Pyrrho in the 3rd century BC, and was further advanced by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC. Its objective is ataraxia (being mentally unperturbed), which is achieved through epoché (i.e. suspension of judgment) about non-evident matters (i.e., matters of belief).
• Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium in the 3rd century BC. Based on the ethical ideas of the Cynics, it taught that the goal of life was to live in accordance with Nature. It advocated the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions.

Indian philosophy

Orthodox schools

Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (Astika) schools (darshanas), the "Six Philosophies" (ṣaḍ-darśana), all of which accept the testimony of the Vedas.

• Samkhya, the rationalism school with dualism and atheistic themes
• Yoga, a school similar to Samkhya but accepts personally defined theistic themes
• Nyaya, the realism school emphasizing analytics and logic
• Vaisheshika, the naturalism school with atomistic themes and related to the Nyaya school
• Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the ritualism school with Vedic exegesis and philology emphasis, and
• Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with many sub-schools ranging from dualism to nondualism.

These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyaya-Vaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The Vedanta school is further divided into six sub-schools: Advaita (monism/nondualism), also includes the concept of Ajativada, Visishtadvaita (monism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualism-nondualism), Suddhadvaita, and Achintya Bheda Abheda schools.

Heterodox schools

Several Śramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE, and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy. The Śramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, atomism, antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating. Notable philosophies that arose from Śramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Charvaka, Ajñana and Ājīvika.

• Ajñana was one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.
• Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely. Jainism was established by Mahavira, the last and the 24th Tirthankara. Historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BC, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BC. Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions. Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world (Saṃsāra) is full of hiṃsā (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in attainment of Ratnatraya, that are Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gnana, and Samyak Chàritra which are the key requisites to attain liberation.
• Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, or "awakened one". Buddhism is founded on elements of the Śramaṇa movement, which flowered in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE, but its foundations contain novel ideas not found or accepted by other Sramana movements. Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma – a cause-and-effect relationship, samsara – ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth, dharma – ideas about ethics, duties and values, impermanence of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual liberation (nirvana or moksha). A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of an eternal soul (atman) in favour of anatta (non-Self).
• The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle. Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. The Ājīvika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles. Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy. Ājīvikas were atheists and rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.
• Charvaka or Lokāyata was a philosophy of scepticism and materialism, founded in the Mauryan period. They were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Charvaka deemed Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology. Likewise they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking the concept of liberation, reincarnation and accumulation of merit or demerit through karma. They believed that, the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools".

Similarities between Greek and Indian thought

See also: Proto-Indo-European religion and Ṛta

Several scholars have recognised parallels between the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato and that of the Upanishads, including their ideas on sources of knowledge, concept of justice and path to salvation, and Plato's allegory of the cave. Platonic psychology with its divisions of reason, spirit and appetite, also bears resemblance to the three gunas in the Indian philosophy of Samkhya.

Various mechanisms for such a transmission of knowledge have been conjectured including Pythagoras traveling as far as India; Indian philosophers visiting Athens and meeting Socrates; Plato encountering the ideas when in exile in Syracuse; or, intermediated through Persia.

However, other scholars, such as Arthur Berriedale Keith, J. Burnet and A. R. Wadia, believe that the two systems developed independently. They note that there is no historical evidence of the philosophers of the two schools meeting, and point out significant differences in the stage of development, orientation and goals of the two philosophical systems. Wadia writes that Plato's metaphysics were rooted in this life and his primary aim was to develop an ideal state. In contrast, Upanishadic focus was the individual, the self (atman, soul), self-knowledge, and the means of an individual's moksha (freedom, liberation in this life or after-life).

