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Жители Мьондоло протестуют в Дурбане

Символ международных скваттеров

Сквоттинг — это действие по занятию заброшенного или незанятого участка земли или здания, обычно жилого, которым скваттер не владеет, не арендует или не имеет законного разрешения на использование иным образом . По оценкам Организации Объединенных Наций в 2003 году, во всем мире насчитывалось один миллиард жителей трущоб и скваттеров. Сквотирование происходит во всем мире и, как правило, происходит, когда люди находят пустующие здания или землю, чтобы занять их под жилье. Он имеет долгую историю, разбитую по странам ниже.

В развивающихся и наименее развитых странах трущобы часто возникают как сквотированные поселения. В африканских городах, таких как Лагос, большая часть населения живет в трущобах . есть обитатели тротуаров, В Индии и Гонконге а также обитатели трущоб на крышах . Неофициальные поселения в Латинской Америке известны под такими названиями, как вилла мисерия (Аргентина), пуэблос йовенес (Перу) и асентаментос иррегулес (Гватемала, Уругвай). В Бразилии есть фавелы в крупных городах и сельские наземные движения.

В промышленно развитых странах часто существуют жилые сквотты, а также политические сквоттерские движения, которые могут быть анархистскими , автономистскими или социалистическими по своей природе, например, в самоуправляемых социальных центрах Италии или сквотах в Соединенных Штатах . Оппозиционные движения 1960-х и 1970-х годов создали свободные пространства в Дании или сквоттерские деревни в Нидерландах , а в Англии и Уэльсе в конце 1970-х годов, по оценкам, насчитывалось 50 000 скваттеров. Каждая местная ситуация определяет контекст: в Афинах (Греция) существуют сквоты беженцев ; В Германии есть социальные центры; в Испании много приседаний.

Обзор

Большая часть сквоттинга носит жилой характер. Это явление имеет тенденцию возникать, когда бедное и бездомное население использует заброшенную собственность или землю посредством городских поместий . По оценкам Программы ООН по населенным пунктам (ООН-Хабитат) на 2003 год, в скваттерских поселениях и трущобах проживало около одного миллиарда человек. По словам ученого Кесии Рив, «сквоттинг в значительной степени отсутствует в политических и академических дебатах и ​​редко концептуализируется как проблема, симптом или как социальное или жилищное движение».

In many of the world's poorer countries, there are extensive slums or shanty towns, typically built on the edges of major cities and consisting almost entirely of self-constructed housing built without the landowner's permission. While these settlements may in time become upgraded, they often start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no legal link to sewerage, electricity or water. Such settlements also exist in industrialized countries, such as for example Cañada Real on the outskirts of Madrid.

Squatting can be related to political movements, such as anarchist, autonomist, or socialist. It can be a means to conserve buildings or a protest action. Squats can be used by local communities as free shops, cafés, venues, pirate radio stations or as multi-purpose autonomous social centres. Dutch sociologist Hans Pruijt separates types of squatters into five distinct categories:

1. Deprivation-based – homeless people squatting for housing need
2. An alternative housing strategy – people unprepared to wait on municipal lists to be housed take direct action
3. Entrepreneurial – people breaking into buildings to service the need of a community for cheap bars, clubs etc.
4. Conservational – preserving monuments because the authorities have let them decay
5. Political – activists squatting buildings as protests or to make social centres

Adverse possession, sometimes described as squatter's rights, is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a statutory period under certain conditions. Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, based on common law.

Anarchist author Colin Ward asserts: "Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world, and we are all descended from squatters. This is as true of the Queen [of the United Kingdom] with her 176,000 acres (710 km²) as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the ultimate recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights." Others have a different view; UK police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that "Squatting is linked to anti-social behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance and distress to local residents. In some cases there may also be criminal activities involved." The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, and the type of housing occupied by squatters. In particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property can often lead to strongly negative reactions on the part of the general public and the authorities.

Africa

In African countries such as Nigeria, informal settlements are created by migration from rural areas to urban areas. Reasons for squatting include the lack of low cost housing, unemployment and inability to access loans. In 1995, almost 70% of the population of the Nigerian capital Lagos were living in slums.

The City of the Dead slum is a well-known squatter community in Cairo, Egypt. Between 1955 and 1975, the Cairo authorities built 39,000 public housing apartments but 2 million people moved there, mostly ending up in informal housing. In Alexandria, Egypt's second city, public housing was only 0.5% of the total housing stock, whereas informal housing was 68%.

An estimated 3,500 people live in the Grande Hotel Beira in Mozambique. Informal settlements in Zambia, particularly around Lusaka, are known as kombonis. As of 2011, 64% of Zambians lived below the poverty line, whilst the United Nations predicted a 941% population increase by 2100.

Liberia

Main article: Squatting in Liberia

Derelict swimming pool at the Ducor Hotel

In Liberia, squatting is one of three ways to access land, the other being ownership by deed or customary ownership. West Point was founded in Monrovia in the 1950s and is estimated to house between 29,500 and 75,000 people. During the First Liberian Civil War 1989–1997 and the Second Liberian Civil War 1999–2003, many people in Liberia were displaced and some ended up squatting in Monrovia. The Ducor Hotel fell into disrepair and was squatted, before being evicted in 2007. Recently, over 9,000 Burkinabés were squatting on remote land and the Liberia Land Authority (LLA) has announced it will be titling all land in the country.

South Africa

In South Africa, squatters tend to live in informal settlements or squatter camps on the outskirts of the larger cities, often but not always near townships. In the mid-1990s, an estimated 7.7 million South Africans lived in informal settlements: a fifth of the country's population. The figure was estimated to be 15 million in 2004. In Cape Town and Durban, there have been sustained conflict between the city council and a shack dwellers' movement known as Abahlali baseMjondolo. The organisation has represented the squatters in land occupations such as the Macassar Village in 2009 and the Cape Town and Durban Marikana land occupations in 2013 (both named after the Marikana massacre). It also successfully challenged the KZN Slums Act, which sought to mandate the eviction of slums but was eventually declared unconstitutional.

There have been a number of similar conflicts between shack dwellers, some linked with the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, and the city council in Cape Town. One of the most high-profile cases was the eviction of squatters in the N2 Gateway homes in the suburb of Delft, where over 20 residents were shot, including a three-year-old child. There have been numerous complaints about the legality of the government's actions. Many of the families then squatted on Symphony Way, a main road in the township of Delft, before being forced to move to a camp called Blikkiesdorp.

Sudan

Main article: Squatting in Sudan

Squatting in Sudan is defined as the "acquisition and construction of land, within the city boundaries for the purpose of housing in contradiction to Urban Planning and Land laws and building regulations." These informal settlements arose in Khartoum from the 1920s onwards, swelling in the 1960s. By the 1980s, the government was clearing settlements in Khartoum and regularizing them elsewhere. It was estimated that in 2015 that were 200,000 squatters in Khartoum, 180,000 in Nyala, 60,000 in Kassala, 70,000 in Port Sudan and 170,000 in Wad Madani.

Zimbabwe

Main article: Squatting in Zimbabwe

Land squats occurred in what would become Zimbabwe in the 1970s and were routinely evicted. Only Epworth persisted on account of its size (around 50,000 people). After Zimbabwe was created in 1980, peasant farmers and squatters disputed the distribution of land. Informal settlements have developed on the periphery of cities such as Chitungwiza and the capital Harare. In 2005, Operation Murambatsvina ("Operation Drive Out Filth") organised by President Robert Mugabe evicted an estimated 700,000 people and affected over two million people.

Middle East

Palestine

Israeli settlements are communities of Israeli citizens living in the Palestinian territories. The international community considers the settlements in occupied territory to be illegal,In March 2018, Israeli settlers were evicted from a house they had illegally occupied in Hebron, a Palestinian city in the West Bank. The fifteen families had argued that they had bought the house, but the High Court of Justice ruled that they had to leave. The Israel Defense Forces declared the building a closed military zone and it was unclear if the Palestinian owners could regain possession. The settlers had already occupied the house and been evicted in 2012. In October 2018, Fatou Bensouda, the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court stated that Israel's planned demolition of Bedouin village Khan al-Ahmar could constitute a war crime.

Turkey

Gecekondu is a Turkish word meaning a house put up quickly without proper permissions, a squatter's house, and by extension, a shanty or shack. From the 1960s onwards, these settlements have provided a means of housing for poor workers and new migrants arriving in cities such as Ankara and Istanbul. From the 1980s onwards, property developers have upgraded many gecekondu areas.

Shortly after the 2013 Gezi Park protests in Istanbul, Don Kişot (Don Quixote) was squatted in the Kadıköy district. It was stated to be the city's first occupied and self-managed social centre; Caferağa Mahalle Evi (community centre Caferağa), also in Kadıköy, was squatted soon afterwards and evicted in December 2014. A place was occupied in Beşiktaş district of Istanbul on March 18, 2014, and named Berkin Elvan Student House, after a 15-year-old boy who was shot during the Gezi protests and later died. Atopya was squatted in Ankara in June 2014 by anarchists, who claimed it was the city's first political squat.

South and East Asia

Squatters in Malaysia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. Some squatters have lived on land owned by national electricity company Tenaga Nasional for over five decades.

Squatters in Indonesia live on both privately owned and government-owned land. For example, the former Kalisosok Prison in Surabaya has been squatted since 2000s after being used as a prison for over 100 years.

In Thailand, although evictions have reduced their visibility or numbers in urban areas, many squatters still occupy land near railroad tracks, under overpasses, and waterways. Commercial squatting is common in Thailand, where businesses temporarily seize nearby public real estate (such as sidewalks, roadsides, beaches, etc.) and roll out their enterprise, and at closing time they fold it in and lock it up, thus avoiding the extra cost of having to rent more property. In the early 2000s, the government estimated that 37% of the population lived in low-income urban communities, over half of which were squatting public land or renting precariously. The National Housing Authority stated over 100,000 families were living under threat of immediate eviction.

Hong Kong and Chinese mainland

In China, informal settlements are known as urban villages. Squatter settlements occurred in Hong Kong in 1946, after its wartime occupation by Japan. After 700,000 people migrated from mainland China to Hong Kong between 1949 and 1950; the squatter population was estimated at 300,000, with people sleeping wherever they could find a space. A fire at Shek Kip Mei in December 1953 resulted in over 50,000 slum-dwellers being left homeless. Rooftop slums then developed, when people began to live illegally on the roofs of urban buildings. In addition, the Kowloon Walled City became an area for squatters, housing up to 50,000 people in Hong Kong.

India

Street dwellers in Mumbai

See also: Illegal housing in India

In Mumbai there are an estimated 10 to 12 million inhabitants, and six million of them are squatters. The squatters live in a variety of ways. Some possess two- or three-story homes built out of brick and concrete which they have inhabited for years. Geeta Nagar is a squatter village based beside the Indian Navy compound at Colaba. Squatter Colony in Malad East has existed since 1962, and now, people living there pay a rent to the city council of 100 rupees a month. Dharavi is a community of one million squatters. The stores and factories situated there are mainly illegal and so are unregulated, but it is suggested that they do over $1 million in business every day.