Persian philosophy

• Zoroastrianism, based on the teachings of Zarathustra (Zoroaster) appeared in Persia at some point during the period 1700-1800 BCE. His wisdom became the basis of the religion Zoroastrianism, and generally influenced the development of the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian philosophy. Zarathustra was the first who treated the problem of evil in philosophical terms. He is also believed to be one of the oldest monotheists in the history of religion. He espoused an ethical philosophy based on the primacy of good thoughts (andiše-e-nik), good words (goftâr-e-nik), and good deeds (kerdâr-e-nik). The works of Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism had a significant influence on Greek philosophy and Roman philosophy. Several ancient Greek writers such as Eudoxus of Cnidus and Latin writers such as Pliny the Elder praised Zoroastrian philosophy as "the most famous and most useful". Plato learnt of Zoroastrian philosophy through Eudoxus and incorporated much of it into his own Platonic realism. In the 3rd century BC, however, Colotes accused Plato's The Republic of plagiarizing parts of Zoroaster's On Nature, such as the Myth of Er.
• Manichaeism, founded by Mani, was influential from North Africa in the West, to China in the East. Its influence subtly continues in Western Christian thought via Saint Augustine of Hippo, who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism, which he passionately denounced in his writings, and whose writings continue to be influential among Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox theologians. An important principle of Manichaeism was its dualistic cosmology/theology, which it shared with Mazdakism, a philosophy founded by Mazdak. Under this dualism, there were two original principles of the universe: Light, the good one; and Darkness, the evil one. These two had been mixed by a cosmic accident, and man's role in this life was through good conduct to release the parts of himself that belonged to Light. Mani saw the mixture of good and bad as a cosmic tragedy, while Mazdak viewed this in a more neutral, even optimistic way. Mazdak (d. 524/528 CE) was a proto-socialist Persian reformer who gained influence under the reign of the Sassanian king Kavadh I. He claimed to be a prophet of God, and instituted communal possessions and social welfare programs. In many ways Mazdak's teaching can be understood as a call for social revolution, and has been referred to as early "communism" or proto-socialism.
• Zurvanism is characterized by the element of its First Principle which is Time, "Zurvan", as a primordial creator. According to Zaehner, Zurvanism appears to have three schools of thought all of which have classical Zurvanism as their foundation:Aesthetic Zurvanism which was apparently not as popular as the materialistic kind, viewed Zurvan as undifferentiated Time, which, under the influence of desire, divided into reason (a male principle) and concupiscence (a female principle). While Zoroaster's Ormuzd created the universe with his thought, materialist Zurvanism challenged the concept that anything could be made out of nothing. Fatalistic Zurvanism resulted from the doctrine of limited time with the implication that nothing could change this preordained course of the material universe and that the path of the astral bodies of the 'heavenly sphere' was representative of this preordained course. According to the Middle Persian work Menog-i Khrad: "Ohrmazd allotted happiness to man, but if man did not receive it, it was owing to the extortion of these planets."

Post-classical thought

Christianity

Early Christianity is often divided into three different branches that differ in theology and traditions, which all appeared in the 1st century AD/CE. They include Jewish Christianity, Pauline Christianity and Gnostic Christianity. All modern Christian denominations are said to have descended from the Jewish and Pauline Christianities, with Gnostic Christianity dying, or being hunted, out of existence after the early Christian era and being largely forgotten until discoveries made in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries. There are also other theories on the origin of Christianity.

The following Christian groups appeared between the beginning of the Christian religion and the First Council of Nicaea in 325.

• Adamites
• Arianism
• Ebionites
• Elcesaites
• Marcionism
• Nazarenes

Unlike the previously mentioned groups, the following are all considered to be related to Christian Gnosticism.

• Bardaisanites
• Basilideans
• Carpocratianism
• Nicolaitans
• Sethianism
• Simonians (sometimes considered Proto-Gnostic)
• Valentinianism

Christianity has gone through many schisms (splits):

The first significant, lasting split in historic Christianity came from the Church of the East, who left following the Christological controversy over Nestorianism in 431.

Following the Council of Chalcedon in 451 over monophysitism, the next large split came with the Syriac and Coptic churches dividing themselves, with the dissenting churches becoming today's Oriental Orthodox. The Armenian Apostolic Church, whose representatives were not able to attend the council did not accept new dogmas and now is also seen as an Oriental Orthodox church.

The East–West Schism (also the Great Schism or Schism of 1054) is the break of communion since the 11th century between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches. The schism was the culmination of theological and political differences which had developed during the preceding centuries between Eastern and Western Christianity.

Later medieval splinter movements included:

• The Cathars were a very strong movement in medieval southwestern France, but did not survive into modern times.
• In northern Italy and southeastern France, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians in the 12th century. This movement has largely been absorbed by modern-day Protestant groups.
• In Bohemia, a movement in the early 15th century by Jan Hus called the Hussites defied Catholic dogma and still exists to this day (alternately known as the Moravian Church).
• Agonoclita
• Apostolic Brethren
• Arnoldists
• Beguines and Beghards
• Bogomilism
  • Bosnian Church
  • Patarines
• Brethren of the Free Spirit
• Donatism
• Dulcinians
• Friends of God
• Henricans
• Heresy of the Judaizers
• Lollardy
• Neo-Adamites
• Paulicianism
• Petrobrusians
• Strigolniki
• Tondrakians

European Middle Ages

Main article: Medieval philosophy

The spread of Christianity caused major change in European thought. As "Christianity actively rejected scientific inquiry", it meant that thinkers of the time were much more interested in studying revelation than the physical world. Ambrose argued that astronomy could be forsaken, "for wherein does it assist our salvation?". Philosophy and critical thinking were also discounted, since according to Gregory of Nyssa, "The human voice was fashioned for one reason alone – to be the threshold through which the sentiments of the heart, inspired by the Holy Spirit, might be translated into the Word itself".