Other squatters are pavement dwellers, with very few possessions. Activists such as Jockin Arputham, Prema Gopalan and Sheela Patel are working for better living conditions for slum dwellers, through organisations such as Mahila Milan and Slum Dwellers International. In the 2016 Mathura clash, members of Azad Bharat Vidhik Vaicharik Kranti Satyagrahi (Free India Legal Ideas Revolutionary Protesters) who had been living in Mathura's largest public park Jawahar Bagh for two years were evicted in a large police operation. At least 24 squatters were killed.

Philippines

Main article: Squatting in the Philippines

After World War II many people were left homeless in the Philippines and they built makeshift houses called "barong-barong" on abandoned private land. The first mass eviction on record in Manila was 1951 and the largest was in late 1963 and early 1964 when 90,000 people were displaced. By 1978, there were estimated to be two million squatters in Manila, occupying 415 different locations.

The number of squatters grew during the early 1980s, and attempts to relocate squatters to low-cost housing projects were made by the national government. The sites were not received well, as it moved people far away from their employment and social networks. Projects included the redevelopment of the former Smokey Mountain landfill in Tondo, the BLISS housing project in Taguig , and the establishment of Barangay Bagong Silang as a resettlement area for slum dwellers residing in Manila. Philippine law distinguishes between squatters who squat because of poverty and those who squat in hopes of getting a payment to leave the property. In 1982, Imelda Marcos referred to the latter group as "professional squatters [...] plain land-grabbers taking advantage of the compassionate society". Philippines-based media and journalists refer to squatters as "informal settlers". The Community Mortgage Program was set up in 1992, aiming to help low-income families transition from squatting to affordable housing. By 2001, around 106,000 families had found secure housing in over 800 separate communities.

Central and Eastern Europe

Rozbrat squat in Poznań.

The trajectory of squatting in central and eastern Europe is different from that of western Europe because, until recently, countries were part of the Communist Bloc and squatting is generally not tolerated. The first public squat in Romania was Carol 53 in Bucharest, occupied in 2012 by artists. This was a controversial project because in running the project the artists evicted a Roma family which was already silently squatting there. In Moldova, homeless people live in state-run shelters or squatter camps. Squatters in Centro 73, Moldova's first squatted, self-managed social centre, attempted to prevent the historical building's demolition, but were quickly evicted and given another building for art events. The oldest squat in Poland, Rozbrat, was founded in 1994 through the occupation of a former paint factory in Poznań. There are also squats in Białystok, Gdańsk, Gliwice, Warsaw and Wrocław. In Slovenia, the capital Ljubljana has an occupied former military barracks called Metelkova and the recently evicted former bicycle factory called Rog. Croatia has social centres such as the former Karlo Rojc barracks in Pula and (AKC) Medika in Zagreb. In Serbia, shacks to be built as second homes or Roma people occupy buildings. A large Roma informal settlement called Cardboard city was evicted in 2009.

In 1980s Soviet Russia, there was a practice used by artists and musicians to acquire communal rooms and then expand into other rooms. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there were many collectively organised housing occupations by families and refugees. The groups would attempt to legalise in some cases and not in others. There were also art squats, for example, in Saint Petersburg, there were Pushkinskaya 10, Na Fontanke and Synovia doktora Pelia. In the early 1990s, the Government of Moscow prepared to renovate buildings, but then ran out of money, meaning that squatters occupied prime real estate. By 1996, 40 percent of Tverskaya Street was rented illegally or squatted.

Squatting in the Czech Republic began in its modern form when anarchist and punk activists inspired by squatting movements in Amsterdam and Berlin occupied derelict houses following the 1989 Velvet Revolution. Ladronka (1993–2000) became internationally famous as a hub for counter-cultural activities and anarchist organisation. Squat Milada was occupied in 1997 and evicted in 2009. Its longevity was in part due to the building not existing in the cadastre. Klinika was an occupied social centre between 2014 and 2019. These three social centres, all in Prague, were the city's three most important political squats.

A pro-squatting protest in Greece, with participants carrying anarchist flags

Starting from December 2012, Greek Police initiated extensive raids in a number of squats in Athens, arresting and charging with offences all illegal occupants (mostly anarchists). Squats including Villa Amalia were evicted. A march in support of the 92 arrestees drew between 3,000 and 8,000 people. After Villa Amalia, Villa Skaramanga and then Villa Lela Karagianni were evicted. Lela Karagianni had been squatted since 1998 and was later reoccupied. The name came from the street, named for a Greek World War II resistance leader of that name. From 2015 onwards Athens has seen refugee squats in response to the European migrant crisis which are anarchist and self-organised. In 2019, several squats in Exarcheia were evicted by the Greek state. Some of the migrants evicted set up a camp outside the Parliament at Syntagma Square.

There was a large squatting movement in the newly formed state of Austria following the First World War. Famine was a significant problem for many people in Austria and the "Siedler" (settler) movement developed as these people tried to create shelter and a source of food for themselves. The Ernst Kirchweger Haus (EKH) in Vienna was squatted as a social centre in 1990 and legalised in 2008. In 2014, 1,500 riot police officers, a tank-like police vehicle, a police water cannon and helicopters were used to clear a building occupied by the group Pizzeria Anarchia in Vienna.

Western Europe

Facade of the evicted Carboneria squat in Barcelona

In many West European countries, since the 1960s and 1970s, there are both squatted houses used as residences and self-managed social centres where people pursue social and cultural activities.