Carolingian Renaissance

Main article: Carolingian Renaissance

The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival in the Carolingian Empire occurring from the late eighth century to the ninth century, as the first of three medieval renaissances. It occurred mostly during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court, notably Alcuin of York For moral betterment the Carolingian renaissance reached for models drawn from the example of the Christian Roman Empire of the 4th century. During this period there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms and scriptural studies. Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis (789) and his Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos. The effects of this cultural revival, however, were largely limited to a small group of court literati: "it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia, a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an immeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society," John Contreni observes. Beyond their efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts and to develop a more legible, classicizing script, the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule, from which has developed early modern Italic script, the secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance for the first time in centuries applied rational ideas to social issues, providing a common language and writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools. Alcuin led this effort and was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing the trivium and quadrivium as the basis for education. Art historian Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by the skin of its teeth.

Ottonian Renaissance

Main article: Ottonian Renaissance

The Ottonian Renaissance was a limited renaissance of logic, science, economy and art in central and southern Europe that accompanied the reigns of the first three emperors of the Saxon Dynasty, all named Otto: Otto I (936–973), Otto II (973–983), and Otto III (983–1002), and which in large part depended upon their patronage. Pope Sylvester II and Abbo of Fleury were leading figures in this movement. The Ottonian Renaissance began after Otto's marriage to Adelaide (951) united the kingdoms of Italy and Germany and thus brought the West closer to Byzantium. The period is sometimes extended to cover the reign of Henry II as well, and, rarely, the Salian dynasts. The term is generally confined to Imperial court culture conducted in Latin in Germany. It was shorter than the preceding Carolingian Renaissance and to a large extent a continuation of it - this has led historians such as Pierre Riché to prefer evoking it as a 'third Carolingian renaissance', covering the 10th century and running over into the 11th century, with the 'first Carolingian renaissance' occurring during Charlemagne's own reign and the 'second Carolingian renaissance' happening under his successors. The Ottonian Renaissance is recognized especially in the arts and architecture, invigorated by renewed contact with Constantinople, in some revived cathedral schools, such as that of Bruno of Cologne, in the production of illuminated manuscripts from a handful of elite scriptoria, such as Quedlinburg, founded by Otto in 936, and in political ideology. The Imperial court became the center of religious and spiritual life, led by the example of women of the royal family: Matilda the literate mother of Otto I, or his sister Gerberga of Saxony, or his consort Adelaide, or Empress Theophanu.

Renaissance of the 12th century

Main article: Renaissance of the 12th century

The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes at the outset of the High Middle Ages. It included social, political and economic transformations, and an intellectual revitalization of Western Europe with strong philosophical and scientific roots. For some historians these changes paved the way to later achievements such as the literary and artistic movement of the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century and the scientific developments of the 17th century.

The increased contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, the Crusades, the Reconquista, as well as increased contact with Byzantium, allowed Europeans to seek and translate the works of Hellenic and Islamic philosophers and scientists, especially the works of Aristotle. The development of medieval universities allowed them to aid materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, the European university put many of these texts at the centre of its curriculum. The translation of texts from other cultures, especially ancient Greek works, was an important aspect of both this Twelfth-Century Renaissance and the latter Renaissance (of the 15th century), the relevant difference being that Latin scholars of this earlier period focused almost entirely on translating and studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, while the latter Renaissance focus was on literary and historical texts.

A new method of learning called scholasticism developed in the late 12th century from the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle; the works of medieval Jewish and Islamic thinkers influenced by him, notably Maimonides, Avicenna (see Avicennism) and Averroes (see Averroism); and the Christian philosophers influenced by them, most notably Albertus Magnus, Bonaventure and Abélard. Those who practiced the scholastic method believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. Other notable scholastics ("schoolmen") included Roscelin and Peter Lombard. One of the main questions during this time was the problem of the universals. Prominent non-scholastics of the time included Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Damian, Bernard of Clairvaux, and the Victorines. The most famous of the scholastic practitioners was Thomas Aquinas (later declared a Doctor of the Church), who led the move away from Platonism and Augustinianism and towards Aristotelianism.

During the High Middle Ages in Europe, there was increased innovation in means of production, leading to economic growth. These innovations included the windmill, manufacturing of paper, the spinning wheel, the magnetic compass, eyeglasses, the astrolabe, and Hindu–Arabic numerals.

Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe

Main article: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe

During the high medieval period, the Islamic world was at its cultural peak, supplying information and ideas to Europe, via Al-Andalus, Sicily and the Crusader kingdoms in the Levant. These included Latin translations of the Greek Classics and of Arabic texts in astronomy, mathematics, science, and medicine. Translation of Arabic philosophical texts into Latin "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world", with a particularly strong influence of Muslim philosophers being felt in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics. Other contributions included technological and scientific innovations via the Silk Road, including Chinese inventions such as paper and gunpowder. The Islamic world also influenced other aspects of medieval European culture, partly by original innovations made during the Islamic Golden Age, including various fields such as the arts, agriculture, alchemy, music, pottery, etc.

Islamic thought

Main article: Islam

The religion of Islam founded by Muhammad in 7th century Arabia incorporated ideas from Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity, specifically monotheism, Last Judgment, Heaven and Hell. However, it is closer to Judaism than Christianity, since it believes in the Unity of God, and God is seen as powerful rather than loving. The doctrine of Islam is based on five pillars: Shahada, faith; Salat, prayer; Zakat, alms-giving; Sawm, fasting; and Hajj, pilgrimage. Its beliefs are collected in the Quran, composed in its final form by 933.

Starting from soon after its foundation, Islam has broken into several strands, including:

• Sunni Islam, also known as Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jamā'h or simply Ahl as-Sunnah, is the largest denomination of Islam. The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim ummah (community) before his death, however they approve of the private election of the first companion, Abu Bakr. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib) as "al-Khulafā'ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs."
• Shia Islam is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising 10–20% of the total Muslim population. In addition to believing in the authority of the Quran and teachings of Muhammad, Shia believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the "People of the House"), including his descendants known as Imams, have special spiritual and political authority over the community and believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs. The Shia Islamic faith is broad and includes many different groups. There are various Shia theological beliefs, schools of jurisprudence, philosophical beliefs, and spiritual movements:
  • The Twelvers believe in twelve Imams and are the only school to comply with Hadith of the Twelve Successors, where Muhammad stated that he would have twelve successors.
  • Ismailism, including the Nizārī, Sevener, Mustaali, Dawoodi Bohra, Hebtiahs Bohra, Sulaimani Bohra and Alavi Bohra sub-denominations.
  • The Zaidiyyah historically come from the followers of Zayd ibn Ali.
  • The Alawites are a distinct religion that developed in the 9th/10th century. Historically, Twelver Shia scholars (such as Shaykh Tusi) did not consider Alawites as Shia Muslims while condemning their heretical beliefs. Ibn Taymiyyah also pointed out that Alawites were not Shi'ites.
  • The Druze are a distinct traditional religion that developed in the 11th century as an offshoot of Ismailism. Druze are not generally considered Muslims.
• Kharijite (literally, "those who seceded") is a general term embracing a variety of Muslim sects which, while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, later on fought against him and eventually succeeded in his martyrdom while he was praying in the mosque of Kufa. While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree. The major Kharijite sub-sect today is the Ibadi. The sect developed out of the 7th century Islamic sect of the Kharijites. While Ibadi Muslims maintain most of the beliefs of the original Kharijites, they have rejected the more aggressive methods. Ряд групп хариджитов вымерли в прошлом:
  • Суфрии были сектой ислама в VII и VIII веках и частью хариджитов. Их наиболее важными ветвями были:
    • Куррия
    • прижаться
  • Харури были ранней мусульманской сектой периода Четырех праведных халифов (632–661 гг. Н. Э.), названной в честь их первого лидера Хабиба ибн-Язида аль-Харури.
  • Азарига
  • Недждат
  • аджарцы
• измерением ислама Суфизм является мистико - аскетическим и представлен школами или орденами, известными как Тасаввуфи - Тарикат . Это рассматривается как тот аспект исламского учения, который касается очищения внутреннего «я». Сосредоточившись на более духовных аспектах религии, суфии стремятся получить непосредственный опыт общения с Богом, используя «интуитивные и эмоциональные способности», которым нужно научиться пользоваться. Он состоит из различных заказов:
  • Орден Азимия был основан в 1960 году Каландаром Бабой Аулией , также известным как Сайед Мухаммад Азим Бархия.
  • Орден Бекташи был основан в 13 веке исламским святым Хаджи Бекташем Вели и находился под сильным влиянием в период своего формирования Хуруфи Али аль-Ала в 15 веке и реорганизован Балимом Султаном в 16 веке. Из-за своей приверженности Двенадцати Имамам он отнесен к Двенадцати шиитскому исламу.
  • Орден Чишти ( персидский : چشتیہ ) был основан ( Хаваджой ) Абу Исхаком Шами («Сириец»; умер в 941 году), который принес суфизм в город Чишт , примерно в 95 милях к востоку от Герата на территории современного Афганистана. Прежде чем вернуться в Левант, Шами инициировал, обучил и назначил на должность сына местного эмира (Хваджи) Абу Ахмада Абдала (умер в 966 г.). Под руководством потомков Абу Ахмада Чиштийя , как их еще называют, процветал как региональный мистический орден. Основателем Ордена Чишти в Южной Азии был Мойнуддин Чишти .
  • Орден Кубравия был основан в 13 веке Наджмуддином Куброй в Бухаре на территории современного Узбекистана .
  • Орден Мевлеви более известен на Западе как «кружащиеся дервиши».
  • Мурид наиболее известен в Сенегале и Гамбии , его штаб-квартира находится в священном городе Туба, Сенегал .
  • Орден Накшбанди был основан в 1380 году Бахауддином Накшбандом Бухари . Некоторые считают, что это «трезвый» орден, известный своим молчаливым зикром (памятованием о Боге), а не вокализованными формами зикра, обычными для других орденов. Ордена Сулеймани . и Халидия являются ответвлениями ордена Накшбанди
  • Орден Ниматуллахи сегодня является самым распространенным суфийским орденом Персии . Он был основан шахом Ниматуллой Вали (ум. 1367), основанным и преобразованным из его наследства круга Маруфии . Сегодня существует несколько подотрядов, наиболее известных и влиятельных на Западе, продолжающих линию Джавада Нурбахша , который принес порядок на Запад после иранской революции 1979 года .
  • Нурбакшиа , Орден также называемый Нурбакшиа, утверждает, что прослеживает свое прямое духовное происхождение и цепь (сильсила) от исламского пророка Мухаммеда через Али через Али Аль-Ридху . Этот орден стал известен как Нурбакши в честь Шаха Сайеда Мухаммада Нурбахша Кахистани , который был связан с орденом Кубравии .
  • Орден Овейси (или Увайси) утверждает, что был основан 1400 лет назад Увайсом аль-Карни из Йемена.
  • Орден Кадири — один из старейших суфийских орденов. Свое название он получил от Абдул-Кадира Гилани (1077–1166), уроженца иранской провинции Гилян . Орден является одним из наиболее распространенных суфийских орденов в исламском мире, его можно найти в Центральной Азии , Турции, на Балканах и в большей части Восточной и Западной Африки . Кадирия не разработала каких-либо отличительных доктрин или учений за пределами основного направления ислама. Они верят в фундаментальные принципы ислама, но интерпретируются посредством мистического опыта. Орден Баалави является ответвлением Кадирийи .
  • Сенусси — религиозно-политический суфийский орден, основанный Мухаммадом ибн Али ас-Сенусси . Ас-Сенусси основал это движение из-за своей критики египетских улемов .
  • Орден Шазили был основан Абу-л-Хасаном аш -Шазили. Последователи ( мюриды по-арабски: искатели) Шадхилии часто известны как Шазилиты.
  • Орден Сухравардийя ( араб . سهوردية ) — суфийский орден, основанный Абу ан-Наджибом аль-Сухраварди (1097–1168).
  • Орден Тиджания придает большое значение культуре и образованию и подчеркивает индивидуальную приверженность ученика ( мюрида ).

Золотой век ислама

Основная статья: Золотой век ислама

Золотой век ислама — период культурного, экономического и научного расцвета в истории ислама , традиционно датируемый 8-14 веками. Традиционно считается, что этот период начался во время правления аббасидского халифа Харуна ар-Рашида (786–809 гг.) с открытия Дома мудрости в Багдаде , крупнейшем к тому времени городе в мире, где исламские ученые и эрудиты из разных уголков мира стран мира с различным культурным прошлым было поручено собрать и перевести все мировые классические знания на арабский и персидский языки . В исламское Средневековье было сделано несколько исторических изобретений и значительный вклад во многих областях, которые произвели революцию в истории человечества . Традиционно считается, что этот период закончился крахом Аббасидского халифата из-за монгольского вторжения и осады Багдада в 1258 году.

Иудео-исламская философия

Основная статья: иудео-исламская философия (800–1400 гг.)