In Belgium, the village of Doel was slowly occupied by squatters and used by street artists after becoming a ghost village when the plans to expand Port of Antwerp stalled. Christiania in Copenhagen, Denmark, is an independent community of almost 900 people founded in 1971 on the site of an abandoned military zone. In Copenhagen, as in other European cities such as Berlin and Amsterdam, the squatter movement was large in the 1980s. It was a social movement, providing housing and alternative culture. A flashpoint came in 1986 with the Battle of Ryesgade. Another flashpoint came in 2007 when Ungdomshuset was evicted. While not technically a squat until 14 December 2006, it was a social centre used by squatters and people involved in alternative culture more generally. After a year of protests, the city council donated a new building.

In early twentieth century France, several artists who would later become world-famous, such as Guillaume Apollinaire, Amedeo Modigliani and Pablo Picasso squatted at the Bateau-Lavoir, in Montmartre, Paris. Paris moved to legitimize some popular artist squats in the mid-2000s by purchasing and renovating the buildings for artist–residents. An example is Les Frigos. In the 2010s there have been several land squats protesting against large infrastructure projects. These are known collectively as Zone to Defend or ZAD (French: zone à défendre). The first and largest was the ZAD de Notre-Dame-des-Landes, which successfully opposed an airport project near Nantes.

The Chien Rouge (Red Dog) in Lausanne, in a former hospital

Geneva in Switzerland had 160 buildings illegally occupied and more than 2,000 squatters, in the middle of the 1990s. The RHINO (Retour des Habitants dans les Immeubles Non-Occupés, in English: Return of Inhabitants to Non-Occupied Buildings) was a 19-year-long squat in Geneva. It occupied two buildings on the Boulevard des Philosophes, a few blocks away from the main campus of the University of Geneva. The RHINO organisation often faced legal troubles, and Geneva police evicted the inhabitants on July 23, 2007. There were large riots in Zürich when the Binz occupation was evicted in 2013. The squatters moved to another building.

Germany

Police during eviction of the Topf & Söhne squat, 16 April 2009

During the public opposition in the 1970s, squatting in West German cities led to what Margit Mayer termed "a self-confident urban counterculture with its own infrastructure of newspapers, self-managed collectives and housing cooperatives, feminist groups, and so on, which was prepared to intervene in local and broader politics". The Autonomen movement protected squats against eviction and participated in radical direct action in cities such as Berlin. The squats were mainly for residential and social use. Squatting became known by the term instandbesetzen, from instandsetzen ("renovating") and besetzen ("occupying"). Well-known contemporary squats include Køpi in Berlin and Rote Flora in Hamburg. Legalised housing projects include Hafenstraße in Hamburg and Kiefernstraße in Düsseldorf. The Mietshäuser Syndikat was founded in 1992 by people who had been squatting in Freiburg im Breisgau in the 1980s to provide a way of transforming private property into collective ownership, including squats.

Squatting is also used as a tactic for campaigning purposes, such as the Anatopia project, which protested against a Mercedes-Benz test track. Squatters moved into the former factory site of J.A. Topf & Söhne in Erfurt in April 2001 and remained there until they were evicted by police in April 2009. The firm made crematoria for Nazi concentration camps. The squatters ran culture programs which drew attention to the history of the company. The occupation was known simply as Das Besetzte Haus (the occupied house) and was one of the most well known actions of left-radicals of that period in Germany. A book about the occupation was published in 2012, entitled Topf & Söhne – Besetzung auf einem Täterort (Topf & Söhne – Occupation of a crime scene). Since 2012, Hambach Forest has been occupied by activists seeking to prevent its destruction by the energy company RWE.

While the majority of squatting in Germany still comes from left-wing actors there are also examples of right-wing squatting. An example for right-wing squatting in Berlin is the occupation of Weitlingstraße 122. The house was occupied by neo-Nazis in 1990, when a lot of houses in former GDR where empty. They named similar social issues as leftist squatters as their reason for squatting. The space was used for different purposes ranging from a place to live, gather or party, to producing propaganda and planning right-wing terrorist activities. The squat dissolved at the end of 1990 because of disagreements in the heterogenous group of squatters.

Iceland

A short-lived squat in Reykjavík in 2009. The signs say "We take matters into our own hands" and "The home is sacred, the property rights are not"

In Reykjavík, the capital of Iceland, there is a small tradition of squatting. In 1919, anarchists occupied a building and were quickly evicted. Squatters occupied an empty house in downtown Reykjavík on Vatnsstigur street in April 2009. The squatters set up a freeshop and had plans for a social centre, but the occupation was quickly evicted by the police and 22 people were arrested. Vatnsstigur 4 was briefly resquatted on May 7, 2009, in solidarity with the Rozbrat squat in Poland, which was threatened with eviction. Also in 2009, a group of graffiti artists called the Pretty Boys occupied Hverfisgata 34. Their intention was to make a clandestine gallery and then when they were not evicted, they legalised the space and called it Gallery Bosnia.

When the Reykjavíkur Akademían (the Reykjavík Academy) was evicted at short notice from Hringbraut 121 in November 2011, it was occupied in protest. The space, which had hosted lectures and also Iceland's trade union and anarchist libraries, was moved to another location but the occupiers were unhappy that the new use of the building would be a guest house for tourists. An art exhibition was organised, with a camera obscura, live music and shadow theatre.

Ireland

Main article: Squatting in Ireland

The Dublin Housing Action Committee (DHAC) was active between 1968 and 1971, occupying buildings to protest the housing crisis. The Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act of 1971 criminalized squatting. Squatters can gain title to land and property by adverse possession as governed by the 1957 Statute of Limitations Act. From the 1990s onwards, there have been occasional political squats such as Disco Disco, Magpie and Grangegorman.

Italy

See also: Self-managed social centres in Italy

Rome barricades itself. A squatting symbol appearing as graffiti in Rome

In Italy, despite the lack of official data, it appears that about 50,000 buildings all over the country are unused or abandoned and thus subject to squatting. Squatting has no legal basis, but many squats are used as social centres. The first occupations of abandoned buildings began in 1968 with the left-wing movements Lotta Continua and Potere Operaio. Out of the breakup of these two movements was born Autonomia Operaia, which was composed of a Marxist–Leninist and Maoist wing and also an anarchist and more libertarian one. These squats had Marxist–Leninist (but also Stalinist and Maoist) ideals and came from the left wing of Autonomia. The militants of the Italian armed struggle (the New Red Brigades) were connected to these squats. There are many left-wing self-organised occupied projects across Italy such as Cascina Torchiera and Centro Sociale Leoncavallo in Milan and Forte Prenestino in Rome. In Rome there is also a far-right social centre, Casa Pound.

This situation has so far received the approval of Italian courts, which have been reluctant to defend the owners' rights. In contrast with the dominant jurisprudence, new case-law (from the Rome Tribunal and the Supreme Court of Cassation) instructs the government to pay damages in case of squatting if the institutions have failed to prevent it.

Netherlands

Ubica, a former squat in Utrecht

Main article: Squatting in the Netherlands

See also: Dutch squatting ban

The Dutch use the term krakers to refer to people who squat houses with the aim of living in them (as opposed to people who break into buildings for the purpose of vandalism or theft). Notable squats in cities around the country include ACU and Moira in Utrecht, the Poortgebouw in Rotterdam, OCCII, OT301 and Vrankrijk in Amsterdam, the Grote Broek in Nijmegen, Vrijplaats Koppenhinksteeg in Leiden, De Vloek in The Hague and the Landbouwbelang in Maastricht. Land squats include Ruigoord and Fort Pannerden.

On 1 June 2010, squatting in the Netherlands became illegal and punishable when a decree was sent out that the squatting ban would be enforced from 1 October. Following legal challenges, on October 28, 2011, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands decided that the eviction of a squat can only occur after an intervention of a judge. The Dutch government assessed the effectiveness of the new law in 2015, releasing a report giving statistics on arrests and convictions between October 2010 and December 2014. During this time period, 529 people have been arrested for the act of occupying derelict buildings in 213 separate incidents. Of the 529 arrests, 210 were found guilty. Of those convicted, 39 people were imprisoned for the new offence.

Spain

The Can Vies social centre in Barcelona

Main article: Squatting in Spain

In Francoist Spain migrant workers lived in slums on the periphery of cities. After the Spanish transition to democracy, residential squatting occurred in Spanish cities such as Barcelona, Bilbao, Madrid, Valencia and Zaragoza.

The number of squatted social centres in Barcelona grew from under thirty in the 1990s to around sixty in 2014, as recorded by Info Usurpa (a weekly activist agenda). The influential Kasa de la Muntanya was occupied in 1989. In 2014, the ultimately unsuccessful attempts to evict the long-running social centre of Can Vies provoked major riots. Another long-running squat is Can Masdeu, which survived a concerted eviction attempt in 2002. Eleven occupiers suspended themselves off the walls of the building for several days.

Younger squatters set up self-managed social centres which hosted events and campaigns. The 1995 Criminal Code among other things criminalised squatting, but failed to stop it. Social centres exist in cities across the country, for example Can Masdeu and Can Vies in Barcelona and Eskalera Karakola and La Ingobernable in Madrid. In the Basque Country the centres are known as gaztetxes. A well-known example was Kukutza in Bilbao.

United Kingdom

England

Main article: Squatting in England and Wales

The "Square Occupied Social Centre", a now-evicted squat in Russell Square, London

Squatting has a long history in England. The occupation and cultivation of untended land motivated the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 and the Diggers in the 17th century. In the 20th century, squatters turned to abandoned buildings. Mass squats were organised in a number of prominent public buildings in central London, culminating in the occupation of 144 Piccadilly in 1969. The London Street Commune or "Hippydilly" garnered worldwide attention. There were estimated to be 50,000 squatters throughout Britain in the late 1970s, with the majority (30,000) living in London. The BBC reported in 2011 that the government estimated that there were "20,000 squatters in the UK" and "650,000 empty properties". On 1 September 2012, under Section 144 of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, squatting in residential property was criminalised by the Cameron–Clegg coalition, punishable by up to six months in prison or a £5000 fine, or both. The same year saw the first successful prosecution for squatting, resulting in a 12-week jail sentence. Section 61 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 provides police with additional power to remove trespassers when there is damage to land or property, trespassers are abusive, insulting or threatening or there are over six vehicles on premises related to squatters.

Northern Ireland

In the late 1960s, people in Northern Ireland were forced to squat through both poverty and a lack of decent housing. In County Tyrone, there were allegations of unfair housing provision on the basis of politics and religion. When a house in the village of Caledon, near Dungannon, was allocated to a young Protestant woman, Emily Beattie, it caused protests. She was secretary to a solicitor who worked for the Unionist councillor who had given her the house and two Catholic families who had been overlooked complained that the same councillor had scotched plans to build houses for Catholics in the Dungannon area. Several days after the woman had moved in, the Catholic squatters in the house next door were evicted. Austin Currie, then a young politician, complained both at the local council and at Stormont about the situation. He then symbolically occupied the woman's house for a few hours, before being evicted by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). One of the policeman was the woman's brother who himself moved into the house later on. The incident quickly became a media sensation and in August the civil rights movement arranged one of its first marches, from Coalisland to Dungannon. This was followed in October by a civil rights march in Derry which was organised by the Derry Housing Action Committee and the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association. The march was brutally repressed by the RUC.