Тимуридский ренессанс

Основная статья: Тимуридский ренессанс

Тимуридское Возрождение — исторический период в азиатской и исламской истории, охватывающий конец 14, 15 и начало 16 веков. После постепенного упадка Золотого века ислама , Империя Тимуридов , базирующаяся в Центральной Азии и управляемая династией Тимуридов , стала свидетелем возрождения искусств и наук. Движение распространилось по всему мусульманскому миру и оказало глубокое влияние на Азию позднего средневековья . Тимуридское Возрождение ознаменовалось одновременно с движением Возрождения в Европе . Его описывали как равного по славе итальянскому Кватроченто . Тимуридское Возрождение достигло своего пика в 15 веке, после окончания периода монгольских нашествий и завоеваний .

Ренессанс

Основная статья: Возрождение

Возрождение — период в европейской истории, знаменующий переход от средневековья к современности и охватывающий 15 и 16 века. Это произошло после кризиса позднего средневековья и было связано с большими социальными переменами . Помимо стандартной периодизации, сторонники длительного Возрождения относят его начало к 14 веку, а конец - к 17 веку. Традиционная точка зрения больше фокусируется на ранних современных аспектах Возрождения и утверждает, что это был разрыв с прошлым, но многие историки сегодня больше сосредотачиваются на его средневековых аспектах и ​​утверждают, что это было продолжением Средневековья.

Интеллектуальной основой Возрождения была его версия гуманизма , полученная из концепции римского Humanitas и повторного открытия классической греческой философии, такой как философия Протагора , который сказал, что «Человек есть мера всех вещей». Это новое мышление проявилось в искусстве, архитектуре, политике, науке и литературе. Ранними примерами были развитие перспективы в масляной живописи и переработанные знания о том, как делать бетон . Хотя изобретение металлического подвижного шрифта ускорило распространение идей конца XV ​​века, изменения эпохи Возрождения не были единообразными по всей Европе: первые следы появляются в Италии уже в конце XIII века, в частности, в трудах Данте и картины Джотто .

Как культурное движение, Возрождение охватило новаторский расцвет латинской и народной литературы, начиная с возрождения в 14 веке обучения, основанного на классических источниках, которое современники приписывали Петрарке ; развитие линейной перспективы и других техник передачи более естественной реальности в живописи ; и постепенная, но широкомасштабная реформа образования . В политике Возрождение способствовало развитию обычаев и условностей дипломатии , а в науке — возросшей опоре на наблюдение и индуктивное рассуждение . Хотя эпоха Возрождения стала свидетелем революций во многих интеллектуальных занятиях, а также социальных и политических потрясений, она, пожалуй, наиболее известна своим художественным развитием и вкладом таких эрудитов , как Леонардо да Винчи и Микеланджело , которые вдохновили термин « человек эпохи Возрождения ».

Современный период

Научная революция

Основная статья: Научная революция

Научная революция — это серия событий, ознаменовавших возникновение современной науки в ранний современный период , когда достижения в области математики , физики , астрономии , биологии (включая анатомию человека ) и химии изменили взгляды общества на природу. Научная революция произошла в Европе ближе к концу периода Возрождения и продолжалась до конца 18 века, оказав влияние на интеллектуальное общественное движение, известное как Просвещение . Хотя ее даты обсуждаются, публикацию в 1543 году работы Николая Коперника « De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium» ( «О вращении небесных сфер ») часто называют началом научной революции.

Рационализм

Основная статья: Рационализм

Самостоятельная систематическая философская школа впервые в истории оказала огромное и глубокое влияние на современную западную мысль в целом. с рождением двух влиятельных рационалистических философских Декарта систем (который провел большую часть своей взрослой жизни и написал все свои основные работы в Соединенных провинциях Нидерландов ) и Спиноза – а именно картезианство и спинозизм . Это были архирационалисты 17 века. как Декарт, Спиноза и Лейбниц, которые дали « Веку Разума » свое имя и место в истории.

Дуализм тесно связан с мыслью Рене Декарта (1641), который считал, что разум — это нефизическая и, следовательно, непространственная субстанция. Декарт ясно отождествлял разум с сознанием и самосознанием и отличал его от мозга как вместилища интеллекта . Таким образом, он был первым, кто сформулировал проблему разума и тела в той форме, в которой она существует сегодня. Дуализму противопоставляются различные виды монизма . Спинозизм (также пишется как «спинозизм») — это монистическая философская система Баруха Спинозы , которая определяет « Бога » как единственную самостоятельную Субстанцию, атрибутами которой являются как материя, так и мысль.

Культ Разума

Основная статья: Культ разума

Культ Разума религией во Франции , спонсируемой государством был первой официальной атеистической и призванной заменить католицизм во время Французской революции . Продержав всего лишь год, в 1794 году его официально заменил конкурирующий Культ Высшего Существа , продвигаемый Робеспьером . Оба культа были официально запрещены в 1802 году Наполеоном Бонапартом своим Законом о культах 18-го года X .

Эпоха Просвещения

Основная статья: Эпоха Просвещения

Эпоха Просвещения (также известная как Эпоха разума или просто Просвещение) было интеллектуальным и философским движением, которое доминировало в мире идей в Европе в 17-19 веках.

Просвещение возникло из европейского интеллектуального и научного движения, известного как гуманизм эпохи Возрождения , ему также предшествовали Научная революция и работы Фрэнсиса Бэкона , среди других. Некоторые относят начало Просвещения к философии Cogito Рене Декарта 1637 года , ergo sum («Я мыслю, следовательно, существую»), в то время как другие ссылаются на публикацию « Исаака Ньютона ( Principia Mathematica» 1687 г.) как кульминацию Научного Революция и начало Просвещения. Французские историки традиционно относят его начало к смерти французского короля Людовика XIV в 1715 году и до начала Французской революции в 1789 году . Большинство заканчивает его началом 19 века. Разнообразные движения XIX века, включая либерализм и неоклассицизм , ведут свое интеллектуальное наследие к эпохе Просвещения.

Просвещение включало ряд идей, сосредоточенных на суверенитете разума и передовых идеалах , и свидетельствах чувств как основных источниках знаний таких как свобода , прогресс , терпимость , братство , конституционное правительство и разделение церкви и государства . Во Франции центральными доктринами философов Просвещения были свобода личности и религиозная терпимость , противостоящие абсолютной монархии и фиксированным догмам церкви. Эпоха Просвещения была отмечена акцентом на научном методе и редукционизме , а также растущим сомнением в религиозной ортодоксальности — отношение, отраженное в Иммануила Канта эссе « Отвечая на вопрос: что такое Просвещение» , где фраза Sapere aude (осмелиться знать) может быть найден.

Романтизм

Основная статья: Романтизм

Романтизм — художественное и интеллектуальное движение, зародившееся в Европе в конце 18 века. Целью движения была защита важности субъективности , воображения и понимания природы в обществе и культуре в эпоху Просвещения и промышленной революции . Романтизм был сложным движением с множеством точек зрения, которое пронизало западную цивилизацию по всему миру. Романтики отвергли социальные условности того времени в пользу морального мировоззрения, известного как индивидуализм . Они утверждали, что страсть и интуиция имеют решающее значение для понимания мира и что красота — это нечто большее, чем просто форма , а нечто, вызывающее сильный эмоциональный отклик. На этой философской основе романтики подняли ряд ключевых тем, которым они были глубоко привержены: почитание природы и сверхъестественного , идеализация прошлого как более благородной эпохи , увлечение экзотикой и таинственностью. и прославление героического и возвышенного .

Модернизм

Основная статья: Модернизм

Модернизм — это движение начала 20-го века в литературе , изобразительном искусстве и музыке , подчеркивающее экспериментирование, абстракцию и субъективный опыт. Философия , политика и социальные вопросы также являются аспектами движения, которое стремилось изменить то, как «люди в обществе взаимодействуют и живут вместе» . Модернистское движение возникло в конце 19 века в ответ на значительные изменения в западной культуре , включая секуляризацию и растущее влияние науки . Оно характеризуется как отказ от традиций и поиск новых и оригинальных средств культурного самовыражения. На модернизм повлияли широко распространенные технологические инновации, индустриализация и урбанизация , а также культурные и геополитические сдвиги, произошедшие после Первой мировой войны . Движение отвергло как реализм XIX века, так и концепцию абсолютной оригинальности романтизма — идею «творения из ничего» — с помощью техники коллажа . реприза , включение, переписывание, перепросмотр, пересмотр и пародия. Модернизм также занял критическую позицию по отношению к рационализму Просвещения.

Современность на Ближнем Востоке

Ислам и современность охватывают связь и совместимость между феноменом современности, связанными с ним концепциями и идеями и религией ислама. Чтобы понять связь между исламом и современностью, вначале следует отметить один момент. Точно так же современность — это сложное и многомерное явление, а не единое и связное явление. Исторически в нем существовали разные школы мысли, движущиеся во многих направлениях.