In 2012, activists from Occupy Belfast squatted a Bank of Ireland building in Belfast city centre and used it as a social space. Squatting in Northern Ireland was unaffected by the recent law change in England and Wales, and remains a civil matter.

Scotland

Main article: Squatting in Scotland

Squatting is a criminal offence in Scotland, punishable by a fine or even imprisonment, under the Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865. The owner or lawful occupier of the property has the right to evict squatters without notice or applying to the court for an eviction order, although when evicting, they cannot do anything that would break the law, for example, use violence.Nevertheless, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw various land raids in which cottars attempted to occupy land for subsistence farming. In 1948, the Seven Men of Knoydart unsuccessfully squatted land owned by the Nazi-supporting Lord Brocket. There have been several road protest land squats such as Bilston Glen and Pollok Free State. The former premises of the Forest Café in Edinburgh were squatted in 2011 and activists occupied a former shelter in Glasgow in 2021, during COP26.

Wales

Main article: Squatting in England and Wales

In 2010, a representative of the UK Bailiff Company claimed that the number of people squatting in Wales was at its highest for 40 years. The high number of businesses failing in urban Wales has led to squatting becoming a growing issue in large cities like Swansea and Cardiff. Experts said "the majority [of squatters] are forced into the lifestyle by financial pressures." Based on the internal database of UK Bailiff Company, there were 100 cases of squatting in 2009, the highest for 40 years, following trends estimated by the Advisory Service for Squatters that squatting has doubled in England and Wales since 1995.

As with England, from 1 September 2012, squatting in a residential building was made a criminal offence subject to arrest, fine and imprisonment. Cardiff Squatters Network was formed in December 2012, to network together squatters citywide, and host "skill-share" workshops on squatting legally in commercial buildings.

North America

Canada

In Canada, there are two systems to register the ownership of land. Under the land title system, squatter rights, formally known as adverse possession, were abolished. However, under the registry system, these rights have been preserved. If a person occupies land for the required period of time as set out in provincial limitation acts and during that time no legal action is taken to evict them, then the ownership of the land transfers from the legal owner to the squatter.

Road allowance communities were settlements established by Métis people in the late 1800s through most of the 20th century on road allowances at the margins of settler society. Métis people were dispossessed from their land in the late 19th century, so they frequently squatted in these unclaimed and marginal spaces.

Сквоты на Фрэнсис-стрит в Ванкувере представляли собой ряд из шести зданий, захваченных на девять месяцев в 1990 году. Они были выселены в результате крупной операции, и впоследствии был снят фильм под названием « Рит Фрэнсис-стрит» . В последние годы произошел ряд публичных сквотов, которые объединили две основные современные причины сквоттинга – бездомность и активизм. Примерами могут служить сквот Префонтен в Овердейле , районе Монреаля (2001 г.), the Woodward's Squat in Vancouver (2002), the Infirmary Squat in Halifax (2002), the Pope Squat in Toronto (2002), the Seven Year Squat in Ottawa (2002), the Water Street Squat in Peterborough (2003), and the North Star hotel in Vancouver (2006). These were squats organised by anti-poverty groups which tended to be short-lived. Здание Вудворда представляло собой заброшенный универмаг, который стоял пустым девять лет. После того, как их выселили из здания, двести скваттеров разбили палаточный городок на тротуаре снаружи. Считается, что это действие положило начало возможной реконструкции здания. Коалиция против бедности Питерборо (PCAP) публично сквотировала дом 1130 по Уотер-стрит, здание, которое осталось пустым после пожара. Группа предложила отремонтировать это место и вернуть его в качестве жилья для малообеспеченных слоев населения. Городские власти согласились на ремонт, а затем городской совет проголосовал за снос здания. Стоимость сноса составила 8900 долларов, а стоимость ремонта планировалась в 6900 долларов. Отель North Star был временно засквотирован Ванкуверским комитетом по борьбе с бедностью в знак протеста против пустоты.

В 2011 году сквот-команда «Оккупай Торонто» заняла подвал по адресу 238 Queen Street West и предложила взять его в аренду за 99 центов в год. Их выселили через восемь часов.

Соединенные Штаты

Основная статья: Сквоттинг в США

В истории Соединенных Штатов сквоттинг произошел во время Калифорнийской золотой лихорадки и Второй мировой войны. Гувервили — это лагеря для бездомных, построенные по всей стране во время Великой депрессии в 1930-х годах. Они были названы в честь Герберта Гувера , который в то время был президентом страны. Во время Великой рецессии (2007–2009 гг.) Появилось больше трущоб. а другие сидят на корточках в заброшенных домах. Во времена движения хиппи сквоттеры в Нью-Мексико основали коммуну Тавапа недалеко от гор Сандия . Однако в 1990-е годы их выгнали, поскольку у них не было законных прав на землю.

Общественные организации подстрекали скваттеров к захвату пустующих зданий не только как место для проживания, но и как часть более широкой кампании, направленной на то, чтобы пролить свет на неравенство в жилье и выступить за изменение жилищных и земельных вопросов. В 2002 году администрация Нью-Йорка согласилась работать с одиннадцатью сквотированными зданиями в Нижнем Ист-Сайде в рамках сделки, заключенной при посредничестве Совета по оказанию помощи городским поселениям , с условием, что квартиры в конечном итоге будут переданы арендаторам в качестве жилищных кооперативов для малоимущих .