Интеллектуальные движения в Иране включают иранский опыт модернизма , посредством которого иранская современность и связанные с ней искусство, наука, литература, поэзия и политические структуры развивались с 19 века. Религиозный интеллектуализм в Иране развивается постепенно и незаметно. Своего апогея оно достигло во времена персидского светового меча (1906–11). В этом процессе приняли участие многочисленные философы, социологи, политологи и теоретики культуры. Однако сопутствующее искусство, кино и поэзию еще предстояло развивать.

Современная африканская мысль

С ростом афроцентризма отход от европоцентризма привел к сосредоточению внимания на вкладе африканских народов и их модели мировой цивилизации и истории . Афроцентризм стремится сместить фокус с воспринимаемой истории, ориентированной на Европу, на историю, ориентированную на Африку . В более широком смысле, афроцентризм занимается различием влияния европейских и восточных народов от достижений Африки.

Панафриканизм — это всемирное движение, целью которого является поощрение и укрепление уз солидарности между всеми коренными народами и этническими группами диаспоры африканского происхождения. Основываясь на общей цели, восходящей к работорговле в Атлантике , движение выходит за пределы континентальной Африки и имеет значительную поддержку среди африканской диаспоры в Америке и Европе .

Постмодернизм

Основная статья: Постмодернизм

Возникший в середине двадцатого века как реакция на модернизм, постмодернизм — это интеллектуальная позиция или способ дискурса. характеризуется скептицизмом по отношению к научному рационализму и концепции объективной реальности (в отличие от реальности субъективной ). Он подвергает сомнению « великие нарративы » современности , отвергает достоверность знаний и устойчивый смысл и признает влияние идеологии на поддержание политической власти. Постмодернизм охватывает самореференцию , эпистемологический релятивизм , моральный релятивизм , плюрализм , иронию , непочтительность и эклектизм . Он выступает против «универсальной значимости» бинарных оппозиций , стабильной идентичности , иерархии и категоризации .

Источники

• Кросс, Фрэнк Лесли; Ливингстон, Элизабет А. (2005). «Великий раскол» . Оксфордский словарь христианской церкви . Оксфорд: Университетское издательство. ISBN  978-0-19-280290-3 .
• Дойл, Уильям (1989). Оксфордская история Французской революции . Кларендон Пресс. ISBN  978-0-19-822781-6 .
• Дандас, Пол (2002) [1992], Джайны (второе изд.), Routledge , ISBN  0-415-26605-Х
• Кейт, Артур Берридейл (2007). Религия и философия Вед и Упанишад . Издательство Мотилал Банарсидасс. ISBN  978-81-208-0644-3 . Архивировано из оригинала 30 июня 2020 года . Проверено 15 ноября 2015 г.
• Лиотар, Жан-Франсуа (1989). Читатель Лиотара . Оксфорд, Великобритания / Кембридж, Массачусетс: Блэквелл. ISBN  0-631-16339-5 .
• Мура, Андреа (2012). «Символическая функция трансмодерна» . Язык и психоанализ . 1 (1): 68–87. дои : 10.7565/landp.2012.0005 .
• Николсон, Эндрю Дж. (2010), Объединение индуизма: философия и идентичность в интеллектуальной истории Индии , издательство Колумбийского университета
• Штайнер, Джордж (1998). «6: Топологии культуры». После Бабеля (3-е исправленное изд.). стр. 489–490.
• Урвик, Эдвард Джонс (1920), Послание Платона: новая интерпретация «Республики» , Methuen & Co. Ltd., ISBN  9781136231162 , заархивировано из оригинала 27 октября 2013 года , получено 22 ноября 2020 года.
• Вадиа, А.Р. (1956), «Сократ, Платон и Аристотель», в Радхакришнане, Сарвепалли (редактор), История философии Восточной и Западной , том. II, Джордж Аллен и Анвин Лтд.

Дальнейшее чтение

• Армитидж, Д., 2007. Декларация независимости: глобальная история . Издательство Гарвардского университета.
• Бэйли, Калифорния, 2004. Рождение современного мира, 1780-1914: глобальные связи и сравнения . Оксфорд: Блэквелл.
• Хурани А., 1983. Арабская мысль в либеральную эпоху 1798-1939 гг . Издательство Кембриджского университета.
• Мойн, С. и Сартори, А., ред., 2013. Глобальная интеллектуальная история . Издательство Колумбийского университета.
• Уотсон, П., 2005. Идеи: история мысли и изобретений, от огня до Фрейда (стр. 36). Нью-Йорк: ХарперКоллинз.