Латинская Америка и Карибский бассейн

В странах Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна неформальные поселения являются результатом внутренней миграции в городские районы, отсутствия доступного жилья и неэффективного управления. В 1950-х и 1960-х годах многие латиноамериканские города сносили скваттерские поселения и быстро вытесняли вторжения на земли. В Чили правительство Эдуардо Фрея Монтальвы (1964–1970) начало разрешать строительство трущоб, а правительство Сальвадора Альенде (1970–1973) поощряло их, но при военной хунте с 1973 года сквоттеры снова были быстро выселены. Аналогично в Аргентине , при военной диктатуре, проводилась политика абсолютной нетерпимости. Тем не менее, вынужденные из-за голода и безработицы принять меры, 20 000 скваттеров в 1981 году заняли 211 гектаров заброшенной частной земли на окраине Буэнос-Айреса , образовав шесть новых поселений. Они коллективно сопротивлялись попыткам выселения и к 1984 году пережили диктатуру. Избрание демократического правительства привело к тому, что местные советы стали более открытыми для переговоров.

Совсем недавно правительства перешли от политики искоренения к политике предоставления скваттерам права собственности на свои земли в рамках различных программ по выселению людей из трущоб и сокращению бедности. Вдохновленные Всемирным банком и идеями таких экономистов, как Эрнандо де Сото , программы направлены на улучшение жилищных условий и развитие предпринимательства, поскольку бывшие скваттеры могут использовать свои дома в качестве залога для получения бизнес-кредитов. Бывшие скваттеры обнаружили, что после смерти или развода трудно сохранить право собственности, и что банки изменили свои требования к кредитам, чтобы исключить их. В Никарагуа сквоттинг произошел после землетрясения в Никарагуа в 1972 году .

В Перу зоны скваттеров называются pueblos jóvenes (буквально «молодые города»). проживало более 300 молодых пуэбло В 1980-х годах вокруг столицы Лимы , в которых проживало более миллиона человек. В Аргентине они известны как вилла мисерия (буквально «поселение страданий») и как асентаменто в Уругвае и Гватемале.

В период с 1950 по 2001 год население столицы Эквадора Кито выросло в семь раз. В городе есть три типа трущоб : barrios periféricos (трущобы на окраине города), conventillos (полуразрушенные многоквартирные дома в центре города) и сельские трущобы. откуда жители ездят на работу в город. По оценкам, в 1992 году в трущобах проживало 170 000 человек. В Гуаякиле , крупнейшем городе и главном порту Эквадора, около 600 000 человек в начале 1980-х годов либо селились на самодельных постройках над болотами, либо жили в городских трущобах. Незаконные поселения часто возникали в результате вторжений на земли, когда большие группы скваттеров строили постройки и надеялись предотвратить выселение за счет численности.

Боливия

С начала 19 века наблюдалась внутренняя миграция из сельской местности в такие города, как Кочабамба . К 1951 году мигранты начали захватывать земли и строить неформальные поселения . Захваты земель продолжались, несмотря на то, что власти часто их выселяли, и с 1945 по 1976 год 10 процентов застройки в Кочабамбе были незаконными. С 1970-х годов правительство пыталось упорядочить скваттерские поселения, но эти программы по большей части провалились из-за коррупции. Новая инициатива, выдвинутая в 2002 году, не предотвратила сквотирование новых поселений. В 1990-е годы в Ла-Пасе было 48 несанкционированных кладбищ, на которых бедняки хоронили своих мертвецов. Земля была захвачена, и не было никаких записей о том, сколько людей было похоронено на кладбищах. В лесных низинах есть и сквоттеры, занимающиеся нелегальной вырубкой леса. В 2015 году коренные народы оккупировали золотой рудник в Такакоме, который, по их словам, находился на земле их предков. Когда 200 полицейских попытались их выселить, четверо были взяты в заложники, а один погиб.

Бразилия

Основная статья: Сквоттинг в Бразилии

Фавела Жанейро в Рио-де-

В Бразилии неформальные поселения называются фавелами ; известным примером является Росинья в Рио-де-Жанейро , где проживает до 180 000 человек. Фавелы в основном населены беднейшими слоями общества, и обычно им не хватает инфраструктуры и общественных услуг, но в некоторых случаях они уже достигли структуры, необходимой для города. По состоянию на 2004 год в фавелах по всей Бразилии проживало 25 миллионов человек. После неудачных попыток в 1960-х и 1970-х годах снести трущобы бульдозерами, власти перешли к политике толерантности. В Сан-Паулу до 1972 года фавелы обычно сносились; после этого им было разрешено, а это означает, что в следующее десятилетие число скваттеров выросло до одного миллиона. Самая крупная фавела — Гелиополис , с населением более 200 000 человек по состоянию на 2018 год. Она официально признана постоянным районом города. В центре города также есть ряд самовольно построенных зданий, самым известным из которых было 22-этажное здание под названием Prestes Maia , жителям которого было приказано покинуть город в 2006 году. различные захваты зданий и незанятых территорий в больших городах, возглавляемые такими группами, как Движение бездомных рабочих (MTST) или Движение бездомных в центре города (MSTC). Произошли В Бразилии также существуют сельские скваттерские движения, такие как Движение безземельных рабочих (MST), которые организуют захват земель. Например, в Понтал-ду-Парана в штате Парана было проведено 112 работ, в которых проживало 6500 семей.

Колумбия

Конституция Колумбии 1991 года гласит, что жилье является универсальным правом человека. В 2010 году Колумбия была страной со вторым по количеству внутренне перемещенных лиц в мире, численность которого оценивалась примерно в 4 миллиона человек. Это стало результатом продолжительного гражданского конфликта между повстанцами, военизированными формированиями, торговцами кокаином и государством, в результате которого 40% сельских земель остались без юридических прав. В столице Боготе сквоттинг традиционно не был основным способом приобретения земли; люди склонны покупать землю на законных основаниях, а затем незаконно разделять или развивать ее, создавая «пиратские кварталы». В 1970 году 45,9% населения Боготы проживало в этих пиратских кварталах по сравнению с 1,1% сквоттеров.

Гаити

Основная статья: Сквоттинг на Гаити

Сите Солей в 2006 году

После гаитянской революции (1791–1804 гг.) скваттеры приобрели небольшие земельные участки по всей стране. Сите Солей был основан в 1958 году для размещения рабочих, затем быстро вырос до 80 000 человек в 1980-х годах и 400 000 человек в 1990-х годах. Они стали крупнейшими трущобами на Гаити, в которых проживали люди, перемещенные из других районов. Инфраструктуры здесь мало, и территория часто затопляется. После землетрясения на Гаити в 2010 году 1,5 миллиона человек были вынуждены покинуть свои дома. Год спустя 100 000 скваттеров покинули лагеря помощи и заняли землю рядом с официальным лагерем под названием Корайл.

Океания

В островных государствах, таких как Фиджи, Кирибати и Самоа, неформальные поселения известны как сквоттерские поселения. можно продать или купить обычную землю В отличие от большинства островных стран Тихого океана, на Кирибати . Законы о зонировании не соблюдаются правительством и не получили широкого признания среди местного населения. На острове Киритимати сквоттеры живут в обеих деревнях и на старых Бернса Филпа . копры плантациях На Раротонге , самом большом острове островов Кука , три неформальных поселения населены выходцами из Манихики , Пенрина и Пукапуки . 3000 жителей известны как скваттеры, хотя у них есть разрешение жить на традиционной земле .

Австралия

Основная статья: Сквоттинг в Австралии

В 19 веке британское правительство заявило, что владеет всей Австралией, и пыталось контролировать владение землей. Богатые фермеры, занимающиеся животноводством, претендовали на землю и поэтому были известны как скваттеры. Этот тип сквоттинга более подробно описан в книге «Сквоттинг (история Австралии)» . В конце 1940-х годов заселение сотен пустующих домов и военных лагерей вынудило федеральные правительства и правительства штатов предоставить временное убежище в период, когда австралийцы столкнулись с нехваткой более чем 300 000 домов. В более поздние времена, Австралия видела оккупации в Канберре , Мельбурне и Сиднее . Палаточное посольство аборигенов было создано в 1972 году и представляет собой постоянную акцию протеста . В жилищном споре на Бендиго-стрит в 2016 году скваттеры успешно оспорили планы строительства дороги. Сквот Midnight Star использовался как самоуправляемый социальный центр в бывшем кинотеатре, а затем был выселен после того, как использовался в качестве места для встреч во время встречи Всемирной торговой организации в 2002 году .

См. также

• Отказ (юридический)
• Заявить клуб
• Бездомность
• Охотник-собиратель
• Преднамеренное сообщество
• Право на жилье
• Союз сквоттеров
• Сидение на дереве
• Временное использование

Дальнейшее чтение

• Бейли, Р. (1973) Пингвин- скваттерс : Великобритания ISBN   0140523006
• Блумфилд, ФА (2021). Этнография использования, практик и социально-пространственного взаимодействия в пространствах окупа (сквотах) . Архивировано 7 мая 2021 г. в Wayback Machine . Города: Revista de Estudios Urbanos y Ciencias Sociales , 11 (1), 81–93.
• Корр, А. (1999) Посторонним вход запрещен! Сквоттинг, забастовки арендаторов и земельная борьба по всему миру South End Press ISBN   0-89608-595-3
• АДИЛКНО (1994) Взламывая движение - история скваттеров Амстердама и отношение движения к средствам массовой информации. Также доступно в Интернете. Архивировано 3 апреля 2005 г. на Wayback Machine.
• Cracking The System (2008) – журнал о сквотах и ​​социальных центрах в Европе, вдохновленный инициативой апреля 2008 года. Также доступно онлайн .
• Кертис, Х. и Сандерсон, М. (2004) Невоспетые шестидесятые Уайтинг и Берч ISBN   1861770448
• Доббз, Х. (2013) Девять десятых закона: собственность и сопротивление в США AK Press ISBN   978-184935118-8
• Кадир, Назима (2016). Автономная жизнь?: Парадоксы иерархии и власти в движении сквоттеров в Амстердаме (переиздание). Манчестер: Издательство Манчестерского университета. ISBN  978-1-78499-411-2 .
• Кациафикас, Г. (1999) Подрывная деятельность: европейские автономные социальные движения и деколонизация повседневной жизни. Книги человечества. ISBN   1-57392-441-5 Также доступен в Интернете. Архивировано 30 сентября 2018 г. на Wayback Machine.
• Оуэнс, Л. (2009) Взлом движения: рассказ об упадке движения амстердамских сквоттеров ISBN   978-0271034638
• Шмид, Л. (2014) Городская война в Берлине в 1980-е годы: Сквотирование в Берлине в 1980-е годы ISBN   978-3863681098
• Коллективный сквоттинг Европы (2013) Сквоттинг в Европе: радикальные пространства, городская борьба . Сквотирующий Европейский Коллектив. Уивенхо [Великобритания]: Минорные композиции. 2013. ISBN  978-1-57027-257-8 . ОСЛК   852808016 . Архивировано из оригинала 13 декабря 2020 г. Проверено 19 октября 2020 г. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: другие ( ссылка )
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